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Grade Retention of Students During Grades K–8 Predicts Reading Achievement and Progress During Secondary Schooling
Abstract
Using National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) data, researchers examined the reading growth rates of secondary students who had been retained between kindergarten and 8th grade and those of a matched comparison group of students who had never been retained (n = 878 in each group). Descriptive statistics and latent growth models revealed that the retained group correctly answered 22.27% of NELS reading questions in 8th grade compared to 22.96% answered correctly by the not-retained students and that the not-retained students could expect to answer 3.33% more reading questions correctly at 10th and 12th grades compared to 2.44% for the retained group. The article discusses whether these findings are the result of other initial differences between the groups, negative consequences of retention, or alternative explanations.
... The academic retention measure is the most serious measure of compensation for learning disabilities. However, grade retention can have a negative effect in the areas of growth, learning, social adjustment, and classroom behavior (Reutzel et al., 2005;Jimerson and Ferguson, 2007;Griffith et al., 2010;Reynolds et al., 2010;Dombek and Connor, 2012). Early and accurate identification of at-risk children with reading disabilities is essential to allow targeted and early intervention that may prevent reading difficulties or reduce their impact (e.g., Fien et al., 2015). ...
... From the descriptive results, it is interesting to highlight that the students with the worst classifications in Portuguese are the older ones. These results may be supported by the literature that has stated that grade retention can have a negative effect in the areas of growth, learning, social adjustment, and classroom behavior (Griffith et al., 2010). The expectation is if students are not reaching grade level results giving an extra year in the same grade, will help them to develop the academic skills they were initially unable to demonstrate (Dombek and Connor, 2012). ...
Reading acquisition is a complex process that can be predicted by several components which, in turn, can be affected by the orthography depth. This study aims to explore the early predictors of (un)success in reading acquisition within an intermediate transparent orthography. At the beginning of the school year, 119 European Portuguese-speaking first graders were assessed regarding (i) sociodemographic variables: mothers’ education and socioeconomic status (SES); (ii) cognitive variables: phonological working memory and vocabulary; (iii) reading-related variables: letter-sound knowledge, phonemic awareness, and rapid naming. Results of the three variable clusters were correlated with the final classification obtained in the Portuguese discipline. Specifically, there was a correlation between the Portuguese discipline classification with all reading and cognitive-related variables, with the highest correlations occurring with mother education and letter spelling. A regression analysis was conducted to assess the predictor impact of mother education and letter spelling (variables that correlated stronger with the Portuguese classification) on Portuguese classifications. Letter spelling was the sole significant predictor of the Portuguese classification. Based on these results, a path analysis was run to test whether letter spelling is a mediator of the relationship between the mother’s education and the Portuguese classification. The results of the model test yielded a reasonable fit, indicating a relationship between the mother’s education and letter spelling, which in turn, relates to the Portuguese classification. The identification of reading predictors in an intermediate-depth orthography such as European Portuguese contributes to more accurate identification of at-risk children.
... Therefore, these teachers may reject the international research data that indicates little evidence of grade retention effectiveness in preventing failure (Goos et al., 2021). After retaining a student, teachers assess the effects of practice and often witness some improvement in student performance on assessment tests in the year following retention (e.g., Griffith et al., 2010). Several studies document positive short-term effects on the academic performance of retained students, especially when compared to their peers who are in the same grade for the first time (Goos et al., 2021). ...
Grade retention decisions are high‐risk because this practice can significantly affect students' academic and professional path and their socioaffective development. This study aimed to contribute to a better understanding of second‐grade retention decision‐making by exploring the factors the professionals consider during the retention decision‐making, their beliefs about the effectiveness of grade retention, and their cognitive decision‐making style. The study sets in Portugal, where second‐grade retention is a common practice. One hundred ninety‐four teachers answered an online questionnaire developed for this purpose. Path analysis results suggested that teachers' beliefs and decision‐making styles served as a filter, defining what factors they consider relevant or not to make grade retention decisions. Intuitive experiences seem to inform teachers' grade‐retention decisions, especially when they believe retention is essential for students' success.
... Other studies report mixed results. Griffith et al. (2010) used the U.S. National Education Longitudinal Study and found that students retained between kindergarten and eighth grade showed lower progress in reading skills than their never retained peers. Two studies using data from Texas assessed the negative impact of grade repetition by matching a relatively small number of students' characteristics: Hughes et al. (2017) reported that grade repetition increased early school dropout and Wu et al. (2018) found that it was associated with lower progress in math skills. ...
