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© TOUCH BRIEFINGS 2011
Healthcare-associated Infections
The Role of Antimicrobial Copper Surfaces in
Reducing Healthcare-associated Infections
Panos A Efstathiou
Orthopedic Surgeon and Secretary General, Hellenic College of Orthopedic Surgeons
Abstract
Recent work investigating the antimicrobial characteristics of copper has led to a re-evaluation of the role of this essential metal in healthcare.
While ancient civilisations used copper for its health benefits it seems its usefulness has been forgotten. The requirement for evidence-based
interventions for infection control has been the driver behind recent scientific assessments of the benefits of copper. Ten years of laboratory
research has led to clinical trials confirming a very significant and continuous reduction in environmental bioburden in a number of healthcare
settings globally. The newest and most comprehensive clinical research has now reported an impressive 40 % reduction in healthcare-associated
infections in intensive care units (ICUs) where copper was incorporated in key touch surfaces. The deployment of copper touch surfaces
should be considered as an additional infection control measure to reduce care costs and improve bed availability and patient outcomes.
Keywords
Antimicrobial, copper, environment, HCAI, ICU, infection rate, nosocomial infections, public health
Disclosure: Panos Efstathiou provides consultancy on the antimicrobial properties of copper to the Hellenic Copper Development Institute.
Acknowledgements: The author thanks Evangelia Kouskouni, Katerina Karageorgou, Agapi Vilaeti, Zaharoula Manolidou, Maria Tseroni and Joanna Agrafa for their expert
advice on the Greek studies.
Received: 8 July 2011 Accepted: 1 August 2011 Citation: European Infectious Disease, 2011;5(2):125–8
Correspondence: Panos A Efstathiou, Artis 17, Amarousio PC 15125, Greece. E: panosefstathiou@usa.net
Support: The publication of this article was funded by the Copper Development Association.
Historical Context
That copper has beneficial effects for humans has been known for at
least 4,000 years. The use of copper for drinking water containers
to ensure potability and the application of the powdered metal to
wounds for disinfection, are reported in ancient Egypt. The Aztecs
used copper to treat various skin diseases. Hippocrates, the father of
medicine (460–380 BCE), recommended the use of copper for leg
ulcers related to varicose veins. In France, during the three cholera
epidemics around 1850, it was observed that workers in copper
foundries were not affected by the disease.
More recently, in 1970, the American College of Chest Physicians
published on the 'antibacterial action of copper'. They showed that
the use of copper in large reservoir nebulisers for respiratory therapy
resulted in the contents remaining sterile.1More pertinently, in 1983,
a hospital study in Pennsylvania showed copper's effectiveness in
lowering the Escherichia Coli count on brass door knobs.2
The Healthcare-associated Infection Problem
During the subsequent decades, the major concern within the medical
community has been healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs), or
'nosocomial' infections. This year's report from the World Health
Organization (WHO) notes how difficult it is to gather reliable and
comparable HCAI evidence globally, or even nationally. But they are
able to conclude that hundreds of millions of patients are affected by
them around the world.3
Only receiving public attention when a family member suffers or
when there are outbreaks, HCAIs are a very real endemic, ongoing
problem and one that no institution or country can claim to
have solved, despite many efforts. The statistics are harrowing.
The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
indicated HCAI levels in Europe as 7.1 % in 2008.4This equates to
over four million patients being affected each year. The estimated
incidence rate in the US was 4.5 % in 2002, corresponding to
1.7 million affected patients.5
Infections in intensive care units (ICUs) can be as high as 51 %, most
of these being healthcare associated. Furthermore, the longer
patients stay in an ICU, the more at risk they become of acquiring
an infection.3
The measures taken towards reducing microbe transportation
through frequently touched surfaces started in the last decade with
the WHO 'Clean Care is Safer Care' campaign. In many national
healthcare systems, specific guidelines were given to healthcare
professionals in order to raise awareness and help combat
nosocomial infections.
In 2001 in the UK, the 'EPIC Project: Developing National
Evidence-based Guidelines for Preventing Healthcare associated
Infections' among other good practices, points out touch surfaces as
one of the major components of microbial concentration and transfer.6
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Copper in Laboratory Studies
In 2000, the early laboratory studies from the University of
Southampton indicated that copper cast alloys (e.g. brass and
bronze) were able to reduce E.Coli O157 cross-contamination during
food-handling procedures. The research showed that although
stainless steel may appear clean, bacteria can survive on these
surfaces for considerable periods of time. In comparison, survival on
many copper alloys is limited to just a few hours or even minutes.
