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Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses: The mediating role of telepresence

August 2010
Journal of Marketing Management 26(9):967-992

DOI:10.1080/02672570903498819

Project: Debbabi thesis

Authors:

Mohamed Daassi

University of Tours

Serge Baile

University of Toulouse

This study develops a conceptual framework for measuring the effectiveness of Internet-based 3D advertisements. The study uses an interdisciplinary literature review (marketing, information systems, and human–computer interaction) to enhance the understanding of the impact of using D visualisation in online advertisements, and to identify the most relevant conditions for application. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of such ads in the case of a geometric product, as well as in the case of a material product. This study's results highlight the significance of telepresence as a mediator. The findings reveal that telepresence determines how ad format (2D versus 3D) influences the range of variables used to measure advertising effectiveness.

Research model.

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Effect of ad format and product type on advertising effectiveness.

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Regression analyses related to the mediating role of telepresence.

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Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses: the mediating role

of telepresence

Sana Debbabia; Mohamed Daassib; Serge Bailec

a University of François Rabelais, France b University of Bretagne Occidentale, France c University of

Toulouse 1 and ESC Toulouse, France

First published on: 02 February 2010

To cite this Article Debbabi, Sana , Daassi, Mohamed and Baile, Serge(2010) 'Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer

responses: the mediating role of telepresence', Journal of Marketing Management, 26: 9, 967 — 992, First published on: 02

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Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer

responses: the mediating role of telepresence

Sana Debbabi, University of Franc¸ois Rabelais, France

Mohamed Daassi, University of Bretagne Occidentale, France

Serge Baile, University of Toulouse 1 and ESC Toulouse, France

Abstract This study develops a conceptual framework for measuring

the effectiveness of Internet-based 3D advertisements. The study uses an

interdisciplinary literature review (marketing, information systems, and

human–computer interaction) to enhance the understanding of the impact of

using 3D visualisation in online advertisements, and to identify the most relevant

conditions for application. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of such ads

in the case of a geometric product, as well as in the case of a material product. This

study’s results highlight the significance of telepresence as a mediator. The

findings reveal that telepresence determines how ad format (2D versus 3D)

influences the range of variables used to measure advertising effectiveness.

Keywords 3D visualisation; telepresence; virtual-direct experience; material

product; geometric product; advertising effectiveness

Introduction

Advancements in electronic media offer benefits and opportunities for companies

involved in electronic commerce. However, little is known about the conditions that are

essential to the success of these ventures (Novak, Hoffman, & Yung, 2000). The study

limits the scope to the business-to-consumer (B2C) context, based on the use of publicity

and sales websites. Indeed, various forms of online advertising (e.g. banner ads, pop-ups,

Web sites, etc.) are implemented by online businesses. These ads take advantage of

technological advances in interface design, thus facilitating navigation and interactivity

for the consumer. Nevertheless, these advertisements have limited effectiveness because

they passively support consumer–product communication (Bhatnagar, Mirsa, & Rao,

2000; Rose, Khoo, & Straub, 1999). In effect, the absence of interaction with the

product could have a negative impact on its evaluation by the consumer, as Smith and

Swinyard (1982) and Smith (1993) suggest. This drawback can now be alleviated by the

implementation of new interactive 3D visualisation technologies (Mirapaul, 2000).

Consumers are able to check out certain products online, just like in a conventional

store, and perhaps even more efficiently through the integration of this new ad format (Li,

Daugherty, & Biocca, 2002). 3D’s advertising potential is not limited to its ability to

ISSN 0267-257X print/ISSN 1472-1376 online

#2010 Westburn Publishers Ltd.

DOI: 10.1080/02672570903498819

http://www.informaworld.com

Journal of Marketing Management

Vol. 26, Nos. 9–10, August 2010, 967–992

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ensure tridimensional product inspection by consumers. Technology also allows a

simulation of direct experience with the product by stimulating a new experience called

virtual or ‘virtual direct’ (Klein, 2003; Li et al., 2002). The virtual-direct experience is

born from the sense of telepresence created by the interactivity and richness of the

publicity (Biocca, Li, & Daugherty, 2001; Griffith & Chen, 2004; Ha, 2005; Hoffman

& Novak, 1996; Klein, 2003; Li et al., 2002; Steuer, 1992; Suh & Lee, 2005).