This paper analyses the causal effect of grade retention on students’ high school track decisions in Italy. Using longitudinal administrative data, we propose a matching strategy to assess the impact of retention in institutional settings with substantial leeway in the promotion/retention decision. If decision makers differ in their propensity to retain students (strictness), it is reasonable to expect some of the students kept back to be fully on a par with others who are promoted. Assuming that strictness is a school-related factor, we argue that it is not theoretically possible to find a good match within the same school. We therefore match retained students to students with a similar array of ability measures, who were promoted in schools displaying a lower degree of strictness. We find that grade retention dramatically increases school dropout rates and that the negative impact is stronger for students with poorly educated or immigrant parents.
... Žal analiz, ki bi raziskovale učinkovitost ponavljanja razreda v Sloveniji, nismo našli. Opremo se lahko le na številne tuje raziskave, ki dokazujejo, da je ponavljanje razreda za učenca neučinkovito ali celo škodljivo (Eamon in Altshuler, 2004;Griffith et al., 2010;Silberglitt et al., 2006). Kljub temu ostaja ponavljanje ugnezdena oblika stigmatizacije učencev z nižjimi učnimi dosežki, ki je za večino učencev prej škodljiva, kot koristna; enkratno ali celo večkratno ponavljanje učencev, ki so nato preusmerjeni v program z nižjo zahtevnostjo, je pogosta praksa šolskega vsakdanjika (Rovšek, 2013). ...
Between equity, quality and learning achievements in primary school One of the features of Slovenian primary school system is the parallelism of two groups of schools – regular ones and those for certain groups of students with special needs. This makes us one of the few countries (EASIE, 2018) to still have completely separated schools for just over 2% of students with special needs. Despite the fact that both types comprise the same educational system, which is, in most aspects, regulated by the same law, some groups of students with special needs do not have the possibility of schooling under the same roof. However, this is only a part of the topic we are going to discuss. The other one tackles the question of equity of schooling in regular schools – besides all other students, this mostly concerns those with special needs, those with mild intellectual abilities, Roma students as well as those with low socio-economic standards (SES). The equity of the Slovenian school system will be discussed in a wider context, not only in the case of gender, SES and nationality comparing learning achievements. The article is based on the assumption that the regular school of today is not adjusted to the developmental needs of most students. For the purpose of discussion, elements which comprise the school system, must be defined: some are either of systemic or curricular, or conceptual or pedagogic nature, such as: curriculum, standards of knowledge, different forms of internal and external assessment, placement of children with special needs etc. Despite all of these elements compromising to make a stable schooling system, they are not all coherent with the needs of today’s modern society and are, even more so, in contrast with the results of the neuro-science in education. Another category of equal opportunities within the question of school equity would, besides the SES, nationality and ethnicity, have to be that of different capabilities of students, regarding the unified (official) standards of knowledge. All of these elements also make it difficult for today’s school to become a school of diversity. A school which will support different students, regardless of their learning achievements, SES and other characteristics. A school where all the students could be successfully educated, those who are already in the regular schools as well as those who are still part of the segregated forms of education. The article will depict why the present school system is no longer suitable for the majority of students and will point to possible solutions. The key solution touches on the changes of curriculums and the concept of assessment, the changes of which also have an impact on all the other elements. The assumptions will be clarified by studying the connection of stated elements and data of the international studies such as the TIMSS and PISA study from 2018 and earlier as well as using other actual Slovenian studies. Key words: equity in education, children with special needs, curriculum, minimum standards of knowledge, assessments, learning achievements, cognitive science
... Grade retention was also retained as a covariate. Indeed, several studies have shown that holding back a grade could have a negative effect on performances (Griffith et al. 2010;Lamote et al. 2014). Students were asked if they had already repeated a grade (yes or no), to which a positive answer was provided by 19.5% of participants. ...
This study focuses on conditions that improve reading comprehension at grade 7th. We analyze the impact of the Lirécrire program, and related treatment integrity, on student performance. Lirécrire program should improve students’ reading comprehension, and follow-up sessions should lead to greater instructional change, then improve learning. Nineteen schools were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions (with or without follow-up for teachers) or to the “control” group. Reading comprehension was measured pre- and posttest and treatment integrity through intensity and conformity. Students benefiting from the program outperformed students in the “control” group, with an additional effect of intensity.
... À âge constant, que cela soit en mathématiques ou en lecture, les élèves promus ont systématiquement de meilleurs résultats que les élèves redoublants, la différence entre les deux groupes s'accroissant progressivement en lecture à l'avantage des élèves promus. Par ailleurs, Goos et collègues (2013) (Griffith, Lloyd, Lane & Tankersley, 2010). ...