Due to the intrinsic characteristics of copper alloys, i.e. being
homogenous and solid, wear resistant and durable, complete lifetime
antimicrobial efficacy could be expected. These may then be utilised
in facilities where bacterial contamination cannot be tolerated.7
One fundamental consideration in the early laboratory studies was
which test of efficacy to employ. The only existing test for a solid
material had been developed in Japan (JIS Z 2801) but stipulated
conditions wholly different to a typical indoor environment, i.e. 35 ºC
and in a relative humidity of 100 %. Copper alloys were shown to
easily 'pass' this test, which required contact for 24 hours.
More appropriate standards were those based upon liquid disinfectants,
like the current EN 1276, which used a more typical 20 ºC and allowed
the inoculum to dry in sterile air. The Southampton team developed a
modified version of this and was able to measure efficacy at specified
times in order to obtain a kill rate curve. This test protocol has
subsequently been verified in a number of other laboratories worldwide.
The test is versatile and sensitive enough to allow comparison of
different inoculum levels: from the disinfectant-based standard
of 10 million colony-forming units (CFU) down to more typical hospital
contamination levels such as 1,000 CFU or less. It has also been used
to show efficacy at refrigeration temperatures. Comparative work
using this test protocol (under typical indoor conditions) shows that
silver-containing composites, like the stainless steel control, showed
no efficacy.8
Subsequently, many papers have been published from numerous
researchers expanding the understanding of the antimicrobial activity
of copper alloys.9,10,11 As a simple comparison, against an antibiotic,
co-workers compared a copper alloy (CuZn37) with Aminoglycocide in
a zone of inhibition test, showing comparable efficacy.12
In 2008, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), following
rigorous independent testing based upon the Southampton-developed
protocol, permitted the registration of nearly 300 copper alloys.13 This
allows public health claims to be made for the alloys under the terms
of the registration, a first for solid materials.
Most recently, further developments of the laboratory test protocols
have led to published work showing that efficacy on a dry surface can
be as short as two minutes.14 The Southampton team also published
work showing that even high inoculum levels of MRSA and VRE in
droplet-like contamination events were eradicated in less than 10
minutes.15,16 These have both been driven by attempts to make the
laboratory tests similar to real life conditions.
Broad Spectrum Efficacy
In general, antimicrobial copper alloys are effective against bacteria,
viruses, fungi and moulds, including these significant pathogens
(see Table 1).
Mechanisms
Work is ongoing on the mechanism14–16 by which copper exerts its
effect, but it is clear that the attack is a complex interaction rather than
just one process interrupter. The speed at which the reactions occur
complicates the research and a number of modes of action have
been identified. Theories include membrane puncture and leakage,
disturbance of osmotic balance and generation of free radicals
causing oxidative stress. At some stage the cell DNA is completely
destroyed, indicating that transfer of antimicrobial resistance should
not be a factor of concern.
Clinical Trials
The first qualitative clinical trial was performed at Kitasato University
Hospital in Japan in 2005.17 However, a fully quantitative trial was
initiated in 2007 on a 20-bed medical ward at Selly Oak Hospital in
Birmingham, UK.
'Hot spot' touch surfaces were identified by a team of clinicians and
microbiologists. The components included dressings trolleys, light
switches, taps, door and equipment handles, push plates, grab rails and
over-bed tables. These were upgraded to copper or copper alloy
and placed on the ward over the course of six months. Once installed,
the clinical assessment ran for three months and was able to report
90–100 % reductions in contamination on copper surfaces compared
with controls. Standard cleaning procedures and products were used
throughout the trial.18
Subsequently, a clinical trial in ICU rooms at Calama Hospital in Chile
reported similar reductions. Notably, this region has regular daytime
humidity levels of just 6 %.19
In a recent out-patient study, not only was the reduction in
microbial burden confirmed but a 'halo' effect was observed: reduced
contamination in the immediate vicinity of the copper surfaces. The
copper surfaces were calculated to reduce the risk of exposure to
environmental microbes by a factor of 17.20
Infection Rates
In a three-centre clinical trial (see Figure 1) completed in June 2011,
the first proof of improved patient outcomes was reported. The trial
initially carried out an observational assessment of key touch surfaces
and contamination levels in an ICU environment, identifying which
room components to upgrade to copper alloys.