3D Internet-ads use is still limited although the potential for use of 3D Internet ads

increasingly attracts online firms’ attention. The measurement of its effectiveness

remains an area of research that has not yet been amply explored. Hence, this study

focuses on measuring 3D ads’ effectiveness, and on isolating specific situations in

which its use could be highly useful in comparison with 2D product ads.

First, we present a summary of the studies on 3D advertising’s psychological

potential, specifically looking at the concepts of telepresence and the virtual-direct

experience. Second, we offer a literature review, comparing the effects of traditional

advertising with those of direct product experience.

We are therefore able to put forth a conceptual model on 3D advertising

effectiveness, supported by hypotheses that reveal the relationship between the

different research variables. This model, designed to examine consumer reactions, is

then tested using an experimental protocol set up to support a comparative analysis of

3D versus 2D ads and the measurement of their respective influence. Finally, the main

results and their theoretical and managerial implications are presented and discussed.

Towards new kinds of interactive publicity: 3D advertising

3D advertising constitutes a new form of online advertising. Its interactivity essentially

relies on examining the product through the use of 3D visualisation (Mazursky &

Vinitzky, 2005). This format gives consumers access to information similar to that

gathered from direct physical contact with a product. Effectively, it enables consumers

to satisfy their need to view and handle the product. These needs are met through

visualising the product from various angles and from various distances, using a zoom

function for greater precision (Hand, 1997). This visualisation format facilitates consumer

appraisal of the product (Li, Daugherty, & Biocca, 2001; Li et al., 2002). Along these lines,

Hughes, Brusilovsky, and Lewis (2002) point out the important role that 3D visualisation

techniques play in influencing corporate selection of the various e-commerce applications.

For his part, Hand (1997) emphasises three main factors in user interaction: object

manipulation, viewpoint manipulation, and application control. Hand equally

underscores the role of feedback in product presentation and consumer reception.

Interdisciplinary research on the 3D visualisation format’s impact on online

advertising effectiveness is currently being carried out in the fields of marketing

communication and management of information systems (MIS). Li et al. (2001, 2002)

reveal 3D advertising’s influence on product knowledge, as well as its influence on

consumer attitudes vis a

`vis the brand (Li et al., 2001). Jiang and Benbasat (2004)

assert that the virtual experience is significant to perceived diagnosticity

and flow.

The significance of 3D advertising can thus be further explained through the

theories of telepresence and virtual-direct experience.

Perceived diagnosticity represents the extent to which consumers believe that particular shopping experi-

ences are helpful to evaluate products.

Flow is described as an affective state when individuals are involved in certain activities. It is used to

represent the subjective psychological experience that charaterises human–computer interactions as playful

and exploratory (Hoffman & Novak, 1996).

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The concept of telepresence

Several studies (Biocca, 1997; Hoffman & Novak, 1996; Klein, 2003; Lombard &

Ditton, 1997; Lombard & Snyder-Duch, 2001; Slater & Steed, 2000; Steuer, 1992)

highlight the fact that a user, whose perception is modified by communication

technology, necessarily perceives two environments: one real (physical), the other

virtual (computer-mediated). This phenomenon, called telepresence, is experienced

by the user when the perception mediated by technology dominates the non-

mediated (physical) perception. According to Lombard and Snyder-Duch (2001),

telepresence is a psychological state or subjective perception in which part or all ‘of

an individual’s current experience is generated by and/or filtered through human-

made technology, even though part or all of the individual’s perception fails to

accurately acknowledge the role of the technology in the experience’. Therefore,

the term ‘telepresence’ can be used to qualify user perception of presence in a

mediated environment that appears to be less mediated,orclosertowhatis‘real’

(Debbabi & Baile, 2005).

