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The conditions of flow in reading: Two studies of optimal experience
Abstract
This paper examines the conditions under which readers experience intense engagement in a text, what Csikszentmihalyi has termed “optimal experience,” or “flow.” Two studies of optimal experience are reported here. The first consisted of interviews with eleven children and adult pleasure readers concerning their experiences with flow during reading; the second examined reading flow by surveying 76 university students and professionals. Among the major findings of the studies were: (a) the large majority of the texts which provided the informants with flow were those which they had read for pleasure; (b) when informants were assigned texts in school, flow was more likely to occur when they had an interest in the text; (c) texts which provided flow were perceived as giving the reader personal or intellectual benefits; and (d) fiction was significantly more likely to produce flow than non‐fiction texts. Future research directions are discussed.1. We would like to thank Laurie MacGillivray, Steve Krashen, Lucy Tse, and an anonymous reviewer for their comments and suggestions on this paper.
... Research on flow has been blossoming within language and learning research because flow-facilitating conditions are present in reading and writing (Czimmermann & Piniel, 2016;Liu et al., 2022), as well as general learning processes (Payant & Zuniga, 2022), likely due to the presence of interest. The body of literature surrounding the study of flow in additional language learning (Aubrey, 2017a, b;Cho, 2018;McQuillan & Conde, 1996;Zare-ee, 2013;Zuniga & Payant, 2021) highlights that intrinsically interesting and collaborative tasks which offer clear goals and feedback, present appropriate challenge, and support learning autonomy can create conditions for the experience of flow within the classroom. There has even been a reading-specific flow scale developed (Thissen et al., 2018). ...
... This can lead to increased discovery of one's interests, abilities, and potentials in the future (Waterman, 1993). When English language learners engage in repeated, regular reading sessions, they report flow (Kirchhoff et al., 2013), which has increased their interest and understanding of the material (Zare-ee, 2013), although flow may be particularly likely when reading for pleasure and intrinsic interest (McQuillan & Conde, 1996). ...
One effective route to increasing well-being is through the pursuit of activities which suit a person’s personality strengths (i.e., person-activity fit). People who strive for achievement tend to organize their behaviors in ways that promote goal attainment and well-being. We tested the hypothesized process that achievement striving would lead to increased well-being over time through feelings of competence and flow. A secondary aim was to describe the types of personally valued activities and whether activity type facilitates competence and flow. Undergraduate students (N = 346 at Time 1; N = 244 at Time 2) completed an online survey measuring personality, personally expressive activities, basic psychological need satisfaction, flow, and well-being at two timepoints ~ 4 months apart. Two coders thematically coded activities into seven types (e.g., reading and writing, hobbies). We used cross-sectional and longitudinal serial mediation models to test our hypothesis with eudaimonic (life worth) and hedonic (life satisfaction) well-being, controlling for sample characteristics (recruitment source and term). Achievement striving was positively correlated to competence and well-being, but the indirect effects did not show that well-being is boosted by feeling competent and in flow during in personally expressive activities, cross-sectionally or longitudinally. Perceived competence was comparable across activity types, although flow was highest in reading and writing activities. While achievement strivers tended to feel happy and competent at personally expressive activities, the mechanistic pathway to well-being is not yet clear. Future studies might recruit larger sample sizes and utilize smaller time lags (e.g., ecological momentary assessment).
... In contrast, autonomously motivated readers are likely to be absorbed in reading, resulting in longer continuous engagements (List et al., 2019;Levine et al., 2022). Indeed, a keen interest can cause a reader to disregard all distractions as sufficiently challenging and engaging texts can induce "flow" which is characterized by a complete immersion in a task (McQuillan and Conde, 1996;Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). ...
... The predictors were centered around the mean and scaled. (Levine et al., 2022) and result in immersive flow experiences which are characterized by extended attention to a task (McQuillan and Conde, 1996). Furthermore, contextual motivation was linked to reading speed via an interaction with situational competence. ...
Although electronic reading of fiction has become mainstream, little is known about how electronic texts are read, and whether this behavior is connected to readers’ motivation or experience reading electronically. To address this gap, sixty undergraduate students’ reading behavior was tracked while reading a 15-page short story. A novel method was used to study participants’ frequency of task-switching, their reading speed, and navigational patterns unobtrusively, outside of the lab. Reading behavior was analyzed by two multilevel models to assess (1) whether variance in behavior could be predicted by the task context, such as location in text or timing of reading sessions, and (2) whether behavior was connected to participants’ situational motivation to read the short story, their contextual motivation toward reading as an activity, or their task-relevant electronic experience. Our results showed that highly experienced and avid readers reacted to text difficulty more adaptively, indicating that motivation and electronic experience may have a key role in supporting comprehension. In contrast, situational motivation was not associated with reading behavior, contrary to our expectations. These findings provide a significant contribution to our understanding of e-reading, which can be used as a foundation to support recreational reading engagement on digital devices.
