No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Animal Welfare Issues in the Poultry Industry: Is There a Lesson to Be Learned?
Abstract
Many of the conditions in which poultry live and the procedures to which they are subjected compromise their welfare. This article describes these welfare problems in the hope that they may serve as warnings to the rest of animal agriculture, which then might take steps to avoid the same pitfalls. The article discusses poultry welfare problems under the headings of battery cages for laying hens, forced molting, disposal of spent laying hens, fast growth problems in meat poultry, catching and transportation, food restriction of broiler breeders, hyperaggressiveness in broiler breeder males, elective surgeries, and water-bath stunning.
... For example, Switzerland has banned egg production in cages for many years, whilst the EU will require all wire cages to provide perches, nest boxes and foraging material from 2012. However, the enriching or banning of cages does not eliminate all welfare problems and hens in alternative husbandry systems also experience several of these (Appleby and Hughes, 1991;Baxter, 1994;Duncan 2001;Appleby et al., 2004). ...
... Battery cages in general are coming under criticism and there is an increased demand for eggs that are not produced in them (Huber-Eicher and Sebo, 2001). Other welfare problems associated with battery cages include lack of space (Nicol, 1987), dustbaths, and perches (Duncan, 2001). Also, the reduced space does not allow for much movement, which can contribute to bone weakness (Leeson and Morrison, 1978). ...
... Swaisgood and Shepherd, 2006). Commercial poultry housing can be quite stressful for the birds and aside from foraging, a number of 'natural' behaviour patterns, such as nesting, often cannot be performed (Duncan, 2001). This chronic stress may lead to a pathological condition or even a change in the brain of the birds (Garner, 2005), whereby feather pecking cannot be controlled through fulfilment of its original motivation. ...
Feather pecking, the pecking at or removal of feathers from one bird by another, is a problem in the poultry industry. Elimination of damaging feather pecking from flocks is made especially difficult by the numerous factors that appear to influence its prevalence. This review outlines the various contributors to feather pecking organised around Tinbergen's four questions on causation, ontogeny, phylogeny and function. There is growing evidence that feather pecking (especially severe feather pecking) is related to foraging motivation and gut function. However, other factors, such as improper early experiences, strain and individual differences and perseveration of the behaviour help explain its continued occurrence, even if the birds are kept in enriched environments. To date, methods of dealing with feather pecking are inadequate and involve welfare concerns of their own and alternate solutions, such as provision of forages, are not usually successful in abolishing feather pecking behaviour. The problems of excessive pelage/plummage removal or redirected oral/foraging related behaviour are not unique to poultry and seem to occur in other species in which foraging and forage intake is important. Between species comparisons of related behaviour patterns may improve our understanding of feather pecking and help to design effective solutions. In order to solve the problem of feather pecking, the factors discussed in this review need to be accounted for or we risk applying 'band-aid' solutions, which may appear outwardly to be solving the problem. However, the underlying cause(s) may still be present and the animal's welfare may still be compromised.
... Domestic birds have evolved to forage throughout the day and removing their feed causes an increase in their stress and subsequently their suffering. In turn, frustration and distress produce aggression and stereotypic pacing, followed by debilitation (Duncan, 2001). However, in addition to stress, nutrient deprivation also causes a decrease in bone mineral density and a depression of the immune system, which increases the risk of injury, infections, and inflammations (Kyriazakis and Savory, 1997;Park et al., 2004). ...
... The first welfare concern with feed restric-tion-induced molt is hunger. Duncan (2001) abridged the work of Savory, Wood-Gush, and Duncan, highlighting that hunger is an extremely powerful motivator and that domestic birds have evolved to forage for their food throughout the day. Birds being induced to molt by feed restriction therefore experience frustration and a physiological stress response due to their inability to meet nutrient requirements (Kyriazakis and Savory, 1997;Duncan, 2001). ...
... Duncan (2001) abridged the work of Savory, Wood-Gush, and Duncan, highlighting that hunger is an extremely powerful motivator and that domestic birds have evolved to forage for their food throughout the day. Birds being induced to molt by feed restriction therefore experience frustration and a physiological stress response due to their inability to meet nutrient requirements (Kyriazakis and Savory, 1997;Duncan, 2001). Because the present study includes full feed and water access throughout, it eliminates the problem of hunger that comes along with traditional induced molting procedures. ...
In the turkey industry, molting is traditionally achieved by reducing photoperiod and withdrawing feed and water for several days. Although it is the most effective method, this practice is discouraged in Canada and alternative strategies need to be established. Thyroid hormone levels naturally change during molt, and dietary thyroxine (T4) supplementation was previously shown to induce molt in chickens. This study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of supplemental dietary T4 in inducing molt in spent turkey breeder hens. One hundred twenty 75-wk-old hens were randomly divided into 4 groups (5 floor pens/replicates, 5 hens each) with the control group kept under a 14-h photoperiod and fed a breeder's diet throughout, whereas hens from the 3 other groups were supplemented with 40 ppm (45.76 mg/kg) T4 for 10 d. One treatment group was maintained under 14 h of light and fed a breeder's diet, whereas the 2 others were subjected to a drop in photoperiod to 6 h during or after supplementation and then were fed a maintenance diet. Egg production, feed intake, BW, molt, and plasma levels of T4, prolactin, and luteinizing hormone were measured. All treated hens ceased laying by d 20; however, several individuals spontaneously returned to lay when left on 14 h of light, suggesting incomplete involution of the reproductive tract. Supplementation significantly reduced feed consumption and induced rapid BW loss. All hens returned to their initial weight by the end of the experiment. Most treated hens initiated molt by d 8 of supplementation and all completed molt by d 37. Plasma T4 in treated hens increased significantly by d 3 (P < 0.05) and remained significantly higher than in controls until d 9 (P < 0.01). Levels returned to initial values by d 35. Prolactin levels did not appear to be influenced by T4 but were mainly dependent on photoperiod and reproductive stage, whereas luteinizing hormone levels remained low throughout. In summary, dietary supplementation with 40 ppm (45.76 mg/kg) T4 was successful in inducing molt in turkey breeder hens. However, dropping the photoperiod was necessary to completely reset the reproductive system.
... Diğer taraftan kesim sırasında sindirim organlarının dolu olması ürüne dönüşmeyen yem nedeniyle iç organ ağırlıklarını da artırmakta ve sindirilemeyen yemin zayi olmasına yol açmaktadır. Etlik piliçler kesim öncesinde yaygın olarak elektrik akımı ile bilinçsizleştirilmektedir (7,8). Hayvan başına uygulanacak değerler Ohm (Ω) kanunundan yararlanılarak (Volt = Akım X Direnç) hesaplanmaktadır. ...
... Literatürde açlık süresi ile piliçlerin elektriksel vücut dirençleri arasındaki ilişkiyi ele alan yeterli sayıda çalışmanın yer almadığı görülmektedir. Woolley tarafından yürütülen bir çalışmada piliçlerin vücut dirençlerinin 1000 -2600 Ω aralığında belirlendiği bildirilmektedir (7). Fakat son yıllarda yapılan benzer çalışmalarda direncin 400 -858 Ω aralığında değiştiği bildirilmektedir (14). ...
Removal of feed from slaughter-aged broilers is a standard practice. Before broiler chickens are transferred to slaughterhouse, feed is withdrawn on-poultry house to enable in emptying the digestive tracts of the birds and reduce the risk that the carcasses will be contaminated during processing. Also, chickens are without water in this period when they move to the slaughterhouse. Considering animal welfare, it is recommended that without feed period should not exceed 12 hours prior to slaughter. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of feed and water withdrawal periods (4, 8, 12 h) on body electric resistances (Ω), some breast meat quality characteristics and carcass defects of broiler chickens. The study was conducted with a total of 3 experimental groups with an average weight of 2386±404g, each with 30 chickens (15♀:15♂) at 39 days of age. In the experiment, feed and water were withdrawn 4, 8 and 12 h before slaughter. And then the chickens were slaughtered by the electrical stunning. The electrical resistances of chickens were calculated by using the voltage (V) values determined during electrical application. The amount of blood loss of chickens was measured during the slaughter. Defects in the shape of hemorrhages and bone fractures were detected in chicken carcasses. In order to examine breast meat quality, pH, color and drip loss values were measured. When the duration of without feed and water was extended, it was determined that blood loss increased in chickens but body electrical resistance, redness in breast meat, hemorrhages in wings and legs decreased. Research findings revealed that the 12 hours fasting and thirst duration compared to the others increased the amount of blood loss in broilers, and decreased carcass defects.
... Egglaying hens are placed in cramped cages with only 67 square inches allotted per bird, less than one 8.5 × 11 inch sheet of paper (93.5 square inches). To prevent aggression in cramped quarters, a half to a third of their highly sensitive beaks are severed, possibly leading to chronic pain (Duncan, 2001;Fraser et al., 2001;Cheng, 2006;Norwood and Lusk, 2011). These practices are standard industry protocol in the U.S. ...
... As many as 30% of hens have broken bones before slaughter. During forced molting, hens show signs of severe distress, including aggression and stereotyped pacing (Gregory and Wilkins, 1989;Duncan, 2001). Given the vast amount of meat consumption, the scale of the suffering is likely immense. ...
Social movements have driven large shifts in public attitudes and values, from anti-slavery to marriage equality. A central component of these movements is moral persuasion. We conduct a randomized-controlled trial of pro-vegan animal-welfare pamphlets at a college campus. We observe the effect on meat consumption using an individual-level panel data set of approximately 200,000 meals. Our baseline regression results, spanning two academic years, indicate that the pamphlet had no statistically significant long-term aggregate effects. However, as we disaggregate by gender and time, we find small statistically significant effects within the semester of the intervention: a 2.4 percentage-point reduction in poultry and fish for men and a 1.6 percentage-point reduction in beef for women. The effects disappear after 2 months. We merge food purchase data with survey responses to examine mechanisms. Those participants who (i) self-identified as vegetarian, (ii) reported thinking more about the treatment of animals or (iii) expressed a willingness to make big lifestyle changes reduced meat consumption during the semester of the intervention. Though we find significant effects on some subsamples in the short term, we can reject all but small treatment effects in the aggregate.
... Egglaying hens are placed in cramped cages with only 67 square inches allotted per bird, less than one 8.5 × 11 inch sheet of paper (93.5 square inches). To prevent aggression in cramped quarters, a half to a third of their highly sensitive beaks are severed, possibly leading to chronic pain (Duncan, 2001;Fraser et al., 2001;Cheng, 2006;Norwood and Lusk, 2011). These practices are standard industry protocol in the U.S. ...
... As many as 30% of hens have broken bones before slaughter. During forced molting, hens show signs of severe distress, including aggression and stereotyped pacing (Gregory and Wilkins, 1989;Duncan, 2001). Given the vast amount of meat consumption, the scale of the suffering is likely immense. ...