The sensation of telepresence is determined by the media features and user

characteristics (Lessiter, Freeman, Keogh, & Davidoff, 2001; Slater & Usoh,

1994; Stanney, Mourant, & Kennedy, 1998). User characteristics include his/her

cognitive and perceptive abilities, attention level, length of exposure to and/or

interaction with the product, and, finally, familiarity with the mediated

environment (Lessiter et al., 2001; Lombard & Ditton, 1997; Witmer & Singer,

1998). Media features correspond to its form and content (Heeter, 1992; Lombard

& Ditton, 1997). In Steuer’s (1992) view, the form of the media is related to its

interactivity and richness, whereas its content corresponds to the use of conventions

related to the media and to the nature of the task or the activity to be performed

(Lombard & Ditton, 1997).

Interactivity and richness are the two most significant media characteristics

capable of influencing the sensation of telepresence (Biocca et al., 2001; Hendrix

& Barfield, 1996; Hoffman & Novak, 1996; Keng & Lin, 2006; Klein, 2003; Li

et al., 2002; Lombard & Ditton, 1997; Schubert, Friedmann, & Regenbrecht,

2001; Shih, 1998; Steuer, 1992; Welch, Blackmon, Liu, Mellers, & Stark, 1996;

Witmer & Singer, 1998). Research on interactivity has successively considered

this concept as: a part of the communication process (Blattberg & Deighton,

1991; Kirsh, 1997; Milheim, 1996); a media characteristic (Hoffman & Novak,

1996; Steuer, 1992); a property of the communications system (Rice, 1984); a

psychological state (Newhagen, Cordes, & Levy, 1995); and a multidimensional

construct (Fortin & Dholakia, 2000). Steuer (1992) defines interactivity as ‘the

extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a

mediated environment in real time’. Media richness is another determinant for

telepresence in the computer-mediated environment. It corresponds to the

computer-mediated environment’s level of intensity in presenting stimuli to the

various senses (Steuer, 1992). It includes two sensory aspects of the media: the

width and the depth. The former refers to the media’s capacity to communicate

stimuli through various senses. Thus, bringing a mediated environment closer to

a real environment will be linked to the number of senses involved or

interpolated by the media (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). The latter refers to the

resolution or the quality of the stimuli transmitted.

Although telepresence is being studied in the field of virtual reality, numerous works

have demonstrated that consumers feel ‘telepresent’ when they interact with the

Debbabi et al. Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses 969

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product in 3D, in a mediated, ‘non-immersive’ environment (Biocca et al., 2001; Li

et al., 2002). The concept of telepresence can thus be applied to consumers when they

interact with products presented in 3D.

In addition, telepresence has been analysed as a factor affecting user behaviour and,

more precisely, consumer behaviour. Jee and Lee (2002) reveal the impact of

telepresence on purchasing intentions. On another note, Biocca et al. (2001)

examine the importance of this psychological state in learning, in attitude formation

towards a brand, and in the development of purchasing intentions.

The virtual-direct experience

Each media presents an information source to consumers through the quantity and

quality of the information that it transmits. Nevertheless, these communication

sources remain indirect and of limited interest to the consumer, compared with the

direct experience with the product. The notion of direct experience has been a focus of

study by marketing researchers attempting to describe its efficiency in stimulating

positive responses to a given product (Kempf & Smith, 1998). The efficiency of the

direct product experience resides in the fact that it allows consumers to inspect and

evaluate the product on both sensory and personal levels. Thus consumers are able to

make their evaluations with a greater level of confidence, develop positive attitudes

towards the product and/or the brand, as well as purchase intentions (Kempf & Smith,

1998; Smith, 1993; Smith & Swinyard, 1982).

On the Internet, consumers learn and can develop their product knowledge

through interactivity (Novak et al., 2000). It is in this way that 3D advertising

provides consumers with the opportunity to live out a new direct experience –

denoted as ‘virtual’ – with the product. This experience tends to be more vivid

than the indirect experience, which has been influenced by billboards, TV ads,

and 2D images of products online (Li et al., 2002). Griffith and Chen (2004)

designate the virtual-direct experience as ‘the conveyance of experiential product

attributes in an on-line simulation of a direct experience’. Therefore a

transcription of the direct experience in the virtual form depends on the degree

of simulation reached during sensory examination of the product, as well as the

quality of onscreen resolution and digitalisation. Li et al. (2002) assert that the

virtual-direct experience provokes more significant affective and cognitive

responses than those stimulated by conventional advertising. Furthermore, they

contend that these responses are due to the impact of the 3D visualisation

format’s features, as well as the sensation of telepresence.

