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Solutrean laurel leaf production at Maîtreaux: An experimental approach guided by techno-economic analysis
Abstract
Large-sized Solutrean laurel leaf typology has been defined on the basis of the exceptional pieces found at Volgu, France, in 1874. The geographical distribution of this rare type of large bifacial piece is limited to the border of the French Massif Central. Located at the northern limit of this distribution area, the Maîtreaux site provides new data on the reduction schemes of these pieces. Refitted sequences indicate that the Solutrean presence was motivated by the exploitation of local flint resources to produce reserves of lithic tools and/or blanks, elements for composite projectiles and preforms for exportation and later finishing and use/retouch elsewhere. Results of techno-economic and spatial analyses are compared with those of an experimental project, mostly centred on laurel leaf techno-economy. This integrated experimental approach strongly contributes to the on-going social interpretation of the Maîtreaux group, allowing us better to characterize and quantify the remains of laurel leaf reduction processes. Also produced were in situ‘undisturbed’ knapping features for taphonomic reference and interpretation. At the site scale, experimental work coupled with spatial and techno-economic analysis is relevant for the interpretation of different geoarchaeological, technical and social aspects of the archaeological record. At a regional scale, experimental work on the available raw materials in each geographic zone is required to clarify issues related to raw-material procurement, exploitation and circulation, such as regional lithic resource exploitation strategies and inter-site discontinuities of production.
... As skill is largely acquired through experience, it stands to reason that Middle Pleistocene hominins were not inherently endowed with the savoir-faire to shape later Acheulian handaxes, and that they rather gained such competencies through socially-structured learning (Bosch et al., 2018;Hiscock, 2014;Pargeter et al., 2019Pargeter et al., , 2020Shipton, 2020;Shipton & Nielsen, 2018;Stout, 2005;Stout & Khreisheh, 2015;Stout et al., 2011;Torres & Preysler, 2020). Over the last decade, studies examining knapping errors in lithic production have attempted to fill in knowledge gaps concerning skill acquisition through associating mishap types and frequencies with differing levels of technological competency (Assaf, 2021;Assaf et al., 2016;Aubry et al., 2008;Buonsanto & Peretto, 2012;Caruana & Herries, 2021;Gómez Coutouly et al., 2021;Herzlinger et al., 2017;Hovers, 2009). This research raises the possibility that our perspective of later Acheulean handaxes is perhaps distorted by a focus on the most well-made specimens in archaeological reports. ...
... Experimental research has provided a comprehensive record of what technical errors are common to knappers at differing skill levels (e.g. Aubry et al., 2008;Callahan, 1979;Edwards, 2001;Geribàs et al., 2010;Shelley, 1990;Torres & Preysler, 2020;Winton, 2005). As knapping errors present significant challenges, learning how to mitigate them through adjusting flaking strategies is a critical aspect of skill acquisition (Assaf, 2021;Assaf et al., 2016;Aubry et al., 2018;Buonsanto & Peretto, 2012;Caruana & Herries, 2021;Edwards, 2001;Gómez Coutouly et al., 2021;Hiscock, 2014;Hovers, 2009;Torres & Preysler, 2020;Winton, 2005). ...
... As knapping errors present significant challenges, learning how to mitigate them through adjusting flaking strategies is a critical aspect of skill acquisition (Assaf, 2021;Assaf et al., 2016;Aubry et al., 2018;Buonsanto & Peretto, 2012;Caruana & Herries, 2021;Edwards, 2001;Gómez Coutouly et al., 2021;Hiscock, 2014;Hovers, 2009;Torres & Preysler, 2020;Winton, 2005). Diacritical analyses of knapping mistakes in archaeological contexts have provided insight into the technical sequences that caused errors to occur, as well as how they were either perpetuated or corrected (Assaf, 2021;Assaf et al., 2016;Aubry et al., 2008;Gómez Coutouly et al., 2021). Reduction sequences that demonstrate attempts to rectify errors are indicative of higher levels of knapping technique and knowledge (Assaf, 2021;Assaf et al., 2016;Torres & Preysler, 2020). ...