... Kanatlı hayvanların bilinçsizleştirilmesinde su banyolarında elektrik akımı kullanılması, uygulama kolaylığı, kısa sürede etki göstermesi ve düşük maliyeti nedeniyle gelişmiş ülkelerde yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır (Duncan, 2001;Fernandez, 2004;Prinz, 2009). Son yıllarda hayvan refahına yönelik daha iyi sonuçları ortaya koyması açısından elektrik akımının bireysel olarak uygulandığı yöntemler de (head only stunning) kullanılmaktadır. ...
... Su banyolarında elektrik akımı uygulamasında elektrik panosunun "+" çıkışı su banyolarındaki elektrota, "-" çıkışı ise kesim hattına bağlanmaktadır. Kesim hattının hareket etmesiyle birlikte başı su banyosuna giren piliçlerin üzerinden geçen akım ile devre tamamlanmaktadır (Duncan, 2001). Özel olarak tasarlanmış bilinçsizleştirme panoları tarafından üretilen AC/DC akım, yüksek/düşük frekans, yarım/tam doğrultulmuş, sinus/kare dalga tipleri kullanılmaktadır (Kuenzel ve Ingling, 1977;Griffiths ve Purcell, 1984;Bilgili, 1992Bilgili, , 1999Heath ve ark.,1994;Lambooij ve Gerritzen, 2007). ...
Bu çalışma kesim öncesi etlik piliçleri bilinçsizleştirmek amacıyla uygulanan farklı akım (AC/pDC) ve dalga tipilerini (kare, üçgen ve chirp) içeren elektrikle sersemletmenin karkas kusurları ve göğüs eti kalite özellikleri üzerindeki etkilerini belirlemek amacıyla yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada ticari olarak benzer çevre koşullarında yetiştirilen ortalama 2350 g ağırlığında aynı sürüden temin edilmiş 39 günlük yaşta (Ross 308) etlik piliçler kullanılmıştır. Her birinde 10 piliç (5♀:5♂) bulunan altı deneme grubu oluşturulmuştur. Toplam 60 piliç, su banyosunda 5 sn süreyle 200 Hz frekans ve 120 mA/piliç değerlerinde AC ve pDC elektrik akımıyla sersemletilmiştir. Kesimden sonra piliçlerdeki kan kaybı miktarı, karkaslardaki damar kanamaları, spot lekeler ve kanat kemik kırıkları tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, göğüs etinin pH ve renk değerleri ve su kaybı incelenmiştir.
Elektrik akımı uygulaması piliçlerde herhangi önemli bir karkas kusuruna neden olmamıştır. Üçgen ve chirp dalga tiplerinin, kare dalgaya göre piliçlerde daha fazla kan kaybına yol açtığı belirlenmiştir. AC akım uygulanan piliçlerin göğüs etinde pH15 değeri daha yüksek bulunurken, göğüs etindeki en düşük su kaybı chirp dalga tipinde meydana gelmiştir. Su banyolarında üçgen ve kare dalganın, bireysel uygulamalarda ise chirp dalga tipinin incelenen özellikler üzerinde daha fazla olumlu etkilerinin olduğu belirlenmiştir.
... However, there is an increasing interest of free-range and open-barn systems. In the poultry meat industry, the birds are raised entirely on deep litter in large sheds (Duncan 2001, Glatz et al 2009). Over the past several decades improved poultry production systems have contributed to significantly enhanced performance traits like egg production and growth rate and economical production of poultry products. ...
... The cages promote hygiene, facilitate management and limit group size, thereby reducing aggressive and cannibalistic behaviour (Abrahammson and Tauson 1995) and therefore it is widely acknowledged that housing layer hens in battery cages positively impacts hen welfare. Despite the fact that there are some advantages of conventional cages in terms of health and welfare, these are now generally considered to be outweighed by the disadvantages, principally the barren environment, lack of a separate nesting area and substrate, restrictions on behaviour, and production syndromes such as osteoporosis, leading to poor bone strength and possible fractures (Duncan 2001, FAWC 2007). The welfare of laying hens raised in standard commercial cages has been placed under intense scrutiny. ...
The conventional production systems have the potential to influence poultry welfare in both positive and negative ways. The battery cage for egg-laying hens is perhaps the oldest of the intensive animal farming systems still in widespread use today. However, the concern regarding conventional cages is that behavioral restriction is inherent to the system and hens are prevented from expressing highly motivated behaviors for their entire laying lifespan. Non-cage systems enable the expression of a more diverse array of ancestral behavior patterns, with the greatest behavioral diversity occurring in free-range systems. Moreover, osteoporosis and bone fracture due to genetic improvement for high egg production has serious animal welfare implications in commercial layer flocks. Increasing the stocking density of broiler operations is a way in which producers can increase their return on investment. They do increase their risk levels as well, as the consequences of high stocking density may lead to increasing health problems and reduced livability. Due in part to genetic selection for unnaturally fast growth, muscle outpaces bone development during the early life of poultry, leading to problems with skeletal weakness. As a result, broilers often suffer from leg deformities and lameness. Leg disorders, besides being a matter of great concern from the welfare standpoint, also cause poor feed conversion, culling and high mortality of the poultry resulting in direct financial loss for producers. The major diseases with welfare implications ascites and sudden death syndrome and these have been exacerbated by intense selection for fast growth rate and increased feed efficiency. There is an increased mortality associated with faster growth rates whereas slower growth rates have a lower mortality. Genetic progress creates management and nutritional challenges that confront producers because broilers and broiler breeder flocks are less tolerant to management and disease problems than they were years ago. A number of diseases which are related to undesirable changes in metabolism are also increasingly threatening the health and welfare of poultry. Progress can be made in reducing and eliminating poultry welfare by genetic means and also by alteration of husbandry practices.
... Transportation of live chickens is stressful from the animal welfare point of view and is potentially complicated by excess number of animals being loaded onto the transportation vehicle and by temperature stress (Duncan, 2001;Warriss et al., 2005;Petracci et al., 2006;Terlouw et al., 2008;Petracci et al., 2010). Moreover chickens are commonly deprived of food and water while being transported, and the duration of food and water withdrawal can be between 6 to 12 h (Petracci et al., 2010). ...
Halal (permissible or lawful) poultry meat production must meet industry, economic, and production needs, and government health requirements without compromising the Islamic religious requirements derived from the Qur'an and the Hadiths (the actions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him). Halal certification authorities may vary in their interpretation of these teachings, which leads to differences in halal slaughter requirements. The current study proposes 6 control points (CP) for halal poultry meat production based on the most commonly used halal production systems. CP 1 describes what is allowed and prohibited, such as blood and animal manure, and feed ingredients for halal poultry meat production. CP 2 describes the requirements for humane handling during lairage. CP 3 describes different methods for immobilizing poultry, when immobilization is used, such as water bath stunning. CP 4 describes the importance of intention, details of the halal slaughter, and the equipment permitted. CP 5 and CP 6 describe the requirements after the neck cut has been made such as the time needed before the carcasses can enter the scalding tank, and the potential for meat adulteration with fecal residues and blood. It is important to note that the proposed halal CP program is presented as a starting point for any individual halal certifying body to improve its practices.
... In duck production, many factors trigger molting properties such as the lack of availability of feed, changes in the composition of the ration for ducks that are caged, displacement of cage, a nuisance animal, and an uncomfortable environment all of which can cause molting (Mumma et al., 2006). The appearance of molting is caused by different stresses and its incidence depends on each individual's resistance to such stress (Webster, 2000 andDuncan, 2001). Conventional induced molting methods have used fasting of ducks (Fattouh, 2001), supplementing dietary minerals such as Zinc (Ahmed et al., 2005;Yousaf and Ahmad, 2006;Koch et al., 2007 andKoelkebeck andAnderson, 2007), iodine, sodium, chloride, Ca, aluminum and copper or the use of antiovulatory drugs (Breeding et al., 1992;Keshavarz andQuimby, 2002 andBell, 2003). ...
The present study aimed to investigate the effect of force molting procedures on the post molt performance and hatchability traits of Sudani ducks. Two hundred and forty Sudani laying ducks aged 65 weeks were randomly taken, weighted and divided into four experimental groups (each of three replicates). Ducks of the first group were fed ad-libitum and considered as control, the second group was force molted by fasting for 14 days, the third and fourth groups were force molted by feeding diets supplemented with Znic (1.0%) as Zinc oxide and Iodide (0.25%) as Potassium Iodide for 14 days, respectively. Photoperiod was natural daylight during force molting period, then increased to 16 h/d after molting. All ducks were fed the layer diet ad-libitum during the post-molting period. Results indicated that all force molting treatments caused significant (P≤0.01) decrease in live body weight than the control (non-molted) after molting. Ducks molted by fasting recorded the highest average body weight than the control at the end of experimental period. Viability (%) was not significantly affected due to different force molting treatments during the whole experimental period. Force molting by both fasting and Iodide treatment had significantly (P≤0.01) higher laying rate and egg number and mass per duck than the control during the overall experimental period. Feed consumption was significantly (P≤0.01) decreased for duck molted by fasting and Zinc treatment, whereas, ducks molted by Iodide treatment consumed insignificantly lower amount of feed than the control group during the overall experimental period (71-90 wks of age). Feed conversion ratio was significantly (P≤0.01) improved for all force molting treatments as compared to the control group during the overall experimental period. Egg quality parameters were not affected due to varying force molting treatments than the control. All force molting treatments had significantly (P≤0.01) higher hatchability percentage of both A. L. Awad et al 926 total set and fertile eggs than the control, while, fasting treatment recorded the best values than other force molting treatments. It is concluded that force molting by fasting treatment recorded the best values in productive performance followed by Iodide then Zinc treatment during the post molting period. So, force molting by fasting treatment could be used for Sudani laying ducks to maximize productivity and some hatchability traits during the second laying cycle.
... In laying hens, the housing systems are substantially different (cage, free-range, barn) than broilers which are generally raised on deep litter systems. In the last few decades, multiple studies have focused on the effect of housing systems on poultry welfare (Duncan, 2001;Ferrante, 2009;Janczak and Riber, 2015;Meseret, 2016). In 1999 the European Union issued a directive to phase out battery cages and shift layer production to alternate housing systems (Appleby, 2003). ...
The microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract influences gut health, which in turn strongly impacts the general health and productivity of laying hens. It is essential to characterise the composition and temporal development of the gut microbiota in healthy layers raised under different management systems, to understand the variations in typical healthy microbiota structure, so that deviations from this might be recognised and correlated with production and health issues when they arise. The present investigation aimed to study the temporal development and phylogenetic composition of the gut microbiota of four commercially raised layer flocks from hatch to end of the production cycle. Non-intrusive faecal sampling was undertaken as a proxy to represent the gut microbiota. Sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons was used to characterise the microbiota. Beta diversity analysis indicated that each faecal microbiota was different across the four flocks and had subtly different temporal development patterns. Despite these inter-flock differences, common patterns of microbiota development were identified. Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were dominant at an early age in all flocks. The microbiota developed gradually during the rearing phase; richness and diversity increased after 42 d of age and then underwent significant changes in composition after the shift to the production farms, with Bacteroidota becoming more dominant in older birds. By developing a more profound knowledge of normal microbiota development in layers, opportunities to harness the microbiota to aid in the management of layer gut health and productivity may be more clearly seen and realised.
... Poultry appears to be the most consumed animal protein because it is comparatively cheap, convenient (easy to cook), perceived as healthier (low fat) than other types of meat, and more versatile (easy to use in variety of dishes) [4][5][6]. However, despite the economic significance and potential for continued growth of the market, there are concerns over the welfare aspects of poultry rearing, catching, transport, and slaughter [7][8][9]. Poultry production is also a labour-intensive venture, and as more people move out of rural areas, labour shortages [10] pose a threat to effective animal welfare management that could impact growth [11]. The industry is also at risk of disease outbreaks [12] and food safety lapses [13,14]. ...
Billions of poultry are slaughtered globally each year to provide protein for a rapidly expanding human population. The large number of birds produced in conventional systems presents animal welfare issues during production, transport, and at the time of slaughter. While we recognise the significance of welfare issues during rearing and transport, this paper highlights the welfare of poultry at the time of slaughter. The impacts of manual handling, inversion and shackling, use of inappropriate electrical stunning parameters, and the use of aversive gas mixtures during controlled atmosphere stunning are some of the evident welfare lapses; if the entrance to the water bath is wet and not isolated, bird welfare can also be compromised during water bath stunning because of pre-stun shocks. We also highlight the use of aversive stunning methods such as carbon dioxide gas at high concentrations, which has been shown to compromise bird welfare. In conclusion, we offer some reflections on ways to improve the welfare of birds during pre-slaughter handling, stunning, and neck cutting.
... First, raising laying hens in large groups induces greater mortality rates, especially because of aggression. The pecking order, that is, the social hierarchical order among hens, indeed breaks down as group size increases, and this leads to more aggression: hens tend to peck one another's feathers, and this is also correlated with cannibalism (Hughes et al. 1997;Appleby 1998;Duncan 2001aDuncan , 2001b. Distributing hens in smaller groups, for example, by putting them into separate cages, was therefore reasonably considered as a solution to high mortality rates correlated with aggression (2010). ...
In 1979, the Council of the European Communities declared its intention to ban battery cages for laying hens; one year later, everything about the ban is forgotten. During this preparatory year (1979-1980), all that happened is the publication of scientific reports, that is, attempts at producing knowledge as a basis for and justification of the ban decision. This paper aims at understanding to what extent ignorance and doubt were produced instead. By examining the reports, I demonstrate that there are three interrelated levels of ignorance production: (1) the missions given by the Commission to scientists were ambiguous, (2) questions inherent to animal welfare sciences, such as the significant variability of their measures and results, lead to a systematic standardization, and (3) the battery cage works as a techno-scientific promise and an “obligatory passage point” where scientists and industry meet. Disciplinary identity issues therefore lead scientists to adopt a double standard about the welfare of laying hens.
... Rearing chickens in cages may also prevent the expression of natural behaviours such as ground scratching and dustbathing (Shields and Greger 2013). However, separating broilers from their faeces, as in a cage system, provides a better hygienic condition compared to the litter rearing system (Willis et al. 2002) and may reduce the occurrence of diseases (Al-Bahouh et al. 2012), and thus have welfare benefits (Duncan 2001). Because the rearing system may have a profound economic impact, it is crucial to determine the relationships among the rearing system, welfare, health, and growth performance. ...
The study was carried out to compare the growth performance, gut microbiota, incidence of footpad dermatitis (FPD), leg weakness, physiological, and immunological responses in broilers kept in cage (CS) and floor pen (FS) rearing systems under a tropical environment. One-day-old male Cobb 500 chicks were allocated to either three-tiered wire-floored battery cages or floor pens with wood shavings. The body weight on day 42 and feed intake from days 1 to 42 of caged chickens were lower than those of chickens reared in floor pens. However, the caged chickens had significantly better overall (days 1–42) feed conversion ratios than those on floor pens. The FS system was detrimental to the incidence of FPD. The FS birds showed higher and lower caecal counts of Escherichia coli and Salmonellae, respectively than the CS birds. The FS birds had longer durations of latency-to-lie than their caged counterparts, which suggested that the former had a lower incidence of leg weakness. Higher serum basal concentrations of corticosterone, ovotransferrin and ceruloplasmin were noted in the FS chickens compared to the CS group. Antibody titre against Newcastle disease vaccinations was not affected by the rearing system. In conclusion, the cage rearing system appeared to benefit performance, the incidence of FPD, physiological response, fear reactions, and intestinal population of E. coli in broiler chickens under the hot and humid tropical conditions. However, raising broilers on floor pens improves body weight and leg strength, and reduces the caecal Salmonellae population compared to caged broilers.
• HIGHLIGHTS
• Caged broilers have better feed efficiency and lower caecal Escherichia coli population and incidence of food-pad dermatitis than those on floor pens.
• Raising broilers on floor pens improves body weight and leg strength, and reduces the caecal Salmonellae population compared to caged broilers.
• Broilers on floor pens are more physiologically distressed than their caged counterparts.
... Like other animal-based production systems, broiler production has been criticized for animal cruelty (Duncan 2001), environmental impact (Leinonen et al. 2012), use of antibiotics as growth promoters (Morris, Helliwell, and Raman 2016), and foodborne pathogen contamination (Boyd 2001). From salmonella to campylobacter (Meldrum and Wilson 2007) and outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (Leibler et al. 2009), chicken meat production has also been at the centre of agro-food crises-like BSE for beef, or foot-and-mouth disease for cattle (Loeber, Hajer, and Levidow 2011)-that illustrate the high news value of public health concerns. ...
Media scholarship has commonly regarded newspapers as an essential element of strong democratic societies: a forum that structures public debate, providing engaged citizens with coherent frameworks to identify, interpret and tackle complex issues. Despite general agreement on the merits of this goal, there is little empirical evidence suggesting it approximates the democratic role historically played by newspapers. We examined three decades of newspaper coverage of chicken meat production in the UK to find evidence relevant to the normative expectations of the democratic role of newspapers as forum for public debate, by means of a two-stage framing analysis of 766 relevant articles from seven outlets. We found mutually disconnected episodic coverage of specific issues whose aggregate effect is consistent with the diffusion rather than the structuring of public debate. Newspapers here afforded polemic rather than the systemic contestation expected. The polemic contestation we found, with diffusion of public debate as an emergent political effect, troubles the assumptions subsequent to which it is possible to argue for the democratic role of newspapers.
... In the crowded conditions of industrial agriculture, chickens frequently hurt and kill one other (Cheng and Ali 1985). Since this is economically inefficient, producers often cut off the chickens' beaks, combs, and toes to minimize the damage the chickens can do (Duncan 2001). Although this measure mitigates the problem, it does not eliminate it. ...
Experiments involving the transplantation of human stem cells and their derivatives into early fetal or embryonic nonhuman animals raise novel ethical issues due to their possible implications for enhancing the moral status of the chimeric individual. Although status-enhancing research is not necessarily objectionable from the perspective of the chimeric individual, there are grounds for objecting to it in the conditions in which it is likely to occur. Translating this ethical conclusion into a policy recommendation, however, iscomplicated by the fact that substantial empirical and ethical uncertainties remain about which transplants, if any, would significantly enhance the chimeric individual’s moral status. Considerations of moral status justify either an early-termination policy on chimeric embryos, or, in the absence of such a policy, restrictions on the introduction of pluripotent human stem cells into early-stage developing animals, pending the resolution of those uncertainties.
... Transportation of live chickens is stressful from the animal welfare point of view and is potentially complicated by excess number of animals being loaded onto the transportation vehicle and by temperature stress (Duncan, 2001;Warriss et al., 2005;Petracci et al., 2006;Terlouw et al., 2008;Petracci et al., 2010). Moreover chickens are commonly deprived of food and water while being transported, and the duration of food and water withdrawal can be between 6 to 12 h (Petracci et al., 2010). ...
Halal (permissible or lawful) poultry meat production must meet industry, economic, and production needs, and government health
requirements without compromising the Islamic religious requirements derived from the Qur'an and the Hadiths (the actions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him). Halal certification authorities may vary in their interpretation of these teachings, which leads to differences in halal slaughter requirements. The current study proposes 6 control points (CP) for halal poultry meat production based on the most commonly used halal production systems. CP 1 describes what is allowed and prohibited, such as blood and animal manure, and feed ingredients
for halal poultry meat production. CP 2 describes the requirements for humane handling during lairage. CP 3 describes different methods
for immobilizing poultry, when immobilization is used, such as water bath stunning. CP 4 describes the importance of intention,
details of the halal slaughter, and the equipment permitted. CP 5 and CP 6 describe the requirements after the neck cut has been made such as
the time needed before the carcasses can enter the scalding tank, and the potential for meat adulteration with fecal residues
and blood. It is important to note that the proposed halal CP program is presented as a starting point for any individual halal certifying body to improve its practices.
... a number of trigger factor resulted in the emergence of molting can occur spontaneously at any time, together or sporadic. This indicates that the appearance of molting is caused by stress and its incidence depends on each individual's resistance to such stress (Webster, 2000;Duncan, 2001). Based on this phenomenon, it is possible to select ducks based on the molting as one of the selection criterion. ...
The aims of this study were to obtain information on the mechanism of molting and the prolactin hormone levels affecting egg production. The study utilized AP (crossbred of Alabio ♂ with Peking ♀) and PA (crossbred of Peking ♂ and Alabio ♀ ducks) with a total of 180 birds. The observed variables were the duration of cessation of egg production before and after molting, the prolactin hormone level in the period of molting, the egg production period before and after molting. The data was analyzed using ANOVA, regression and correlation. The results showed that AP crossbred had fewer molting (23.33%) compared to PA (50.00%). The mechanism of molting is always preceded by cessation of egg production, molting and relaying. The prolactin hormone concentrations of AP and PA in the period before and after molting were significantly higher than in the period of molting. At the egg production period before molting, the prolactin hormone concentration of AP ducks was higher than the PA ducks. So that the egg production of AP before molting (0-16 weeks) was higher than the PA. The egg production of AP was higher than PA, 256.66±6.00 vs 232.22±6.64 eggs for 48 weeks. So it can be concluded that the prolactin hormone affects the molting and egg production.