Effects of grade retention on learning outcomes, socioemotional aspects and drop out.
... À âge constant, que cela soit en mathématiques ou en lecture, les élèves promus ont systématiquement de meilleurs résultats que les élèves redoublants, la différence entre les deux groupes s'accroissant progressivement en lecture à l'avantage des élèves promus. Par ailleurs, Goos et collègues (2013) (Griffith, Lloyd, Lane & Tankersley, 2010). ...
Ce texte présente différents types de recherches menées sur les effets du redoublement. Il synthétise d'abord les apports des enquêtes internationales concernant les effets du redoublement. Il passe ensuite en revue les résultats des études récentes, principalement européennes, concernant les effets du redoublement sur (a) le fonctionnement psychosocial des élèves, (b) le décrochage scolaire et (c) les apprentissages cognitifs. La plupart de ces études sont de bonne qualité méthodologique et observent soit une absence de bénéfice du redoublement, soit des effets négatifs. L'année redoublée
semble bien une année inutile. En conclusion, les implications pratiques des résultats passés en revue sont discutées, notamment la nécessité de promouvoir d'autres façons d'aider les élèves en difficulté.
Racial/ethnic disparities in grade retention related to structural inequality are investigated using a quantitative theoretical model from the health literature. Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort are linked with segregation indices for dissimilarity and poverty interaction derived from the US Census 2000 data estimate the impact of individual and structural level variables on grade retention. Shared frailty models demonstrate that there are racial/ethnic differences in grade retention, much of which can be explained by structural inequality. Students who are white or African American have lower risk in areas with higher dissimilarity and poverty interaction. Parental involvement mediates the risk of retention.
The purpose of this study was to examine preservice teachers’ beliefs about retention. In spite of evidence that grade retention has negative effects on students’ academic and socio-emotional outcomes, retention continues to be a common practice. Sixty-one elementary and secondary education majors at a small community college responded to an online survey. The survey measured attitudes about retention, both reasons to retain and also reasons not to retain. The preservice teachers in this study indicated that retention was appropriate when children do not get support from home, show immaturity in the classroom, or have low achievement in math. At the same time, they noted that retention in the intermediate grades would harm student self-concept and causes behavioral problems. Recommendations for teacher-education programs include ensuring that preservice teachers understand the potential for negative consequences related to retention and that positive outcomes tend to provide only short-term academic and social advantages for retained students.
Research examining the effectiveness of grade retention has provided overwhelming and seemingly irrefutable evidence that grade retention is an ineffective and potentially harmful practice. However, proponents of grade retention often advocate that retention in the early elementary grades (e.g., kindergarten, first and second grade) is the justified exception. This longitudinal study examined the reading growth trajectories of students (n = 49) from first through eighth grade. Hierarchical linear modeling analytic procedures provided novel insights regarding the relative reading growth trajectories among retained students, comparing those students retained in kindergarten through second grade with those students retained in Grades 3-6. The results revealed that the growth trajectories of students retained early (Grades K-2) were comparable to those retained later (Grades 3-5). These findings failed to support the efficacy of retention at an earlier grade in elementary school.
Retaining a child at grade level has become increasingly popular, consistent with the emphasis on accountability and standards in elementary education. This article provides a comprehensive review of the research examining the academic and socioemotional outcomes associated with grade retention. Following a brief historical overview of previously published literature reviews, a summary of studies published between 1990 and 1999 is provided. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 20 recent studies includes: outcome variables (i.e., achievement and socioemotional adjustment), age or grade of retained population, matched or controlled for variables in analyses with comparison groups, and the overall conclusion regarding the efficacy of grade retention. Results of recent studies and this meta-analysis are consistent with past literature reviews from the 1970s and 1980s. In addition to a summary of the results, the discussion addresses the disparity between educational practice and converging research regarding grade retention and suggests directions for practice. This review encourages researchers, educational professionals, and legislators to abandon the debate regarding social promotion and grade retention in favor of a more productive course of action in the new millennium.
Policies that mandate in-grade retention of low-performing students have become central components of standards-based reforms across the country. While educational researchers have extensively studied the student-level correlates of retention and the consequences of retention for student achievement, little attention has been focused on identifying the factors that influence district retention decisions. In this study, the authors explored the significance of a political explanation of retention. A multivariate approach was used to investigate levels of student retention in 2000–2001 in 1,039 Texas school districts. Results showed that, as in earlier studies, student achievement and demographics were directly linked to levels of retention. However, changes in district leadership, local voters’ ideology, and minority representation among district officials also had significant effects on retention levels. These findings suggest that retention is driven not only by student-level characteristics and district resources but also by the constraints and preferences of local constituencies and leadership.