Tracing the acquisition of knapping skill in the Acheulian technocomplex is complicated by incomplete records of lithic production. Some studies have turned attention to examining knapping errors as a means of identifying signatures of toolmaking expertise in the deep past. Such insights have recently been applied to handaxes from the Area 1 spring eye at Amanzi Springs, which have suggested this locality functioned as a Large Cutting Tool workshop. Here we extend our analysis to handaxes from the Surfaces 2/3 (∼530–480 ka), Surface 1, and Cutting 5 (<480–408 ka) excavation areas within the Area 2 spring eye, which focuses on the development and frequency of step and hinge fractures and the management of cross-sectional shape. We identify differences in both the flaking strategies and the mitigation of knapping errors that demonstrate a gradual adaptation to local quartzite raw material and the acquisition of technological skill through time.
... En concreto, los estudios tecnológicos existentes en torno a la producción bifacial solutrense han abordado, en parte, gran cantidad de las cuestiones expuestas (Aubry et al., 2008;Aubry y Almeida, 2013;Callahan, 2010;Pelegrin, 2019;Straus, 2016). Aun así, aún existen numerosos interrogantes en torno a algunos puntos relativos a la producción de dichas piezas que no han sido resueltos (Pelegrin, 1981(Pelegrin, , 2019. ...
... Esta aproximación primaria, que aquí denominamos experiencia, es de inmensa relevancia para afrontar el experimento que requiere de un control de las variables resultantes del mismo, así como de unos conocimientos técnicos esenciales derivados de la propia complejidad de los procesos de reducción bifacial solutrenses (Aubry et al., 2008;Aubry y Almeida, 2013;Baena Preysler, 1998;Baena Preysler et al., 2019;Bleed, 2008;B. Bradley, 2013;Cuartero Monteagudo et al., 2016;Pelegrin, 2019;Torres Navas y Baena Preysler, n.d., 2020). ...
... El uso de la experimentación para aproximarse a las diversas problemáticas que se derivan del estudio del registro arqueológico paleolítico y, particularmente, del Solutrense, ha sido recurrente Aubry et al., 2008;Aubry y Almeida, 2013;Callahan, 2010;Castel, 2006;Pelegrin, 2019;Salomon et al., 2015;Schmidt et al., 2018;Schmidt y Morala, 2020;Straus, 2016;Zilhão, 2013). Sin embargo, con respecto a la determinación de las técnicas de talla utilizadas para la confección de piezas bifaciales, los esfuerzos realizados por los tecnólogos y experimentadores han sido bastante restringidos. ...
... Their initial implementation dates back to the Lower Paleolithic (Stout et al., 2014;van Kolfschoten, 2015), where soft hammers were used to form bifacial tools. The development of the technique made it possible to form perfect Solutrean leaf points (Aubry et al., 2008). In turn, in the Upper Paleolithic, organic hammers were used for the precise detachment of flint blades (Pelegrin, 1991;Averbouh, 1999). ...
This article presents the results of a multifaceted study of a Palaeolithic hammer made of antler, found in Biśnik Cave in southern Poland. It is the only tool of this type known from this period in Polish prehistory. The results of the 14C dating on the object verifies previous assumptions relating to its chronology and cultural affiliation. The results of Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) analysis allow us to provide further details in relation to the raw material used in the production of the artefact. This article also presents the results of a detailed traceological study which allow us to interpret the production and function of the tool. This analysis was conducted using Micro CT, alongside varying types of microscopy. The results of all these analyses are then compared and contrasted according to the current knowledge regarding these tool types to provide a broader context for the interpretation of this important artefact.
... Además, hay determinados aspectos que han experimentado una notable abundancia en publicaciones, como, por ejemplo, los trabajos asociados a la identificación de proyectiles en piedra para la caza (vid. Shea et al., 2001;Pargeter, 2007;Aubry et al., 2008;Schoville et al., 2017, entre otros). ...
... Unfortunately, it was based on the inventory from Mamutowa Cave, with its problematic numbers (Kowalski 1969) and on the locality of Dzierżysław 1, with its problematic archaeo-stratigraphy (Bluszcz et al. 1994;Fajer et al. 2005;see Wiśniewski et al. in press). It should be added that the putative source-the Szeletian culture-used a completely different approach to tool production, based completely on bifacial technology (Adams 1998;Allsworth-Jones 1986;Svoboda 2001;Mester 2010;Markó et al. 2003;Markó 2009;Nejman et al. 2017;Nerudová 1997;Nerudová and Neruda 2017). Sometimes, however, Szeletian leaf points are made of flakes or irregular blades (Nerudová 2000;Škrdla 1999;Svoboda and Svobodová 1985). ...