... The natural desire to nest is frustrated, causing turkeys to suffer psychological stress. 48 Researchers at the University ofWisconsin-Madison have suggested using genetic engineering to knock out the gene that produces prolactin, a hormone that plays a key role in broodiness. If knocking out the gene for prolactin eliminates the desire to brood, this could reduce the levels of psychological stress experienced by nest -deprived turkeys. ...
This article discusses moral problems about the use of modern biotechnology in agriculture that emerged in the early 1990s over recombinant bovine growth hormone, a chemical produced using genetically engineered microorganisms and then injected into dairy cows to increase milk yield. Then, there came genetically engineered soybeans, corn, canola, and cotton, and recently genetically engineered animals and cloned animals intended as food or breeding stock in agriculture. The discussion provides a moral framework for evaluating these new applications of modern biotechnology as they affect the food supply. It notes that all of the livestock are sentient beings with determinable welfare levels, which assures them of some degree of moral status. It points out that the moral importance of animals takes on a massive significance in light of the number of animals in the livestock sector. The livestock sector also is one of the most significant contributors to global environmental problems.
... In recent years, modifications of broiler feed consumption (FC) to support metabolic and immunologic system function (Yang et al 2011, Conly et al 2012 or skeletal development and welfare have been researched (Su et al 1999, Duncan 2001, European Commission 2010. The especial importance of supplementing feed with manganese (Mn) has been emphasized in this connection (Henry et al 1989, Conly et al 2012. ...
... In recent years, modifications of broiler feed consumption (FC) to support metabolic and immunologic system function (Yang et al 2011, Conly et al 2012 or skeletal development and welfare have been researched (Su et al 1999, Duncan 2001, European Commission 2010. The especial importance of supplementing feed with manganese (Mn) has been emphasized in this connection (Henry et al 1989, Conly et al 2012. ...
... Civic chicken production involves chicken owners killing the chickens themselves, which may not be a socially popular practice, although skills could be learnt if motivation is sufficient. Industrial chicken production has been the subject of animal welfare concerns including food restrictions, fast growth requirements and physiological stress during transit [72][73][74]. ...
Background: Climate change is expected to have an impact on food production, processing and transport systems. While food systems have become globalized in recent decades, interest has re-emerged for local production and consumption to contribute to sustainable and secure food systems in an era of increasing urbanization and climate change. To explore environmental health issues related to the production of local food in an urban setting, a life cycle analysis screening study of two food commodities, chicken meat and lettuce, produced at industrial and civic scales was conducted in Sydney, Australia, as well as interviews with consumers and producers to explore their potential motivation to change. Methods: Determination of environmental impacts was performed using life cycle assessment (LCA) of two civic and one industrial scale producer for each commodity using SimaPro version 7.3.3. Impacts of global warming potential (GWP), land use and water use from the production of these commodities are reported. With a view to producing holistic insights to sustainable practices in Sydney, interviews with producers and consumers were undertaken to assess sociocultural outcomes including views on environmental food sustainability and other motivators of behavioral change. Results: Local industrial production of chicken meat was found to have a lower carbon footprint than small scale civic production. Small scale civic production of lettuce had a similar carbon footprint to local industrial production. Other environmental health benefits and risks varied across the production scales. Environmental sustainability was not generally a key concern of producers or consumers. Conclusions: Action can be taken to retain and promote food production in urban settings as a future means of assisting food security. The scale of production can be an important variable in assessing the environmental health impacts of food production in an urban setting. Currently neither producers nor consumers appear motivated to change practices to promote environmental sustainability.
... Reduced movement in broiler chickens may be related to an increased incidence of skeletal problems with age (Kjaer and Mench, 2003). It also has been reported that broiler breeder males lack certain elements of courtship behaviour (Duncan, 2001). Duncan suggested that courtship deficiency and hyperaggressiveness may be linked genetically to production traits for which breeders have been selecting, or alternatively that 'the breeding companies may have been selecting males who approach females very quickly in the mistaken belief that they are very sexy. ...
This book is about resource allocation matters with the aim to further development thoughts and models on resource allocation applied to livestock production. It contains 18 chapters divided into 4 parts which discuss resources and resource allocation patterns, trade-offs, metabolic constraints to resource allocation and the process of homeorhesis with a special emphasis to homeorhesis during heat stress; the relationship between food intake and resources allocated to body maintenance, growth, reproduction and the immune response; the consequences of high production efficiency in pigs, poultry and dairy cattle and the consequences of improved production by means of biological engineering and options to include resource allocation matters in the breeding objective, animal welfare and in resource allocation modelling.
... In 1985, Ali and Cheng published a series of experiments demonstrating that under conditions of intensive confinement, congenitally blind hens are more feedefficient than hens with sight. In a battery-cage setting, hens could peck each other to death, so the ends of their beaks are burned off as chicks to minimize injurious pecking damage (Duncan 2001). Blind hens do not appear to peck as much, though. ...
The US Food and Drug Administration’s final Guidance for Industry on the regulation of transgenesis in animal agriculture
has paved the way for the commercialization of genetically engineered (GE) farm animals. The production-related diseases associated
with extant breeding technologies are reviewed, as well as the predictable welfare consequences of continued emphasis on prolificacy
at the potential expense of physical fitness. Areas in which biotechnology could be used to improve the welfare of animals
while maintaining profitability are explored along with regulatory schema to improve agency integration in GE animal oversight.
KeywordsTransgenesis–Biotechnology–Bioethics–Welfare–Production diseases
... The most common occurrence of broken bones in a commercial laying hen is during removal from the cage at the end of lay. Handling (Gregory and Wilkins, 1989), cage structure, and flight behavior may result in trauma to the hen from contact with the cage or with other birds, thereby causing breaks (Duncan, 2001 ). However, the ...
Broken and weak bones of laying hens are major welfare concerns in the table egg industry. Bone quality at the end of lay of brown- (Shaver 579) and white-(Shaver 2000) egg strains were compared. Prior to the start of the experiment, the hens had been housed in laying hen cages (2/cage). At 423 d of age (60 wk + 3 d), 24 hens of each strain were selected and individually caged, and egg production records were kept until 462 d of age (the end of 65 wk) for a total of 39 d. Egg quality analysis was undertaken during wk 65 of age. Hens were killed at 66 wk of age (463 d), and carcass and reproductive morphology traits were measured. Femur and humerus mineral density were measured using quantitative computed tomography, and breaking strength was measured by an Instron Materials Tester. The white-egg strain produced 3.7% more marketable eggs during the experiment due to a 0.3 d shorter mean pause length in egg production. Eggs from the brown strain were 3.4% heavier, had 4.0% more eggshell, and had a higher specific gravity than the white strain eggs (1.077 and 1.072, respectively). Final BW was 330 g greater in the brown-egg strain. Total bone density of the femur was not different between the 2 strains but was greater in the humerus of the brown-egg layers. Total femur and humerus bone areas were greater in the brown strain than the white-egg strain. Bone breaking strengths of the brown-egg strain were greater by 22% (femur) and 18% (humerus) than in the white-egg strain hens. These results indicate that this brown-egg strain may be more resistant to weak and broken bones at the end of production than the white-egg strain.
... 4. The passage of the 1988 Swedish animal welfare law that was intended to get animals out of confinement systems over 10 years (Rollin, 1995). 5. The European Union's 1999 directive to ban cage and small pen production systems (Duncan, 2001). Duncan (2001) said that with regard to animal welfare, the U.S. generally lags about 10 years behind the Europeans . ...
From the perspective of most animal scientists and producers, animal agriculture has become increasingly contentious over the last 10 to 20 years. Furthermore, our critics seem to be extremists whose views are biased and unreasonable. But guess what? The critics say the same thing about animal producers and scientists (us). So where is the middle ground and how do we get there? Should we even worry about trying to define the middle ground? Are these contentious issues a fad that will go away? Are these "extremist" critics so far outside reason that they will be ignored by society? Ignoring "them" is not likely to work because we have seen society changing its mind (developing a new social ethic) with regard to farm animals, in part because of what these critics are saying. As a result, it is vitally important for us to know and understand what is happening and why. For example, there isn't just one voice among the critics. There is actually a spectrum of opinion among the group which conventional agriculturalists usually call their critics. The WCC-204 committee generally agrees that the key to finding the middle ground between what is perceived as a polarized set of issues between "us" (animal scientists and producers) and "them" (philosopher critics) is for both sides to learn about the reasons why each side says what they do. Only then can all parties rationally begin to identify where the middle ground lies.
... In the crowded conditions of industrial agriculture, chickens frequently hurt and kill one other (Cheng and Ali 1985). Since this is economically inefficient, producers often cut off the chickens' beaks, combs, and toes to minimize the damage the chickens can do (Duncan 2001). Although this measure mitigates the problem, it does not eliminate it. ...
Experiments involving the transplantation of human stem cells and their derivatives into early fetal or embryonic nonhuman animals raise novel ethical issues due to their possible implications for enhancing the moral status of che chimeric individual. Although status-enhancing research is not necessarily objectionable from the perspective of the chimeric individual, there are grounds for objecting to it in the conditions in which it is likely to occur. Translating this ethical conclusion into a policy recommendation, however, is complicated by the fact that substantial empirical and ethical uncertainties remain about which transplants, if any, would significantly enhance the chimeric individual's moral status. Considerations of moral status justify either an early-termination policy on chimeric embryos, or, in the absence of such a policy, restrictions on the introduction of pluripotent human stem cells into early-stage developing animals, pending the resolution of those uncertainties.
Free movement of goods within the EU is guaranteed via mutual recognition: any product lawfully produced in one member state must also be accepted in all other member states. While unleashing economic benefits from trade without regulatory barriers, mutual recognition potentially limits member states' ability to address societal concerns with regard to production conditions. This hypothesis is addressed via the case of farm animal welfare in Germany, combining a thorough policy analysis with 20 elite interviews. The results demonstrate how the discourse of inner‐European competition has discouraged policymakers to adopt stricter legislation over the past three decades, exemplifying the impeding effect of mutual recognition on member states' policies. Understanding these mechanisms is vital for handling regulatory diversity within integrated markets and offers insights into similar policy areas. This research contributes to the broader issue of national sustainability standards in a globalized world, where collective preferences increasingly collide with economic goals.
Poultry sector in India is reaching new heights due to advances made in breeding, nutrition, health and management. Notably, poultry breeding has played a crucial role in the unprecedented growth and development of the sector through the selection of highly specialized sire and dam lines and subsequently, crossing them to produce varieties suited for commercial and backyard production. Government interventions and public sector institutions have been relentlessly working to make poultry farming remunerative in rural backyards. In this context, climate change, disease outbreaks, stagnant gains, welfare and ethical issues are the major challenges which call for immediate attention. Some possible interventions to address these issues include: incorporation of climate resilience and welfare traits in the selection indices for selection of birds, embarking on genome-based selection to exploit the genomic variability in the population for substantial gains, gene silencing and CRISPR/Cas9 mediated genome editing approaches for improving productivity and boosting immune responses. Collection and analysis of real-time data using artificial intelligence and data analytics will also help in improving predictions for health and welfare traits in poultry. This review provides a detailed account of the achievements of public sector with regard to poultry breeding in the country and presents future perspectives for continued viability and sustainability of the sector.