Table 1: Antimicrobial Copper Alloys are Effective
Against These Pathogens
Acinetobacter baumannii Klebsiella pneumoniae
Adenovirus Legionella pneumophila
Aspergillus niger Listeria monocytogenes
Candida albicans Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA, including E-MRSA
and methicillin-sensitive
S. aureus [MSSA])
Campylobacter jejuni Poliovirus
Clostridium difficile (including spores) Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Enterobacter aerogenes Salmonella enteritidis
Escherichia coli O157:H7 S. aureus
Helicobacter pylori Tubercle bacillus
Influenza A (H1N1) Vancomycin-resistant
enterococcus (VRE)
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The Role of Antimicrobial Copper Surfaces in Reducing Healthcare-associated Infections
EUROPEAN INFECTIOUS DISEASE 127
Just six key components were selected and re-engineered to take a
copper or copper alloy surface. This included the bed rails, visitor
chair arms and nurse call-buttons. After upgrade, reduction in
contamination levels on these items was verified to be 97 % (see
Figure 2) – confirming the results from Selly Oak. Finally, after three
and a half years, the interim result reported at the 1st WHO
International Conference on Prevention and Infection Control (ICPIC)
indicated a reduction in HCAIs of 40 % for patients in the copper
rooms compared with those in the non-copper rooms. For patients in
a copper room with all six copper items present throughout their stay,
the reduction was nearly 70%.21
Future Activities
Up until now, all research and applications appear to show great
potential regarding the effectiveness of antimicrobial copper alloys
against bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.
Further to the scientific and clinical research results, manufacturers
have also shown great interest in producing objects that are used
frequently in high nosocomial potential areas (e.g. ICU, medical
wards, etc.). However, implementation outside hospital areas, where
microbial flora are at high levels, also worries public health planners.
In Laval, France, the brand new Center Inter-Generational Multi
Accueil (CIGMA)22 – a nursery for 35 infants and a 60-bed care home
for dependent elderly people – has deployed copper alloys on all
handrails and door handles. In Tokyo, Japan, the Mejiro Daycare
Center for Children fitted copper sinks and handrails, as well as other
touch surfaces.23
In Athens, Greece, a large private elementary school with 2,500 students
changed all the handrails, door handles and push plates to those made
from copper alloy (Cu 64%, Zn 36%). The first results showed 90–100%
less contamination than on standard, non-copper surfaces.24
In another application area, transport, the Santiago Metro system
in Chile has installed copper alloy handrails at one new station.25
Subsequently, the Metro has signed contracts to fit brass handrails on
two new lines under construction – some 30 stations.
Economics
The total cost of copper or copper alloy objects is a combination of raw
material and manufacturing time. Many copper alloys are still used
widely in industry because they can be fabricated into complex parts
easily and quickly (e.g. taps and lock mechanisms). This means that
copper alloy components will become cost-effective when product
volumes are economic even if prototypes carry a premium.
Furthermore, because these components are generally straightforward
to install, they will be more cost-effective than many high-tech
propositions. Installing during a typical refurbishment project, when
such common equipment would be refitted anyway, requires few
special skills and is therefore broadly cost neutral. These items will
also likely have a 30-year minimum lifetime.
Due to the antimicrobial efficacy, the cost of replacing and
installing copper alloy components cannot be compared to the cost
of objects made from other types of material (stainless steel,
plastic, etc.). Rather, it is the value of the benefit of copper that
should be assessed. Targeted installation of copper clearly results
in a decrease in environmental bioburden. Now the link has
been established between this and infection rates: Dr Schmidt's
conservative assessment indicates a 40% reduction in ICU-acquired
infections, with the potential for a 70 % reduction. This should
lead to a reduction in care costs, better bed availability and an
improvement in patient outcomes. When, as should result, we
are able to decrease antibiotics usage, we have a further a
benefit of incalculable value. In times when multi-resistant bacteria
are increasing and antibiotics could have run their course, the
antimicrobial copper era may have dawned. n
Figure 1: Intensive Care Unit at Sloane Kettering Memorial
Hospital, One of the Three Hospitals in the Multicentre US
Clinical Trial, with Copper Components Installed
Figure 2: Comparative Bacterial Load on Copper and
Standard Key Touch Surfaces in US Trial21 (for all
Rooms, over 197 Weeks’ Sampling)
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
CFU/100cm2
Bedrail Call button Chair arm Tray table Monitor IV pole
6,517
4,851
374
962 677 305 326 132
2,818
691 955
226
Standard components
(plastic, stainless steel,
wood, chrome, laminate)
Copper components
CFU = colony-forming units, IV = intravenous.
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