Points from the Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician complex (LRJ) evoke numerous comments regarding their cultural patterning and their typo-technological characteristics. The unceasing interest in this group of tools is additionally stimulated by the fact that, in light of the most recent chronometric data, the development of the LRJ complexes in Europe coincides exactly with the period of the Neanderthals’ extinction and the niche extension by modern humans. So far, however, scant information has been provided on the weapon systems used by the hunter-gatherers of LRJ. A re-examination of this group of tools from Nietoperzowa Cave in Poland, the richest LRJ set in Europe, provides new data which fill this gap. Using a multi-proxy approach, which involves geometric-morphometric analyses as well as microscopic and technological studies, we concluded that the points form a homogeneous group with respect to their morphology and functional character. Our findings suggest that the shape subject to predominantly laterisation was the result of the selection of half-product or elongated flakes, and the use of a consistently repetitive procedure to form the proximal and distal parts. The microscopic examination provided evidence that the points were mainly used as components of hunting weapons. We also obtained, for the first time, evidence that answers the question of how some points may have been mounted. In terms of tip cross-section indices, the points from Nietoperzowa Cave are intermediate between arrowheads and tips of the atlatl and examples of Middle Palaeolithic points; they differ only slightly from Szeletian points, which are assigned to the late Middle Palaeolithic or Early Upper Palaeolithic (EUP). They show an affinity to some blade EUP industries.
... However, as the process unfolded some differing technological assumptions emerged held by myself as 'subject specialist' and Lee as 'production specialist'. Diverse perspectives on technological process can be valuable in allowing an exchange of ideas and through this process an overall development in understanding (see Aubry et al. 2008). Therefore, although un-planned, it became important to examine these differences critically. ...
This paper is reflective and discusses the results of a process experiment designed to develop understanding of a particular British Early Upper Palaeolithic stone tool technology. The technology in question is the Lincombian, and the discussion breaks down into three main parts. The first part argues that raw material availability and practitioner performance can be influential factors within the modern experimental reproduction process. When these issues were factored in for this experiment it became clear that early phase debitage materials reflected a process of interpretation, not replication. The second substantive part of this discussion focuses upon the final phase of the experimental process. Selection criterion for assessing finished artefacts was tightly constrained by archaeologically derived data. It is argued therefore that when finished artefacts fell within these assessment criteria the final phase of the process was akin to replication. Consequently, debitage associated with the final phase can provide useful analogue material to fill gaps in our understanding of this Lincombian technology. The final section is summative and returns to the issue of performance. It argues that practitioner performance facilitates audience engagement. Engagement is valuable for communicating understanding to both specialist and non-specialist audiences. The paper concludes by arguing that a rigorously evaluated experimental process can be used twice: firstly, as a tool for generating materials to develop our understanding; secondly, as an engaging performance to communicate understanding to specialist and non-specialist audiences.
... In Australia, the first colonists began to heat-treat silcrete as soon as they arrived on the continent (Schmidt and Hiscock, 2020a;Schmidt and Hiscock, 2020b). Heat treatment was also part of the suite of innovations associated with the Upper Palaeolithic Solutrean culture (25.5-23 ka BP) in Europe (Bordes, 1969;Aubry et al., 2008) and the Siberian Dyuktai culture (~18 ka BP, Flenniken, 1987). While in Africa, the technique used for stone heat treatment has been studied in detail (e.g., Schmidt et al., 2015;Delagnes et al., 2016;Schmidt et al., 2016a), heating techniques remain totally unknown for the early archaeological record of Australia and only fragmentary data are available for the European Solutrean (Schmidt and Morala, 2018;Schmidt and Morala, 2020). ...
Research into human uniqueness is gaining increasing importance in prehistoric archaeology. The most striking behaviour unique to early and modern humans among other primates is perhaps that they used fire to transform the properties of materials. In Archaeology, these processes are sometimes termed "engineering" or "transformative techniques" because they aim at producing materials with altered properties. Were such transformative techniques cognitively more demanding than other tool making processes? Were they the key factors that separated early humans, such as Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens, from other hominins? Many approaches to investigating these techniques rely on their complexity. The rationale behind this is that some techniques required more steps than others, thus revealing the underlying mechanisms of human uniqueness (e.g., unique human culture). However, it has been argued that the interpretation of process complexity may be prone to arbitrariness (i.e., different researchers have different notions of what is complex). Here I propose an alternative framework for interpreting transformative techniques. Three hypotheses are derived from an analogy with well-understood processes in modern-day cuisine. The hypotheses are about i) the requirement in time and/or raw materials of transformative techniques, ii) the difficulty to succeed in conducting transformative techniques and iii) the necessity to purposefully invent transformative techniques, as opposed to discovering them randomly. All three hypotheses make testable predictions.