In the present study the occurrence of turkey carcass alterations such as breast skin lesions, liver lesions and arthritis from turkeys reared in organic farms were investigated at slaughterhouses in Germany. The examinations included 1860 turkey carcasses of the two turkey lines Kelly Broad Breasted Bronze (BBB) (540 toms and 540 hens) and British United Turkeys (B.U.T.) [Big 6 and The Test Product 7 – TP 7] (780 hens). The results showed that breast skin lesions were rare (1.7 %). On the other hand, liver lesions were a common finding in both hens and toms. Nearly half of all investigated turkeys were affected (49.3 %). Swelling of the hock joint was detected in 17.3 % of all investigated turkeys. The occurrence in Kelly BBB toms was significantly higher than in hens (toms: 28.7 %; hens: 16.9 %). In general, there were significant differences between the investigated flocks. Carcass lesions are a major animal welfare concern, which affect conventional and organic reared turkeys. Investigating the occurrence of carcass lesions provides the necessary precondition to establish a benchmarking system to evaluate and compare turkey farms. The aim is to reduce and/or eliminate these alterations in the long term in order to improve animal welfare.
The ability to evaluate the welfare of non-human animals accurately and objectively is influenced by a variety of factors including the nature of our relationships with them. Subjective biases in the perception of an animal’s quality of life can have either positive or negative consequences for its welfare and are likely to be particularly exaggerated in the case of companion animals, such as dogs, cats and other pet species, with which people tend to form strong anthropomorphic, attachment-based relationships. The consequences of these subjective biases are likely to be further exacerbated by the fact that many of the physical and behavioural attributes that humans find appealing, and have selected for, in companion animals, are inherently detrimental to their welfare. Using a range of examples, this paper explores some of the complex ways in which anthropomorphism and subjectivity can cloud our ability to make reliable judgements concerning the welfare of companion animals, even in the face of seemingly obvious and overt indicators of pain and suffering. © 2019 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare The Old School, Brewhouse Hill, Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire AL4 8AN, UK.
The Effects of Different Waveforms and Frequency Values in Pre-slaughter Stunning by Electricity on Some Welfare Parameters and Carcass Defects
In this study, the effects of electric current application including different wave types and frequency values on welfare parameters and carcass defects in order to be rendered unconsciousness of broilers before slaughtering were examined. In study, a total of 180 forty three-day-old broilers were divided into 9 treatment groups with 20 chickens (10♀-10♂) each. Treatment groups consist of a control group without electricity and eight groups stunned by using the electric current. Broilers were stunned in water bath with the electric current AC (sine wave alternating current)/pDC (pulsed direct current) of 120 mA and frequencies of 50, 200, 400, and 1000 Hz. To reveal the condition of chickens after the electric treatment, electrocardiogram (ECG) was recorded. Simultaneously, the reflexes of eye, comb and foot besides the responses of spontaneous of breathing, wing flapping and shaking, cardiac fibrillation determined in broilers were also determined. Amount of blood loss in chickens during bleeding was measured. Also, carcasses defects assessed.
The results of research showed that chickens were better effectively stunned at AC 50 and 200 Hz frequencies. It was realized that carcasses defects occurred as hemorrhagic spots in the middle part of wings and thighs. It was understood that the alternating current (AC) of 120 mA, at 50 and 200 Hz frequencies among the values of electricity applied for pre-slaughter stunning of broiler chickens provided more effective results in terms of parameters examined.
Keywords: Stunning, wave type, frequency, animal welfare, carcass defect
https://www.nfacc.ca/resources/codes-of-practice/chickens-turkeys-and breeders/Poultry_SCReport_Nov2013.pdf
The highly concentrated nature of food retailing in Australia gives supermarkets considerable control over the interface between consumers and producers. Legal and regulatory commentary debates what can and should be done about the market dimensions of supermarket power. This article shows that Australian supermarkets are amassing not only economic power but also political power in the food system. The article makes this argument by reference to two major supermarkets’ initiatives in the regulatory space around food labelling, specifically the contested meaning of free range eggs. The article examines how the supermarkets are using their market power to create private standards for suppliers of own brand products that set the meaning of ‘free range’ for consumers too. This entrenches supermarkets’ market share as well as their political power as food authorities.
Anomalous animal behaviour and reduced growth rate are just a few signs that can indicate an undesired situation in a broiler house. It is important that problems such as malfunctioning feeding and drinking lines are detected at an early stage to avoid a negative impact on the welfare or the production of broilers. This paper introduces an automated method to detect problems in a broiler house using cameras and image analysis software. In an experiment with Ross 308 broilers conducted in a commercial broiler house with 28,000 animals, three top-view cameras were mounted at a 5 m height and continuously monitored a floor space of 19.8 by 63.5 m. Analysis software then translated these images into an animal distribution index. Animal distribution index is known to be related to welfare and it can be affected by equipment malfunctioning in a broiler house. Thus, the final objective was to develop a system that could report malfunctioning in a broiler house to the farmer in real-time. Based on these data, a linear real-time model was developed and tested to model the animal distribution index in response to light input. Using this model, the animal distribution index could be predicted online. Comparing these predicted values with the real-time measurements makes it possible to detect any malfunctioning. Results showed that this method could report 95.24% of events (20 out of 21) in real-time, demonstrating a high potential of using automatic monitor tools for broiler production over a complete growing period. (c) 2013 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This paper investigates what “free-range” eggs are available for sale in supermarkets in Australia, what “free-range” means on product labelling, and what alternative “free-range” offers to cage production. The paper concludes that most of the “free-range” eggs currently available in supermarkets do not address animal welfare, environmental sustainability, and public health concerns but, rather, seek to drive down consumer expectations of what these issues mean by balancing them against commercial interests. This suits both supermarkets and egg producers because it does not challenge dominant industrial-scale egg production and the profits associated with it. A serious approach to free-range would confront these arrangements, and this means it may be impossible to truthfully label many of the “free-range” eggs currently available in the dominant supermarkets as free-range.
Citizen petitions and legislative bills in seven states in the US have established space and movement limitations for selected
species of farm animals. These actions show Americans becoming concerned about the humane treatment of confined farm animals,
and willing to use governmental intervention to preclude existing confinement practices. The individual state provisions vary,
including the coverage of species. All seven states deal with sow-gestation crates, five states address veal calf crates,
and two states’ provisions also apply to battery cages used for egg-laying hens. The actions show citizen and legislative
opposition to current animal production practices, and suggest a movement to provide better treatment for farm animals. Accompanying
the actions are challenges for animal production industries in remaining competitive while meeting social expectations on
the ethical treatment of food animals. While the actions are only a small step in addressing welfare issues, they may be the
beginning of a significant movement to do more to address human and animal welfare issues.
KeywordsAnimal welfare-Battery cages-Food animal confinement-Gestation crates-Humane treatment of animals-Space and movement limitations
Poultry.Internet leverages on the reach of the Internet to connect humans and pets at different locations. This system has a tangible interface encompassing both visual and tactile modes of communication. It allows humans to interact remotely with pets anytime, anywhere. The pet owner views the real time movement of the pet in the form of a pet doll sitting on a mechanical positioning system. Meanwhile, the real pet wears a special jacket, which is able to reproduce the touching sensation. The pet owner can tangibly touch the pet doll, sending touch signals to the pet far away. Also, the pet owner receives a haptic feedback from the movement of the pet.
The expansion in supplies of spent heavy fowl and the increasing use of broiler meat in further processed food products have reduced the market for spent laying hens to the point that these birds frequently have no value. If spent hens cannot be sold through traditional channels, egg producers must seek alternative ways to dispose of old flocks. A fowl removal program must first address the problems of where and how the spent hens should be killed. Without a centralized site for slaughter, the most suitable place to kill spent hens is on the farm itself. The work reported herein has been dedicated to the development of a cost-effective and humane method for on-farm killing of spent hens. A mobile MAK (modified atmosphere killing) unit was built consisting of a 21 ft.3 closed cart with spring-loaded doors through which hens can be placed inside. A carbon dioxide (CO2 cylinder is mounted on the unit so CO2 can be dispensed into the interior as needed to stun and kill hens. The prototype MAK unit has proven to be effective in on-farm trials, with about 30,000 hens having been killed in it thus far. The efficiency of the unit should make it possible to recover the cost of the CO2 used to kill the hens.
A higher percentage of turkeys graded A when they were toe-clipped. In a controlled experiment, toe-clipped turkey toms had 2.1% more grade A than turkeys with normal toes. Records from three processing plants for 1969 and 1970 showed toe-clipped turkey toms varied from 1.2–5% more in percentage grade A than toms that were not toe-clipped. The toe-clipped hens varied from 0–3.2% in improvement in percentage grade A over hens with normal toes.
An increase in mortality was observed in the controlled experiment during the first week in those turkeys that had been toe-clipped. These birds were started on wire floors partly covered with paper.
There was little influence of toe-clipping on the final body weight of either the hens or the toms in the controlled experiment or in the commercial data from processing plants. One plant did show a significant reduction in body weight of toe-clipped toms compared with normal-toed toms received in the plant for both the 1969 and 1970 processing years.
Toe-clipping did not influence the percentage of turkey carcasses condemned in any of the categories studied.
The meat and egg industries have undergone remarkable change over the last 30 yr, and it seems that this will continue, albeit at a slightly reduced rate, over the next 10 to 20 yr. The Americas and Asia will continue to meet world demand, and the only real challenge to the dominance of global poultry meat production will come from the swine industry. Broilers and layers in general are remarkably healthy, and we are now seeing unprecedented low levels of mortality. Our current success is due to genetic selection, availability of efficacious vaccines and antibiotics, and a growing awareness of the importance of biosecurity and general farm hygiene. An emerging area of concern in poultry nutrition is the accumulation of Zn and Cu in soil, and this may attract legislation regarding manure composition. Likewise, there is emphasis on quantitating NH3 release from many industries including agriculture. We are unlikely to see any major change in nutrient needs of broilers and layers over the next 20 yr. On the other hand, diet formulation, feeding programs, and production goals are continually changing, and these factors affect the work of poultry nutritionists. Our future roles will be governed by the need to accommodate ever-increasing genetic potential, the demand for simple diets devoid of most pharmaceutical products, and the effect of poultry products on human health. Traceability of meat and eggs is inevitable either through legislation or through marketing strategies. Such traceability will require accountability of the composition of poultry feeds. At best, quality control programs at feed mills provide information that is incorporated in a historical database. The feed industry will be compelled to develop real-time feed analysis.