Although grade retention is widely practiced, it does not help children catch up or prevent school dropouts. In one study, children rated the prospect of flunking a grade as more stressful than wetting in class or being caught stealing. Remediation and other within-grade instructional efforts have a more positive success rate. Includes 16 references. (MLH)
This study investigated the academic effects of early (kindergarten or first‐grade) retention on a group of fourth‐grade students who had been retained at the K‐1 level (n = 20). Two comparison groups were used: (a) fourth‐grade students who had been recommended for retention at the K‐1 level but who were not actually retained (n = 17), and (b) fourth‐grade students who had made normal progress through the grades (n = 20). No significant differences in academic achievement level were found between the retained and recommended‐for‐retention‐but‐not‐retained groups, but both of these groups of students were significantly lower on several academic achievement measures than were their normal comparison peers. The results of this study indicate that grade retention as an academic intervention was ineffective. The continued use of grade retention is discussed in relationship to the use of social promotion and other intervention alternatives.
The present study examines high school students with a prior history of grade retention (N = 38) compared to a matched control group of nonretained students. The retained students were lower on a number of scholastic variables (i.e., achievement, intelligence, grades), more often absent from school, and lower on three subscales of a self‐esteem measure (the Self‐Perception Profile for Adolescents). The authors explored the correlates of grade retained with the measured variables and found that the later a student was retained was associated with lower grades, less‐positive school attitudes, less time on homework, lower educational expectations, more discipline problems, lower self‐control, and a more external locus of control.
A multimethod approach was used to examine teachers' beliefs about retention in grades K-7. Questionnaire responses indicated that teachers at all grade levels believe retention is an acceptable school practice that prevents students from facing daily failure and motivates them to work harder. Factors including academic performance, maturity, ability, gender, and age influence retention decisions, but the importance of factors differs among teachers. Teachers agreed that retention was not harmful in grades K-3, but they disagreed about the impact on students in grades 4-7. Teachers of grades 4-7 were less likely to retain students and less likely to agree about which characteristics warrant retention. Interviews suggested that teachers' beliefs about their roles and responsibilities in student success were critical in retention decisions.
Grade retention has been controversial for many years, and current calls to end social promotion have lent new urgency to this issue. On the one hand, a policy of retaining in grade those students making slow progress might facilitate instruction by making classrooms more homogeneous academically. On the other hand, grade retention might harm high-risk students by limiting their learning opportunities. Analyzing data from the US Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten cohort with the technique of multilevel propensity score stratification, we find no evidence that a policy of grade retention in kindergarten improves average achievement in mathematics or reading. Nor do we find evidence that the policy benefits children who would be promoted under the policy. However, the evidence does suggest that children who are retained learn less than they would have had they instead been promoted. The negative effect of grade retention on those retained has little influence on the overall mean achievement of children attending schools with a retention policy because the fraction of children retained in those schools is quite small. Nevertheless, the effect of retention on the retainees is considerably large.
Students retained in grade have dropout rates three to seven times higher than do their promoted peers, yet little is known about the outcomes for the most persistent of the retained students who graduate high school. The purpose of this research was to examine the post-secondary (PSE) enrollment rates of retained but persistent high school graduates. Ten thousand 1992 high school graduates in the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) data base composed the sample. A logistic regression controlling for gender, socio-economic status (SES), race–ethnicity, and achievement yielded odds ratios indicating significantly lower odds of PSE enrollment for retained graduates compared to promoted graduates. Later grade retention generally reduced the odds of PSE enrollment. Findings suggest that retaining students may be related to negative educational outcomes not realized for many years.
This study examines the phenomenon of retention in kindergarten through Grade 8 using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS: 88). Data on 16,623 White, Black, and Hispanic public school students show that boys, minorities, and students from lower socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely to be retained. Two subanalyses of the data were conducted. In the first subanalysis, students who were retained in K through 3 were compared with those who were retained in Grades 4 through 8. The second analysis compared students retained in K through 8 with the total sample of nonretainees. Results suggest that the timing of retention is not uniformly associated with superior performance. Retention at any point is associated with less optimal academic and personal-social outcomes. Nonretained students demonstrate higher grades, test scores, and fewer academic, emotional, and behavioral problems than the retained group. Moreover, retention is associated with more negative outcomes for female, White, and higher SES students. In short, retention does not equalize outcomes even when retained students have been in school a year longer. Consistent with findings from numerous smaller, controlled studies, these results from a national sample strengthen arguments against retention policies. The importance of implementing alternative methods of assisting students at risk for academic failure is noted.