Lithic productions are the main source of information on human groups from early periods of the Palaeolithic. From the time of the first discoveries, prehistorians have probed these remains to try to understand how and why they were made. Percussion techniques have also been a central preoccupation, despite tenuous archaeological references. With the help of experimentation, several chaînes opératoires have been reconstructed, sketching the outlines of the technical evolution of the first human groups. Our work focuses on a major change in lithic technology, the invention of organic soft-hammer percussion. This is attested on the Isenya site (Kenya) around -960 ka, based on an experimental work. This invention represents an innovation and indicates a rupture with the technical environment known until then in which lithic technology and percussion techniques were confined solely to the mineral world. We propose to examine this rupture from another point of view, also using experimental work, based on the principle that the mineral domain offers a wide range of hardness for hammers and that the gesture plays at least an equivalent role to that of the raw material of the hammer. Without supplanting the use of soft organic hammers in bifacial shaping, we demonstrate the possibility of the use of not very tough mineral hammers with tangential motions. These results imply that the technical change that took place during the Acheulean was probably less abrupt than previously thought, and more consistent with previously mastered know-how.
Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa's contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, well-dated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the chaîne opératoire approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople manufactured distinct types of bifacial tools, including small bifacial points shaped by pressure technique. The new data from Toumboura III demonstrate behavioral patterns that are entirely new in the region. By revealing behavioral innovations and technological particularities, these results on the techno-cultural dynamics during the MIS 3 phase of the MSA enhance our understanding of the complex Pleistocene population history in this part of Africa.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10437-021-09463-5.
The comparison between an experimental framework and the spatial analysis and technological reconstruction of the lithic production at the site of Les Maîtreaux suggests that no major post-depositional process affected the site since its prehistoric abandonment. Systematic refitting allowed for the definition of spatial units resulting from at least 10 successive passages on the site, characterized by constant technical procedures. Such homogeneity, besides revealing a complex technical expertise and knowledge, can be interpreted as an argument for a set of behaviours taking part on a same cultural tradition. An attempt to evaluate the time between each occupation and its relations to sedimentary and pedological rhythms on the basis of a geoarchaeological approach can elucidate us on the limits of the applied methods for studying time and taphonomy in Les Maîtreaux and other comparable sites. Keywords: Solutrean, Lithic Tools, Spatial Analysis, Geoarchaeolgy, Time
The early peopling of the New World has been a topic of intense research since the early twentieth century. We contend that the exclusive focus of research on a Beringian entry point has not been productive. Evidence has accumulated over the past two decades indicating that the earliest origin of people in North America may have been from south-western Europe during the last glacial maximum. In this summary we outline a theory of a Solutrean origin for Clovis culture and briefly present the archaeological data supporting this assertion.
Les resultats obtenus depuis 1994 sur le site des Maitreaux, localise a proximite d'une source de silex d'excellente aptitude a la taille et disponible en abondance, ont permis de dissocier plusieurs niveaux d'occupations attribuables au Solutreen. La repartition spatiale des vestiges est exceptionnellement bien preservee dans des limons argileux. L'etude technologique des series des deux niveaux montre que le premier est constitue par des concentrations lithiques associees au debitage laminaire de supports de pointes a cran dont les exemplaires laisses sur place portent des stigmates de fracture a la fabrication. Le second contient des fragments et les dechets obtenus lors du faconnage de feuilles de laurier de module compris entre 25 et 35 cm. L'interpretation du site comme atelier, basee sur le deficit de certains produits, est nuancee par l'abandon de rares autres types d'outils, dont l'analyse traceologique montre qu'ils ont ete utilises.
Premiè re approche a` l'interpre´ palethnologique du groupe solutreé des Maıˆ : perspectives sur la technologie et re´ spatiale des vestiges lithiques et ses implications pour l'interpre´ du registre archeó. Master's thesis
- M Almeida
Almeida, M. 2005.Premiè re approche a` l'interpre´ palethnologique du groupe solutreé des Maıˆ : perspectives sur la technologie et re´ spatiale des vestiges lithiques et ses implications pour l'interpre´ du registre archeó. Master's thesis, Universite´ Paris I – Pantheó – Sorbonne, U.F.R. d'Histoire de l'Art et d'Archeó.
Le Solutréen en France, 449Bordeaux: Imprimeries Delmas. Mémoire no
- P Smith