1. Videotapes of hens under various conditions were used to measure the amount of space used by hens performing common behaviour patterns.2. When turning, hens used 540 to 1006 cm, when stretching wings 653 to 1118 cm, when wing flapping 860 to 1980 cm, when feather ruffling 676 to 1604 cm, when preening 814 to 1270 cm and when ground scratching 540 to 1005 cm.3. All these measurements are above the 450 cm bird recommended as the minimum space allowance by current EC regulations, which therefore do not ensure adequate hen welfare.
Six groups of 25 growing female broiler breeder chickens in pens were fed either on a commercial restricted ration (R), twice that amount (2R), or ad libitum (AL). R and 2R birds were fed daily at 09.00 h and ate all their food in < 15 min. Behaviour was observed systematically at three times of day (once before and twice after feeding time) at 6,9,12, 15 and 18 weeks of age. In general, restricted-fed (R and 2R) birds were much more active than AL birds. There were significant (P < 0.05) effects of feeding treatment on all activities recorded except preening and pecking at the empty feeder (R and 2R birds only); age affected drinking, preening, walking, standing and sitting; and time of day affected all activities except feeding (AL birds only). Activities that appeared to reflect feeding motivational state closest were walking before feeding time, and drinking, pecking floor litter and sitting after feeding time. AL birds (only) panted for about a third of the time at moderate ambient temperatures, and changes in their behaviour with age were thermoregulatory. It is proposed that activities of restricted-fed animals that are dominant after feeding time may be substitutable and have common causation and consequences. Distinction between stereotyped and non-stereotyped behaviour in this context may therefore be misleading.
In 1976 the diet of adult feral fowls on a Scottish island consisted mainly of grass from January to July and oats from August to December. Juveniles ate many invertebrates in their first two months of life, but otherwise their diet was similar to that of the adults. In contrast to the non-breeding adults, broods and their dams showed two distinct types of feeding behaviour, called “sporadic” and “intensive” feeding. These were directed towards scattered and concentrated food sources, and the type shown depended mainly on the dam's behaviour. The significance of these and other aspects of feeding behaviour is discussed.
Two 17-wk experiments compared the effects of an increasing photoperiod treatment (INC) versus a constant photoperiod treatment (23H), and intact toes versus clipped toes, on the breast button incidence and performance of heavy torn turkeys. Under INC, the photoperiod was increased gradually from 8 to 23 h between 4 and 16 wk. Under 23H, the photoperiod remained constant at 23 h. Use of INC versus 23H resulted in a significant reduction in breast button incidence at 17 wk in both experiments (P < .05). Toe clipping had no effect on breast button incidence. The presence of breast buttons was positively correlated with body weight at 12 wk, and area of unfeathered skin over the keel at 17 wk. In Experiment 1, the photoperiod treatments had no significant effect on 17-wk body weight or mortality, but the INC treatment had an adverse effect on feed efficiency (P < .05). In Experiment 2, turkeys reared under INC were heavier at 17 wk (P < .05), with similar feed efficiencies. Mortality was significantly lower on INC than 23H up to 12 wk in Experiment 2 (P < .05). Turkeys with intact toes were .44 kg heavier than turkeys with clipped toes at 17 wk in both experiments (P < .05) and had similar feed efficiencies. Mortality to 4 wk was lower for turkeys with intact than clipped toes in Experiment 2 (P < .05). Increasing photoperiod treatments have potential for improving turkey performance, survival, and carcass quality. The adverse impact of toe clipping on growth and early survival stresses the need for alternatives to toe clipping for prevention of downgrading due to scratches.
The corticosterone response of immature broiler breeder males to feed restriction and the administration of increased levels of dietary Trp was investigated. Corticosterone levels were significantly (P less than .01) higher in birds placed on a skip-a-day (SD) feed restriction regimen from 4 to 15 wk of age than in birds fed an ad libitum intake. Elevated levels in SD birds persisted for the duration of the study. Levels were also higher in SD birds on those days on which feed was withheld (FEED-OFF) than on those days on which feed was delivered (FEED-ON). The SD males consuming a diet containing 1.5% Trp showed a change in the pattern of hormone secretion as compared with SD control birds (.19% Trp), with corticosterone levels increasing on the FEED-ON days and decreasing on the FEED-OFF days. It is concluded that SD feed restriction causes a persistent elevation of plasma corticosterone in broiler breeders. The secretory pattern of corticosterone can be modulated by increasing the Trp content of the diet, possibly as a result of reciprocal interactions between the serotonergic system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
Walking and bouts of wing movement performed by 61-week-old ISA brown laying hens which had been taken from one batch of eggs and then kept in three different housing systems which allowed a gradation in spatial freedom, were recorded. After slaughter the breaking strengths of the humerus and tibia of birds from each system were measured. Birds from battery cages exhibited the fewest limb movements and had the weakest bones, their humeri having only 54 per cent of the strength of those of birds from a perchery. Birds from the Elson terrace system were heavier and had a stronger tibia than cage birds. Compared with perchery birds, terrace birds had weaker humeri and also performed fewer wing movements. The results indicate that the amount of movement possible for laying hens in battery cages was insufficient to avoid levels of osteopenia and consequent bone fragility much greater than in birds kept in the perchery and Elson terrace systems.
Medium hybrid hens were housed as pairs and observed at three cage heights: 30.0, 42.5 and 55.0 cm, and at three area allowances per bird: 570, 807 and 1045 cm2. With increased height, head stretching, head scratching and body shaking were performed at a higher rate and feeding and cage pecking at a lower rate. There was also an increase in the time spent sitting. With increased area, head scratching, body shaking and feather raising were performed at a higher rate and cage pecking at a lower rate. It is concluded that spatial restriction may increase the cost of performing certain 'comfort' activities, resulting in the reductions in performance rate observed in the above experiments. Welfare implications are briefly discussed and considered to depend on the motivational state of the birds.
The response of adrenal glands of Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens housed under different population densities was studied.
The birds were reared in floor pens until they were 19 weeks of age, after which they were housed in cages. Cage size was
30.5 × 50.8 cm. Three, four, or five birds were housed per cage. Corticosterone concentrations were measured in all birds
48 and 96 hr following housing in cages and weekly thereafter for 6 weeks.
Corticosterone concentrations were consistently higher in the serum of birds housed five per cage than in birds housed three
or four per cage. It was concluded that in order to minimize physiological stress in cage layers, more than 387 cm2 per bird should be considered.
A study was conducted to determine the effect of nutrient dilution on plasma heterophil:lymphocyte ratios, behavior, and productivity
of broiler breeder hens. Standard age-appropriate broiler breeder diets were fed either undiluted or diluted with 15 and 30%
ground oat hulls from 0 to 56 wk of age. Feed was allocated daily so as to achieve the BW recommended by the breeder. Pullets
were photostimulated at 20 wk, at which time 80 per treatment were moved, 2 per cage, to 120 laying cages, where they were
housed until 56 wk of age. The same dilution treatment was continued for the laying period.
The time required to consume the diluted feed was higher when diets were diluted during both the rearing (P = .002) and the laying periods (P = .0001). Heterophil:lymphocyte ratios at 12 wk of age indicated that hens subjected to higher levels of quantitative feed
restriction experienced more long-term stress (P < .05). This difference was not evident at 20 wk or at 50 wk. During the laying period, hens that were fed diluted diets
spent less time at the water source than those fed standard diets (P = .0001). The rate of decrease in flock uniformity during lay was slower in hens fed the diluted diets (P < .05). Hens fed the diet diluted by 15% had the highest egg production (P = .012), chick production (P < .0001), the best CP conversion efficiency (P < .05), and better feed conversion efficiency (P < .05). Diet dilution with ground oat hulls seems to be a means of reducing stress and improving efficiency and productivity
in broiler breeder flocks.
Since 1974, studies of standard cages for layers have been carried out at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala. The principal subjects being studied are bird welfare (exterior wear of plumage, foot sores, throat skin blisters), behaviour (partly by internal video tape recordings), feed waste and exterior egg quality. Production and feed consumption are also recorded. About 4 000 SCWLs (18 weeks of age) of the same origin are put in six different cage constructions in the same house and given the same feed (15% crude protein and 11.3 MJ ME/kg feed). The birds are taken out at 83 weeks of age.
Welfare, behaviour and stress during handling and transport of cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, deer and poultry, are discussed in 20 chapters of the book.
Over-selection for production traits has caused animal welfare problems such as feather pecking in hens, tail biting in pigs, and overly aggressive animals. In dogs, over-selection for appearance traits has caused neurological problems such as deafness. Both feather pecking and tail biting may be displaced foraging behaviors, because these behaviors are reduced by providing foraging materials such as straw. Another problem is hunger in broiler breeder hens and breeding sows. Animals that have been selected for rapid growth are also selected for a huge appetite. If breeder animals eat to satiation, they will become obese and have health problems. High-roughage feeds may improve welfare. Researchers suggest that new genetic breeding tools could be used to select against harmful behaviors and still have a productive animal. Breeders must avoid creating animals that will have poor welfare even when they are housed in the best environment.
The pre-laying behaviour of two strains of domestic fowl in battery cages were observed. One strain (The ‘Brown’ strain) sat for significantly longer than the White strain, which showed an excessive amount of pacing during the pre-laying period. Enclosing the battery cages and darkening the room had no effect on these differences. Both strains responded to frustration in a feeding situation by excessive pacing and it therefore appears that the ‘White’ strain females were generally frustrated during the pre-laying period. Some White strain females did sit and this variability if genetic suggests that selection for sitting in the pre-laying period in battery cages might be successful. It is suggested that the difference in this behaviour between the strains is due to differences in responsiveness to releasers for sitting behaviour and not due to differences in the strength of the nesting tendency.
An experiment was designed to investigate the reasons for the decrease in fertility which commonly occurs in broiler breeder domestic fowl in the later part of the laying year. Male broiler breeders were penned individually with 15 females and fed separately from them at various levels of energy, in order to attain different target body weights, and at two levels of protein. Sexual behaviour and fertility were recorded at 28, 38 and 58 weeks of age. The frequency of all sexual behaviour showed a large decrease with age which was suggestive of a decline in libido. There was also a significant effect of body weight, with heavier cocks showing more sexual displays and slightly more matings. Level of protein had little effect on sexual behaviour and fertility. Cocks which were more severely restricted showed a reduction in fertility and libido in Weeks 38 and 58. The decline in libido was not enought to account for reduced fertility in heavy cocks at 58 weeks and it was concluded that this was most probably a consequence of the large bulk or the conformation of the males at this age interfering in some way with the transfer of semen during copulations which otherwise looked normal.