Granted the potential of this format in creating a virtual-direct experience with the

product, the possibility of assessing the efficiency of its use in online advertising can

thus be foreseen.

Assessing 3D advertising’s efficiency

In order to select the most appropriate variables for assessing 3D advertising’s

efficiency, it is first necessary to summarise the state of the art in terms of the

research comparing the effects of the direct product experience with those of

advertising, in terms of consumer responses. This will then lead us to limit the

variables for assessing the effects of the virtual-direct experience.

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Comparative effects of advertising and direct experience

A wide array of research has examined the comparative effects of advertising and

direct experience with a view to consumer response (Berger & Mitchell, 1989; Hoch

& Deighton, 1989; Kempf & Smith, 1998; Marks & Kamins, 1988; Smith &

Swinyard, 1988). Table 1 summarises the main results.

This quick overview of the literature now enables us to underscore the prevalence of

the direct experience in influencing both psychological and behavioural responses of

consumers. Nonetheless, this previous research has been based on one underlying

assumption; namely, that there is an interaction between product attributes and the

nature of the experience (direct or indirect) thereby required. We now set out to

unearth this assumption.

Table 1 Comparative effects of advertising and direct experience (adapted from Li et al.,

2001 and Klein, 2003).

Variables

studied

Comparative effects of advertising and

direct experience Method Source

Belief

confidence

Advertising produced lower-order responses

for belief confidence while direct experience

produced higher-order results.

Experimental

design

(n¼80)

Smith and

Swinyard

(1988)

Experimental

design

(n¼220)

Marks and

Kamins

(1988)

Belief

strength

Advertising produced lower-order responses

for belief strength while direct experience

produced higher-order results.

Experimental

design

(n¼80)

Smith and

Swinyard

(1988)

Advertising can predispose consumers to

form stronger experiential beliefs during

direct trial.

Experimental

design

(n¼150)

Kempf and

Smith

(1998)

Attitude Attitudes formed from direct experience are

higher than those formed from a single

advertising exposure.

Experimental

design

(n¼79)

Smith and

Swinyard

(1983)

Attitudes formed from repeated advertising

exposure are similar to those formed from

direct experience.

Experimental

design

(n¼104)

Berger and

Mitchell

(1989)

Attitude

confidence

Direct experience produced higher-order

responses for attitude confidence than

advertising. However, attitude confidence

increases with the amount of advertising

exposures.

Experimental

design

(n¼104)

Berger and

Mitchell

(1989)

Attitude confidence is higher for product

sampling, yet attitude change is greater

when advertising precedes product

sampling.

Experimental

design

(n¼220)

Marks and

Kamins

(1988)

Purchase

intention

Purchase intention is higher for the ad-

sampling sequence than for sampling alone

(marginal statistical support, p<.10).

Experimental

design

(n¼220)

Marks and

Kamins

(1988)

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Interaction between type of experience and product category

Product attributes play a determining role in product evaluation (Klein, 2003; Smith,

1993; Smith & Swinyard, 1982), which can be classified according to several criteria.

Nelson (1975) distinguishes between experiential attributes and functional attributes.

A search product is such if the consumer can reasonably assess its quality before

proceeding to purchase it. On the contrary, an experiential product is such if its

performance can only be appreciated with certainty after its purchase and

consumption (for example, the taste of a given food product).

Former research has led to demonstrating the interest of using advertising in the

case of search products (Laband, 1986). The reliability of direct information in terms

of product features is simple to verify or disqualify, whereas such a test is more difficult

with hedonic products (Ford, Smith, & Swasy, 1990). Direct experience is thus crucial

to evaluating experiential products.

For online purchasing, McCabe and Nowlis (2001) examine the influence of

different product attributes in terms of online product-information research and

online shopping. The authors establish two product categories, namely, ‘material

products’ and ‘geometric products’ following Klatzky, Lederman, and Matula (1991).