... Flow is a prediction theory or a predictor of continuing motivation, commitment, and performance in learning (Csíkszentmihályi, 1997). It has been investigated during several activities such as dancing, climbing, reading, surgery, doing math, football, and art (McQuillan & Conde, 1996;Schiefele & Csikszentmihalyi, 1995;Webster et al., 1993). However, the study of flow in SLA is only recent. ...
... FE was explored by McQuillan and Conde (1996), who collected data from questionnaires and interviews. In both methods of collecting data, flow was described non-technically as "an intense engagement in a text," after which the participants were required to recall reading texts to deliver reasons for reading a text, and reasons for this engagement involvement (McQuillan & Conde, 1996, p. 109). ...
The merits of the application of flow theory in foreign language teaching have been demonstrated in recent research. This experimental study was aimed at investigating the role of task type and modality in the perception of flow experience by learners as they are engaged in communication tasks. The participants were 78 non-English major university students at an intermediate level of proficiency based on the result of the Oxford quick proficiency test. To do so, the flow experience perceived by 39 dyads while performing information-gap and jigsaw tasks through three modes of communication, i.e. audio-synchronous computer-mediated communication, text-based synchronous computer-mediated communication, and face-to-face communication, was assessed using the short flow scale questionnaire (Martin and Jackson in Motiv Emot, 32(3):141–157, 2008) and task specific flow scale questionnaire (Czimmermann and Piniel in Positive psychology in SLA, 193–214, 2016. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783095360-009). To examine the role of task type and modality in flow experience perceived by the participants, the mixed between-within subject’s ANOVA test was run for each task in different pair categories. The results indicated that in all three modalities, the jigsaw task induced more flow than the information gap task did. Moreover, in both tasks, Text-SCMC modality aroused less flow than that in either of F2F and Audio-SCMC modalities as perceived by the interlocutors. Hence, no interaction between task type and modality was observed regarding their impact on the perception of flow experience. The findings of the study could provide implications for second language acquisition and instruction.
... Reading, grammar drills, vocabulary learning, and watching English videos were found to be closely associated with the experience of flow. Reading for pleasure, reading texts with interest or for personal or intellectual enrichment, provided the concentration, control, and enjoyment conducive to flow (Mcquillan & Conde, 1996). For reading in a foreign language, participants found themselves in the state of flow as long as the perceived difficulty of the reading was within their capability of understanding and they were not under time constraints (Arai, 2022;Kirchhoff, 2013)both available in SRLL outside classrooms. ...
Flow, a subjective state of optimal engagement and immersion, is characterized by a balance of perceived challenges and skills, interest, attention, and a sense of control (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Investigating flow in language learning can provide valuable insights into effective learning processes and contexts (Egbert, 2003). Self-regulated learning is a proactive learning approach where learners establish learning objectives and actively regulate their cognition, motivation, and behavior (Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 1990). This study explores the flow experience of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in technology-enhanced self-regulated language learning (SRLL) using the experience sampling method. Through event-contingent sampling, 26 EFL learners from a Chinese university documented their flow experiences over an eight-week period, reporting the duration, engagement, and subjective experiences each time after completing English learning activities outside the classroom. Results demonstrated the prevalence of flow in SRLL activities despite a challenge–skill imbalance, with approximately half of the participants consistently experiencing flow. Furthermore, the state of flow induced more engagement in and commitment to self-regulated English learning. Intense flow was strongly associated with interest-driven reading and vocabulary learning via mobile applications and media, as well as with grammar drills. However, general variations of flow across time suggested that flow did not necessarily motivate participants to seek greater challenges and improve their skills. Individual variations of flow were explored, highlighting the complexity of flow, which was influenced by diverse individual factors.
... We choose flow theory for the design of our artifact, because flow is relevant as it is the optimal condition you can reach in reading (Mcquillan and Conde, 1996). Flow is defined as a state of peak enjoyment, energetic focus, and creative concentration experienced (Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2009) derived from reading the text is an important factor in predicting its comprehension (Chevet et al., 2022). ...
Recent advancements in AI have led to the introduction of tools that support researchers in scientific reading. Tools such as SciSpace have come to the forefront to assist users in reading scientific texts. However, there is an insufficient theoretical foundation on how to design these reading assistants as well as no evidence of their effects, especially given the recent progress. Specifically, past literature lacks insights on evaluated user requirements and design principles for the design of computer-assisted reading systems. Addressing these challenges, we draw on Design Science Research (DSR) to derive and evaluate a set of five design principles for computer-assisted reading systems. Building on flow theory as our theoretical lens, we develop and perform a first proof-of-concept evaluation of a prototypical implementation of our principles as a computer-assisted reading artifact. Our design principles support researchers and practitioners on how to design, evaluate, and compare their AI-reading tools more effectively.
... Similarly, Zareiee (2013) explored the flow experience of EFL learners in relation to their reading skills and observed that flow can enhance learners' interest and facilitate effective text comprehension. Mcquillan and Conde (1996) reported that flow experienced during both L1 and L2 reading comprehension can generate a sense of pleasure and attract learners to engage further. Furthermore, the crucial role of flow experience in L2 learning motivation and attitudes has been established. ...