The main advantages of battery cages for laying hens over alternative husbandry systems are (1) increased hygiene resulting in a much lower incidence of diseases in which the infectious agent is spread through the droppings, (2) small group size resulting in a low incidence of social friction, (3) ease of management, (4) absence of litter problems, (5) better working conditions, and (6) a much lower cost of production. The disadvantages are (1) lack of physical and psychological space for the hens, (2) lack of exercise resulting in a higher incidence of metabolic disorders, (3) lack of nesting opportunities resulting in severe frustration for many birds each time an egg is laid, (4) lack of dust bathing opportunities which, although not a severe disadvantage, should still be charged to cages, (5) lack of other behavioural opportunities which again seem not to be a severe disadvantage and which await further elucidation, and (6) a higher incidence of foot lesions.
Both battery-kept birds and those used to living outside preferred a familiar hen to an empty cage and preferred an empty cage to a strange hen (Experiment 1). This is in accordance with the hierarchy of preference suggested by Hughes (1977). 20-week-old pullets preferred being with their cage-mates to being on their own, even though the birds had been together for only a few days (Experiment 2). Birds which had become familiar with the test apparatus, however, preferred to be on their own and were increasingly reluctant to enter a cage the more of their cage-mates it contained (Experiment 3). “Preferred group size” is thus not constant but depends upon both how familiar the cage-mates are and how familiar the surroundings are. These findings are discussed in relation to the welfare of battery-kept hens.
The behavioral responses of laying hens to a 4-day fast were investigated. Three hundred and sixty Hyline W77 (W77) and 360 Hyline Brown (Brown) 19-week-old pullets were housed as pairs in cages in separate rooms for each stock. At 63 weeks of age, feed was withdrawn for 96 h from half of the W77 hens. Brown hens were fasted in like manner one week later. For both stocks, time-lapse videorecordings of 8 cages were made each day of the fast (total = 64 hens per stock). In weeks 1, 3, 5 and 9 after the fast, an additional 32 hens of each stock were videorecorded. Fasting appeared to raise the arousal of W77 hens, judging from their increased head flicking and standing behavior. Fasted Brown hens increased head flicking to a lesser extent than W77s and did not alter standing behavior. They performed more preening, however, which could indicate a mild level of frustration. Both stocks increased cage pecking and feather pecking during the fast. No significant change in aggressive pecking was observed. After the fast, W77 hens reduced head flicking, preening and standing, relative to non-fasted hens. Brown hens which had been fasted showed no significant behavioral differences from their respective controls. Although post-fast cage pecking and feather pecking did not differ significantly between treatments, these activities generally were lower for fasted hens. Overall, the W77 stock appeared to be more affected by the fast. The apparent post-fast calming effect, particularly evident for W77 hens, may reflect a renewed behavioral adaptation to the cage environment.
Individually marked immature female broiler breeders were kept in groups of 12 and 11 birds in two pens, with lights on from 05:00 to 19:00 h, ad libitum access to water, and a restricted food ration provided daily at 08:30 h according to commercial guidelines, which was eaten in 4-16 min. At 18 and 19 weeks of age, systematic observations of each bird's behaviour during the day showed that, in both pens, activities that took up most time were standing, walking and those directed at floor litter, drinking dispenser and empty feeding trough. Greatest variation between birds was shown in stereotyped pecking at the drinker, empty feeder and pen walls, and in resting. Resting and preening were most evident soon after lights on, standing and walking just before feeding time, stereotyped pecking occurred in the hours after feeding, and litter-directed activity was more consistent throughout the day. Different birds tended to 'specialize' in stereotyped pecking at either the drinker or feeder, and in later observations when one or both of these were removed, they did not redirect their pecking towards another object, but spent more time in non-stereotyped activities. Total times spent in stereotyped pecking by individual birds were correlated negatively (P = 0.05 with both pens combined) with their plasma corticosterone concentrations at the end of the 2 weeks of observations, but not with other (putative) indices of stress and fearfulness or with body weight. Thus, birds showing more stereotyped activity tended to show less stress as indicated by plasma corticosterone level, which supports the proposal that such behaviour has de-arousing consequences.
Hens were presented with drinking water ranging in temperature from 20 to 45°C, and their behaviour was investigated before and after partial beak amputation. Amputation resulted in significant behavioural changes with reductions in environmental pecking, beak wiping and head shaking. Pecking at water presented at 45°C, and drinking at all temperatures, were also reduced after amputation. These behavioural changes are interpreted as instances of guarding behaviour and hyperalgesia which persisted for 6 weeks, at least 3 weeks after the beak had healed. They provide evidence for possible chronic pain in birds following partial beak amputation.
Domestic hens, Gallus gallus domesticus, prefer to lay in nests containing loose material which can be both moulded by their body and feet movements and manipulated with their beaks during nest building. This study attempted to define which of these two functions the hen regards as more important. When given a choice, hens opted for nests that could be moulded by body and feet movements but could not be manipulated with the beak rather than nests that could not be moulded but could be manipulated. When the importance of loose material was assessed independently of whether the nest could be moulded or not, hens did not seem to regard its presence as essential. These findings suggest that it is more important for hens to have a nesting site with a substrate that can be moulded with the body and feet than one that can be manipulated with the beak. The study then attempted to elucidate whether it is the performance of nest-building motor patterns or the attainment of the final moulded nest that hens find rewarding. When given a choice between pre-moulded nests and mouldable nests, hens opted for the pre-moulded ones. The frequencies of nest-building activities performed in both nest types, however, were no different. These findings suggest that the hen has some ‘need’ to perform nest-building behaviour but does not have to build a nest herself; a pre-moulded nest is perfectly acceptable as long as it allows the performance of the behaviour. When pre-moulded nests were compared with traditional litter nests, the majority of hens opted for litter nests suggesting that these nests have features (as yet undefined) that are particularly attractive to nesting hens.
Possible welfare benefits of qualitative rather than quantitative food restriction were investigated with growing female broiler breeder chickens (Ross 1). In Experiment 1, body-weight gains from 2 to 6 weeks of age were compared among different diet dilution, appetite suppression and low protein treatments, with free access to food at all times, to identify qualitative treatments causing weight gains similar to that recommended in the Ross 1 Parent Stock Management Manual. Based on these results, four diet dilution (400g kg−1 unmolassed sugar-beet pulp, 300 and 600g kg−1 oat hulls, 500g kg−1 softwood sawdust) and one appetite suppression (50g kg−1 calcium propionate) treatments were compared with two quantitative restriction (the recommended daily ration and twice that amount) and one ad libitum control treatments, from 2 to 10 weeks of age, in Experiment 2. As well as growth, food intake, excreta production and digestibility, measurements were also made of behaviour and blood indices of stress. Several conclusions were drawn. Different methods of qualitative food restriction can be used to control growth rate within desired limits. Problems with these methods include reduced uniformity in weight gain, increased excreta production and/or increased cost. Although they appear to suppress abnormal oral behaviours, they do not alter the increased general activity which is correlated with suppression of growth rate, and which may more accurately reflect associated hunger. Suppression of abnormal oral behaviours may only rarely correspond with reduction in blood indices of stress, and so cannot be taken to indicate improved welfare. Some of these methods can add to physiological stress. Finally, there was insufficient evidence of improved welfare, based on both behavioural and physiological criteria, to justify advocating the suitability of airy of these methods for commercial use.
1. In a multi‐choice test, with unfamiliar cagemates and group sizes of up to 6, the attraction of a cage was inversely proportional to the number of hens it contained, empty cages being chosen most often. This trend was modified but not abolished by the previous experience of being reared in pens in large groups.2. In a factorially‐designed test all hens spent the greater part of their time in large rather than small cages; hens reared singly chose empty cages rather than cages occupied by one other unfamiliar bird, whereas group‐reared hens selected the occupied cages.3. In two‐choice tests, a familiar group of 3 hens was strongly preferred to a strange group of the same size; the familiar group was also preferred to an empty cage, but less strongly so.
After noting that the display behavior of the leghorn cock is similar under circumstances of threatening another cock and when introduced to a group of hens, observational data under each circumstance are reported. It is suggested that drive frustration may be the common cause of the similar display behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The behaviour of Large White × Landrace gilts tethered in stalls was studied by scan sampling from 07.00 to 17.00 h on 3 days consecutively every 5 weeks. Results are presented on 30 gilts sampled during their first 5 weeks in the house, period 1, and on 36 gilts during the following 5-week period, period 2. Twenty individuals were common to both samples. Gilts were fed at 08.00 h with a pelleted complete diet, either on low food levels (1·25 to 2·00 kg) or on high food levels (2·2 to 4·0 kg).
In both periods behaviour was strongly related to food allowance in individual gilts. Gilts on low food levels spent a greater proportion of their time in the standing position than those on high food levels (period 1, medians 0·31 and 0·12 respectively; period 2, medians 0·27 and 0·11 respectively), spent more time in repetitive behaviour (period 1, medians 0·22 and 0·04 respectively; period 2, medians 0·16 and 0·07 respectively) and spent a greater proportion of their standing time in repetitive behaviour (period 1, medians 0·46 and 0 respectively; period 2, medians 0·30 and 0 respectively). Similarly, all three measures of behaviour correlated negatively with food allowance overall, but there was some indication that food level had a threshold effect, with more activity and repetitive behaviour occurring on food levels below about 2 kg.
These results suggest that if food allowances are low tether stalls are not a suitable system of housing for pregnant sows.
The objective of this experiment was to determine if the unusually high levels of aggression shown by male broiler breeder domestic fowl towards females is due to a higher overall level of Ž . aggressiveness in this strain. We compared the aggressive behaviour of broiler breeder BR males Ž . with that of males of an Old English Game strain GA which had been bred for fighting. Also, by Ž . rearing males of a commercial laying strain LR under the same level of feed restriction recommended for broiler breeder males, we examined the effects of feed restriction during rearing Ž . on aggressive behaviour at maturity. Full-fed commercial laying strain LA males were used as a control. The behaviour of individual males, nine from each treatment group, towards a model of a male conspecific was recorded for 15 min. The test was repeated 4 weeks later, after the males had received some limited sexual experience. Game strain males reacted most aggressively to the Ž . Ž . model, waltzing P -0.001 and crowing P -0.05 more than males from the other treatment groups which did not differ significantly from each other. Waltzing and crowing also increased Ž . significantly from the first to the second test in GA males P -0.005 , but not in males from the other treatment groups. Frequency and duration of ground pecking was significantly less in BR Ž . males than in GA or LA males P -0.005 and significantly less in GA and LA males than in LR Ž . males P -0.05 . Frequency of wing flapping was significantly greater in BR and LR males than Ž . in GA or LA males P -0.005 . In conclusion, broiler breeder males did not behave aggressively towards a male model relative to game strain males. Whereas feed restriction during the rearing phase did affect behaviour of adult males, aggressiveness towards a male model did not increase. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Six laying hens were housed singly in small cages (area 847 cm2) and six were housed singly in large cages (2310 cm2) for a period of 4 weeks. Many significant differences were found between the behaviour of the birds in the two groups. In addition, the frequency of performance of some activities, e.g. wing stretching and preening, over the 4 weeks declined in both groups, although these were most pronounced for the hens in small cages. After this period in the home cages the birds were observed simultaneously, as matched pairs, in a pair of large test cages (2310 cm2). Wing stretching, feather raising, tail wagging, leg stretching and wing flapping performed at a low frequency in the small home cages, were performed at a high frequency ‘rebound’ rate in the test cages. When the experiment was replicated, this rebound was even more pronounced for birds that had undergone a second period of 4 weeks in the small home cages. In contrast to the gradual decline in activity performance observed in the home cages, this rebound was virtually instantaneous. The possibilities are discussed that this rebound may result either from an increase in motivational tendency during the period of spatial restriction or from a response to an increase in novelty.