This distinction is founded on the sensory experience in terms of which of the senses

is triggered to physically evaluate the product. In product evaluation, researchers have

found that humans mainly use two senses only: vision and touching. Klatzky et al.

(1991) define geometric products as ‘objects with attributes that can be fully

understood through vision’. Material products are defined as ‘objects with attributes

that require touching for understanding’. McCabe and Nowlis (2001) offer a

taxonomy of a good number of products between these two categories, such as

sweaters and coats for material products, and watches, CDs, a package of potato

chips, a camcorder, and others as geometric products.

It would therefore be productive to consider the virtual-direct experience in light of

these two product categories. Their specific characteristics could be of importance in

our analysis of 3D visualisation and its efficiency in online advertising.

Variables selected for our assessment

The foregoing theoretical summary has allowed us to emphasise the considerable

effects of direct experience on belief strength and belief confidence, as well as on

attitude and attitude confidence. Yet the literature on assessing advertising efficiency

underscores three main variables: cognitive, affective, and conative (Hutchinson &

Alba, 1991; Lutz, 1975; Wright, 1980). Since the main goal of this study is to assess

the efficiency of 3D advertising as a source of virtual-direct experience, it is thus

appropriate to take into account the influence of these very three variable types. In this

case, they are represented, respectively, as beliefs, attitude, and purchase intentions.

When an individual experiences telepresence, it is assumed that he/she is more

likely to consider his/her experience in the mediated environment as direct (Kim &

Biocca, 1997; Li et al., 2001, 2002). Therefore, as with direct experience, the sense of

telepresence is expected to have a positive effect on belief strength and belief

confidence, as well as on attitude and attitude confidence. That’s why we shall

specifically focus our attention on belief strength and confidence, attitude and

attitude confidence, and purchase intentions (see Table 1) to assess the effectiveness

of 3D advertising.

Belief strength refers to the notion that an individual, exposed to an advertisement,

develops beliefs on the product (Lutz, 1975). According to Fishbein’s (1963)

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expectancy-value model, the beliefs held by an individual on a product correspond to

‘the magnitude of the subjective probability of association between the attribute and

the object’. According to Fishbein’s expectancy-value model, the strength of one’s

beliefs significantly influences attitudes towards the object.

Belief confidence describes the idea that a belief can be held based on a certain

degree of conviction. Bennett and Harrell (1975) define confidence in beliefs as ‘a

cognitive construct that reflects one’s conviction in one’s beliefs’. Belief confidence

depends on the amount of information available on the product, the credibility of this

information, and the coherence of this information via its various sources (Smith &

Swinyard, 1988).

Attitude, according to Fazio (1986), is defined as ‘the global evaluation of an object

such as product or brand’. Following Fishbein’s (1963) expectancy-value model, the

attitude assumed after exposure to an advertisement results from the combined

accumulation of values that an individual comes to expect from a specific product’s

attributes. The theory behind this relies on the notion that an individual’s attitude is

linked to the salient beliefs that he/she holds on the object of communication. Indeed,

this attitude is engendered by these very beliefs (Lutz, 1975). Attitudes are also a

predictable variable of behaviours (Petty, Haugtvedt, & Smith, 1995). This

relationship is more consistent when an individual forms his/her attitude with a high

level of confidence (Berger & Mitchell, 1989).

Attitude confidence is ‘the degree to which an individual is confident that his/her

attitude response towards an object is correct’ (Lee, 2000). In the field of psychology,

confidence in object evaluation is thus considered as a dimension of strength. It should

be stronger when the attitude is based on either more information or more trustworthy

information (Berger, 1992).

The concept of purchase intention, in the footsteps of Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)

and Ajzen (1991), is ‘a conative component that mediates the relation between attitude

and behavior’. The literature distinguishes between two approaches that explain

behavioural intentions: the reasoned action theory and planned action theory. The

original version of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory asserts that intention is

determined by two components: one personal or attitudinal, the other social and

normative. However, Ajzen (1985, 1991) later bases his theory on perceived

behavioural control beyond subjective norms. Perceived behavioural control can be

enhanced by advertising interactivity (Macias, 2003). Interactive advertising can offer

what traditional advertising could not – the ability to choose and control the message

(Hoffman & Novak, 1996). Logically, it seems this would improve purchase

intentions formation.