While previous research has primarily focused on evaluating the effectiveness of digital storytelling (DST) itself, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding the impacts of flow, group engagement, and
perceived instructional support on learners' DST experiences. Addressing this gap, the present study examines data collected from a sample of 225 students enrolled in DST-based writing courses. The results of this study indicate that learners' perceived instructional support significantly and positively influences their writing skills. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate that the relationship between instructional support and learning engagement is mediated by flow and group engagement. These findings underscore the significance of offering appropriate support to foster group engagement and facilitate students' flow experiences within the DST context. By shedding light on these less-explored
aspects of the DST strategy, this study contributes to the existing literature in the field. It suggests that educators and instructional designers should consider the interplay of flow, group engagement, and instructional support when incorporating DST into their pedagogical practices. Understanding and effectively addressing these factors can enhance the learning experiences and outcomes of students engaged in DST-based writing activities. Further research is warranted to explore additional dimensions of DST and its impact on various educational contexts.
... First, as described in the results, within this subcategory participants primarily reported active tasks, such as reading and acquiring scientific or cultural information through different media, while more passive activities such as watching TV accounted for a minority of the answers, across both curricula and mental health conditions. These findings support the view of reading as a flow-promoting activity, by virtue of its potential to provide optimal cognitive stimulation and facilitate effortless attention, coupled with intrinsic motivation (McQuillan & Conde, 1996;Muth, 1996;Thissen et al., 2018. Moreover, Csikszentmihalyi first described esthetic experiences usually perceived as apparently passive, such as visual art appreciation, as sources of flow (Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson, 1990). ...
The restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted
citizens’ lives worldwide. In this emergency context, mental health levels and flow-promoting activities – with specific attention to leisure - were investigated among 1281 Italian university students attending courses in Health Sciences (HS) and Humanities, Social and Political Sciences (HuPS). They participated in an online survey including, among other instruments, the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF), an open-ended question investigating flow activities, and demographic information. Most participants identified flow-promoting ctivities, primarily in the Productive and Leisure domains, but languishing students, as indicated by their scores on the MHC-SF, did it in a significantly lower percentage. Within Leisure, HuPS students reported Media/Reading and Hobbies, while HS students mentioned Sports in significantly higher percentages, suggesting a connection between flow activities and participants’ academic and professional goals. Findings also suggested that promoting flow among languishing students can help counterbalance their documented higher risk for psychopathology,
... Creating interest in students is critical for flow [21]. Reading creates a flow experience for many individuals [57,69]. A recent study shows a relationship between engagement and how teachers create interactions [3]. ...
This paper proposes a new perspective on implementing neuroeducation in the classroom. The pandemic exacerbated the mental health issues of faculty and students, creating a mental health crisis that impairs learning. It is important to get our students back in “the zone”, both cognitively and emotionally, by creating an ideal learning environment for capturing our students and keeping them—the Synergy Zone. Research that examines the classroom environment often focuses on the foreground—instructors’ organizational and instructional aspects and content. However, the emotional climate of the classroom affects student well-being. This emotional climate would ideally exhibit the brain states of engagement, attention, connection, and enjoyment by addressing the mind, brain, and heart. This ideal learning environment would be achieved by combining proposed practices derived from three areas of research: flow theory, brain synchronization, and positive emotion with heart engagement. Each of these enhances the desired brain states in a way that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts. I call this the Synergy Zone. A limitation of this proposed model is that implementation of some aspects may be challenging, and professional development resources might be needed. This essay presenting this perspective provides the relevant scientific research and the educational implications of implementation.
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
Apparent reading deficiencies among entering workers, combined with increasing demands for highly skilled workers, have led business and industry to increase their training and education efforts. One aspect of this effort requires understanding the reading demands people in various occupations are likely to encounter. Using case studies and structured interviews, this study examines the reading practices of 99 adults across various occupational categories. Individual reading practices were characterized in terms of contents, materials, and uses for reading. Analyses of variance were conducted to examine the reading practices of those in different occupations and settings. It was found that reading volume for specific contents, materials, and uses were each significantly influenced by the occupational categories and settings in which reading occurred. The educational importance of accounting for this diversity in reading is discussed.
Cognitive capacity usage during reading was measured in two experiments. During reading of a 27-page passage on marine biology,
text-relevant inserted questions, irrelevant questions, or no questions were answered by undergraduates. Cognitive capacity
usage increased when text-relevant questions began but not when irrelevant questions began or when no questions were given.
The increase in cognitive capacity usage was largest on pages immediately following questions. Cognitive capacity is used
in the elaborative stages of text processing.
Running title: Growth in reading Includes bibliographical references (leaves 36-38) Performed pursuant to contract no. 400-81-0030 of the National Institute of Education
- Massimini F.
- Nell V.