The extent to which degenerative hip disorders in adult male turkeys result in pain was investigated in a two-period crossover experiment. The birds in six pens received daily injections of an anti-inflammatory steroid (betamethasone) during week 1 and control injections of physiological saline in week 3. The turkeys in the other six pens received saline in week 1 and steroid in week 3. Behavioural observations of the birds during weeks 1 and 3 revealed that the steroid treatment resulted in more spontaneous activity. The steroid-treated birds also showed speedier movement in a sexual activity test in weeks 1 and 3. Post mortem examination revealed that all the turkeys were suffering from degenerative hip disorders. It is concluded that degenerative hip disorders in adult male turkeys result in a state of chronic pain which inhibits spontaneous activity and sexual activity.
1. Observations of vigorous wing movements and measurements of bone strength were compared in two experiments with birds in three different housing systems: a semi-intensive alternative system under development, a battery cage system and a deep-litter system. 2. A significant effect of housing system on the frequency of vigorous wing movements was found. The highest frequency was seen in the deep-litter system, about half this number in the alternative system, while in the battery cages they were never observed. 3. Corresponding to this a reduction in humerus strength of 9% was found in hens from the alternative system and of 45% in hens from cages, compared with deep-litter. A reduction in tibial breaking strength was also found in caged hens, when compared to deep-litter hens. 4. Keeping hens in cages thus restricts their movements, especially wing movements, to the degree that bone strength is greatly reduced. 5. This has welfare implications, for hens with low bone breaking strength risk a possibility of breakage, especially when handled and transported. When alternative systems are designed opportunities for movement in the three dimensions should be considered.
1. The effects of beak trimming on 16-week-old Brown Leghorn hens, housed individually in battery cages, was assessed by comparing their behaviour after trimming with their behaviour before trimming and with the behaviour of a sham-operated control group. 2. In the short-term, times spent feeding, drinking and preening decreased. 3. In the long-term, times spent preening and pecking at the cage decreased and times spent standing inactive increased, with no signs of returning to pretreatment values after 5 weeks. 4. During the first three weeks, times spent feeding and drinking decreased and during the first two weeks, times spent sitting dozing increased, but after 5 weeks these had returned to near pre-treatment values. 5. It is argued that pain is the most probable cause of these behavioural changes. 6. The decrease in welfare to the individual bird caused by this pain will conflict with any increase in welfare to the flock brought about by beak trimming; this should be considered before any decision to beak trim is taken.
1. 3115 end-of-lay battery hens and carcases were sampled at set points in the sequence of events that occurred between depopulation of the battery cages at the layer farms and the end of the evisceration line in two processing plants. Live birds were killed in a convulsion-free manner and carcases were dissected to determine the incidence of broken bones. 2. Of the live battery birds 29% had broken bones by the time they reached the waterbath stunner, with on average 0.5 broken bones per bird. Removing birds from the battery cages and hanging them on the slaughter line were identified as causes of broken bones. 3. By the time birds left the end of the eviscerating line, 98% of carcases had broken bones, with on average 6 broken bones each. The stunning, plucking and eviscerating processes caused most of this damage. In particular, stunning broke the furculum, coracoid and scapula, plucking broke the ischium, pubis and ribs, and evisceration damaged the ischium and pubis.
Physiological and behavioural responses of adult hens and chicks were monitored in atmospheric and increasingly hypoxic conditions to investigate whether anoxic killing was a suitable alternative method for use in the slaughter industry. All birds were placed in a perspex box for easy observation and nitrogen gas was slowly administered when subjecting birds to anoxic conditions. When subjected to decreasing oxygen concentration adult birds slowly became unconscious, without showing any signs of distress, until respiratory failure supervened. Chicks showed similar results but loss of motor control was observed while still conscious which might cause some distress. Further investigations are suggested to alleviate this problem.
The extent of the damage inflicted on the hallux was determined in a group of detoed, newly hatched, male broiler-breeder chicks obtained from a commercial hatchery. Healing and neural regeneration were very rapid and after 22 days the stump had a complete epidermal and dermal covering with the dermis being well supplied with both nerves and blood vessels. Some regenerating nerve bundles became trapped in scar tissue and formed small terminal neuromas which persisted over the 60-day observation period. These results are discussed in relation to partial beak amputation and their welfare implications.
The procedures of manual and machine catching acted as short-term stressors, and induced a state of fear in 8-week-old broiler chickens. The heart rate of birds caught by both methods rose to similar high values but that of birds caught by machine returned to near normal rates more quickly, suggesting that they were less stressed. The duration of tonic immobility, a response which increases with fearfulness, was much longer in manually-caught birds. These results suggest that stress could be reduced and welfare improved by catching and picking up broiler chickens by a carefully designed machine, rather than by hand.
The behaviour of hens of two strains during the 10 min before laying in battery cages was studied. Hens of one strain typically exhibited backward-and-forward pacing before laying. Hens of the other strain did not pace and tended to sit. Individual hens of both strains were consistent in their expression of pacing and sitting before laying. There was genetic variation in the expression of both pacing and sitting before laying, and both traits responded to selection. Crosses between the two lines indicated additive genetic variation in the expression of sitting behaviour and non-additive variation in the expression of pacing behaviour.
Following partial amputation of the beak recordings were taken of the electrical activity from single afferent fibers of the intramandibular nerve. A total of 192 single afferent fiber units were isolated of which 47 were classified as nociceptors, with an abnormal pattern of discharge, and 89 were abnormal spontaneously active units. Following amputation neuromas were developing by 15 days after surgery and they were well formed by 20 to 30 days. The presence of neuromas together with abnormal spontaneous activity originating from them raise serious welfare questions concerning beak trimming.
The heart rates of caged hens, from two strains of domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), during the 20 min before and after oviposition were studied. Heart rates were measured using subcutaneously implanted radiotelemetry devices. In one strain, heart rate was low and relatively constant before laying, increased sharply at the moment of laying, and then decreased gradually during the post-laying period. Hens from this strain exhibited sitting behavior before laying. In contrast, in the other strain, heart rates increased steadily during the pre-laying period, peaked sharply at the moment of laying, and then declined during the post-laying period. Hens from this strain exhibited restless pacing behavior before laying.
The behaviour of the domestic fowl in food thwarting situations is studied. The results suggest that frustration is probably a variable state which is a function of the strength of the frustrated tendency. Displacement preening is associated with mild and short-term frustration and stereotyped pacing movements with long-term and intense frustration. There is some evidence to show that intense frustration is aversive and leads to escape movements. These movements then develop into stereotyped pacing movements which become very fixated in the bird's behavioural repertoire.
Four experiments are described in which adult Brown Leghorn fowls were deprived of food and then frustrated by presenting food under a Perspex cover. The effects of this treatment on the aggressive behaviour of the birds is described.The results show that: (1) frustration causes a large increase in four indices of aggression in hens; (2) with any pair of hens only one shows an increase in aggressiveness; (3) aggression is elicited with repeated exposure to frustration; (4) hens which are dominant in one situation and submissive in another show an increase in aggression only when they are dominant; (5) when frustrated, cockerels shown a large increase in overt aggression towards hens which they usually dominante passively; and (6) aggression following frustration increases with food deprivation time preceding frustration.
1. Chicks reared from 1 d old were classified as either feather peckers or feather pecked at about 3 weeks of age.2. Subsequent analysis of the pecking propensities of the birds showed that there was an inherited component in this behaviour.
1. Broiler breeder females were fed ad libitum, or according to a commercial food restriction programme or to gain 0.85, 0.70, 0.55, 0.40 or 0.25 of the body weight of ad libitum-fed birds. Several indices of the welfare of the birds were assessed at 3-weekly intervals to 18 weeks of age and related to body weight by regression analysis. Results for 6, 12 and 18 weeks of age are presented in detail. 2. Water intake was consistently higher in the 0.25, 0.40 and commercial restriction treatments. 3. There was a negative curvilinear relationship at each age group between body weight and the heterophil-lymphocyte ratio and plasma corticosterone concentration. 4. There was a positive relationship between the plasma concentration of creatine kinase and body weight at 12 and 18 weeks of age. The relationships between body weight and the plasma activity of alkaline phosphatase and aspartate transaminase changed with the age and there were no differences between treatments for lactate dehydrogenase. 5. The time spent resting increased with body weight at each age. The relationship between time spent preening and body weight changed with age whereas that for oral activities was similar among restricted birds at 6, and among all treatments at 12 weeks of age. At 18 weeks there was an increase in oral activities with decreasing body weight. 6. Fearfulness was positively related to body weight. The response of the comb to phytohaemagglutinin injection was similar in all treatments and the antibody titre to injections of sheep red blood cells was curvilinear. 7. A principal components analysis of all measured traits at 6, 12 and 18 weeks of age was conducted. Most of the variables were redundant but at least one from each of the different classes of welfare indices was retained at 6 and 12 weeks of age. 8. It was concluded that a body weight during rearing in the range of 0.5 to 0.85 of ad libitum might provide for optimum welfare of broiler breeder females.
1. T-maze preference tests were used to study group size and space preferences in laying hens kept on deep litter. The first experiment revealed a non-significant tendency to prefer a larger group (120 hens) in a large space (9 m2) over a smaller group (5 hens) in a small space (1 m3), but when the space was constant and large, a strong preference for the smaller group in a large space emerged. 2. In experiment 2, 5 different group size/space options were tested using a T-maze and test hens were non-randomly selected, choosing more aggressive "peckers' and more subordinate "receivers'. Chi-squared tests showed preferences for (1) a larger group (70 over 4 or 0 hens), (2) a larger space (9 m2 over 1 m2) and (3) 4 hens rather than an empty space. Although both peckers and receivers preferred the same size companion hen groups, receivers were more consistent in their choice than peckers. 3. The results have important implications for hens in all group size and suggest that while smaller group sizes may be important, they need to be combined with sufficient space. Furthermore, the "ideal group size' may differ depending on the individual hen's dominance status.