Drawing on this, we hope to measure the efficiency of 3D advertising in a number of

ways. First, we shall appraise the influence this format has on belief strength and belief

confidence, attitude and attitude confidence, and purchase intentions. Second,

granted that 3D advertising’s capacity to simulate direct experience is linked to the

sensation of telepresence, its efficiency will be measured through this format’s indirect

influence on dependent variables, according to the degree of telepresence perceived.

Research hypotheses

Many studies have compared the efficiency of several types of advertisements

(i.e. billboards, TV ads, etc.) with the efficiency of direct experience (Berger &

Mitchell, 1989; Hoch & Deighton, 1989; Kempf & Smith, 1998; Marks & Kamins,

Debbabi et al. Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses 973

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1988; Smith & Swinyard, 1982). Their results emphasise the superiority of direct

experience in influencing, namely, the strength and confidence of beliefs in the

product, attitude and attitude confidence towards the product, and purchase

intentions. Figure 1 depicts our research model.

In this present work, the use of the 3D visualisation format fosters a simulation of

the direct experience with a product while creating a new experience, which is referred

to as a ‘virtual’ one. It is thus implicitly assumed that a powerful and interactive 3D

advertisement will be more efficient than a simple non-interactive 2D ad. By

acknowledging that 3D advertising is merely a simulation of the direct experience,

we put forth that it should be capable of stimulating the same cognitive, affective, and

conative reactions in consumers, all of which have been triggered by the direct

experience.

However, we must stipulate that this efficiency may be limited by the product

category (material vs. geometric). 3D advertising allows for consumer satisfaction in

terms of visualisation, and not in terms of a tactile product inspection. According to

Klatzky et al. (1991), a geometric product is one whose attributes are evaluated based

mainly on visualisation. Consequently, one could imagine that 3D advertising would

be more efficient for selling geometric products. However, a material product is one

whose attributes are evaluated based mainly on the tactile experience, or touching

(McCabe & Nowlis, 2001). This can lead us to think that 3D advertising is not

superior to 2D in terms of efficiency for material products. We can therefore posit

the following hypothesis:

H1: The impact of 3D advertising, compared to 2D advertising, is higher for geometric

than for material products in terms of:

a–Belief strength towards the product

b–Belief confidence

c–Attitude towards the product

d–Attitude confidence

e–Purchase intentions.

Previous studies have demonstrated that interactivity and richness are the two most

important media features capable of influencing the sensation of telepresence (Biocca

et al., 2001; Klein, 2003; Li et al., 2002; Steuer, 1992). 3D advertising is a powerful

and interactive form of communication, namely because first it allows consumers to be

in charge of product visualisation on a three-dimensional level. Second, it interpolates

the senses of vision, hearing, and in some cases, of the olfactory (with the purchase of a

scent diffuser) and touch (haptic mouse) (Biocca et al., 2001). Given that 3D

advertising is more powerful and interactive than 2D, the following hypothesis can

be stated:

H2: 3D advertising will induce a greater sensation of telepresence than 2D, for both

geometric and material products

Telepresence has also been considered as a variable that influences user behaviour,

in particular consumer behaviour, on the Internet. First, Jee and Lee (2002) underline

the important role that telepresence plays in influencing purchasing intentions, while

Biocca et al. (2001) note its influence in brand knowledge and brand attitudes. Second,

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Li et al. (2002) assert that the sensation of telepresence is a major determinant of the

virtual-direct experience. The more the consumer feels present in a mediated

environment, the more the virtual experience will be perceived as ‘real’. A strong

sensation of telepresence will spark off a greater stimulation of cognitive, affective,

and conative responses that are normally set off by the direct experience. For the two

products being considered, the influence of visualisation formats on the dependent

variables (H1) and its influence on the level of the telepresence sensation (H2) lead us

to test the following hypothesis:

H3: For both geometric and material products, telepresence mediates the relationships

between advertising format and:

a–Belief strength towards the product

b–Belief confidence

c–Attitude towards the product

d–Attitude confidence

e–Purchase intentions

Methodology

Implementation of the methodology was carried out in three phrases: the creation of

advertising stimuli, the choice of measurement scales, and data collection.

Figure 1 Research model.

Ad format :

(3D vs. 2D)

Perceived

Telepresence

Product attitude

Product belief

strength

Belief

confidence

Attitude

confidence

Purchase

intentions

Product category

(geometric vs.

material)

Debbabi et al. Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses 975

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Experimental research design and advertising stimuli creation

The study was conducted in an experimental setting. A 2 2 factorial design was used,

where the factors included visualisation format (2D vs. 3D) and product category

(geometric vs. material).

First we chose two products for each corresponding category. Following this, we

devised a brand name and a corresponding catchphrase for each product.

Product and brand-name selection

Drawing on the existing material and geometric product taxonomy (Klatzky et al.,

1991; Klatzky, Lederman, & Matula, 1993; Li et al., 2001; McCabe & Nowlis, 2001),

two experimental products, one geometric and one material, were chosen for the

design of the 3D and 2D websites. The corresponding products were a watch and a

coat respectively. Given that the site’s sample population of users was both male and

female, we decided to offer two different models for each product, one for men and

one for women.

In order to avoid the impact of the brand name on product evaluation, two brand

names for both watches and coats were created. A six-person focus group, aimed at

generating the brand names for the two products, helped us find names that did not

exist on the current market and that were devoid of luxury or high-expense

connotations. We chose the name Satchko for the watches and Cymba for the coats.

Slogans were devised for each brand and were included in the main pages on the

websites supporting the experiments.

Attribute generation

In order to grasp the main attributes linked to the two products, we carried out non-

directive interviews. During these interviews, the subjects were asked to name the

characteristics of a watch or a coat that, in their opinion, appeared essential to a

purchase. They were asked not to cite price and brand as one of these features. This

technique has mainly been used by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), as well as in various

marketing studies measuring beliefs on a product (Kempf & Smith, 1998; Smith,

1993). Fifty-three non-directive interviews were thus carried out with university

students.

The results on response frequency for each characteristic perceived to be significant

to those polled are as follows. For the watch: precision (47%), watch design and

aesthetic qualities (94%), watch comfort (54%), watch style and fashion qualities

(49%), watch functions (96%), durability (48%), water-resistance (79%), and the

quality of the watchband (71%). For the coat, six attributes were frequently cited by

those polled: coat attractiveness (98%), quality of coat materials (85%), style (73%),

coat comfort (53%), coat fashion qualities (64%), and coat warmth (92%). The

attributes generated here were presented in each product’s website.

Advertising stimuli

Four websites were conceived to correspond to the experimental treatments. A

visualisation specific to each product (geometric and material) was used in both

versions of the advertisements (3D and 2D). To seize fully the impact of the virtual-

direct experience, each product was presented in an identical manner for both versions

of the advertisement, thereby ensuring information symmetry (Suh & Lee, 2005).

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Each advertisement offered two different models of each product, one for men and

one for women.

The main difference between the two advertisement versions for the same product

involved its richness and its interactivity (3D vs. 2D). The 3D advertisement was

conceived in that way to be more interactive and richer than the 2D advertisement.

In 3D advertisements, subjects can move, rotate (view from any angle), and zoom

(zoom-in and zoom-out) of the product. In addition, 3D visualisation provides a better

digital resolution when using the zoom functionality. In contrast, the 2D

advertisement was represented by static images. The 2D advertisement eliminates

the ability to interact with the product (Li et al., 2001).

Product features and information were presented in an informative manner

(textually and auditory) directly in the advertisement. The product prices were not

offered on the websites in order to avoid the perception of financial risk and its

interference with product evaluation (Bauer, 1960; Rao & Monroe, 1988).

Participants were asked to suppose that the prices listed for each product were

acceptable to them.

It was especially important to design a website dedicated to training the participants

to practice using the 3D visualisation format. The training session was completed

before visualising the products in question. This site included a visualisation of a test

product (a beverage can). This modus operandi enabled us to avoid the negative effects

that can impact the attitude variables due to the perception of difficulty in using the 3D

format (Davis, 1989, p. 320). This step was taken to reduce the potential impact of the

respondents’ familiarity level with a simulated 3D environment on their answers.

Construct measurement

Belief strength was measured on a seven-point Likert scale, as used by Raden (1985)

and Klein (2003). This scale measured the degree of participant agreement or

disagreement with certain statements on product features generated during the semi-

directive interviews. This scale remains to be validated within our research context.

The belief-confidence measurements were conducted simultaneously with the

belief-strength measurement. Participants were asked to respond to the following

question: ‘How certain are you that the watch or coat has feature X?’ (Marks &

Kamins, 1988; Smith, 1993; Smith & Swinyard, 1983, 1988). The responses were

measured on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘highly uncertain’ to ‘highly

certain’.

To measure general attitudes on the products, we chose the Berger and Mitchell’s

(1989) scale, which had previously been used and validated by Klein (2003) in a similar

research context. This scale has two items measured on a seven-point Likert scale.

Attitude confidence was measured simultaneously with general attitude towards a

product with the following question: ‘How certain are you of your assessment and/or

your feeling towards the product?’ (Marks & Kamins, 1988; Smith, 1993; Smith &

Swinyard, 1983, 1988). The responses to this item were measured on a seven-point

Likert scale, ranging from ‘highly uncertain’ to ‘highly certain’.

To measure purchase intention, we decided to use Baker and Churchill’s

(1977) model, which had previously been implemented and validated by Griffith

and Chen (2004) in a similar context. The scale includes three items measured on a

seven-point Likert scale.

The concept of telepresence was measured using Klein’s (2003) scale from a similar

context. The scale includes seven items measured on a seven-point Likert scale.

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Data collection

The combining of the two independent variables considered on two levels in our study

(i.e. ad format and product category) involves a four-cell experimental design (2 2).

Each cell corresponds to an experimental treatment of the independent variables, and

is equivalent to only one given experimental condition. Thus 199 undergraduate and

graduate students (40% male and 60% female) were randomly selected for the

experiment and were randomly assigned to four treatments (50, 50, 50, and 49

subjects respectively). Each group was exposed to only one particular advertisement

type of the four. This procedure therefore required a between-subject experimental

design. The subjects were informed of the significance of their participation, and were

given instructions concerning experiment chronology. Nevertheless, once the rules

had been spelled out, in order to avoid unreliable or erratic responses, only those

students truly interested and willing to comply were allowed to participate.

The four participating groups were assigned to four different computer-equipped

rooms with Internet connections. An initial training session on interaction with a 3D

soft-drink can was conducted for those subjects assigned to 3D visualisation

advertisements. The four participating groups were then invited to go to the

advertising websites developed by our study for research purposes. Exposure times

were deliberately limited to the same time limits in order to ensure experimental

homogeneity among the four groups. The subjects were then asked to fill out a

questionnaire containing the different items from the measurement scales chosen for

the study.

Results

Before testing the hypotheses, we assessed our measures’ reliability and validity. First,

we checked the dimensionality of the measurement scales used.

Preliminary analysis

We carried out several reliability and validity tests. To purify and specify internal scale

structure, an SPSS-based exploratory factor analysis was done on each scale using

Varimax rotation. The appropriateness of using factor analysis was determined using

the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of

sphericity. For our data set, factor analysis was deemed appropriate.

The reliability was tested using Cronbach’s alpha (1951), which yielded satisfactory

statistical results (Nunnally, 1978) for all six scales, spanning from .79 to .92.

Following this, a confirmatory factorial analysis using STATISTICA 7.0 (StatSoft,

Tulsa, OK) enabled us to check the scales’ unidimensionality (Gerbing & Anderson,

1988). Granted that the items on both confidence-strength and belief-strength scales

differ in terms of the type of product considered (watch vs. coat), two CFAs were

conducted for each product on each measurement model. The model’s overall validity

was appraised based on the following goodness-of-fit indices: normed chi-square,

RMSEA, GFI, and AGFI. All results computed were found to be satisfactory (see Table 2 ).

Both the convergent and discriminant validities were controlled for. The computed

convergent validity for all six constructs was over .5 in both cases, and discriminant

validity was tested by comparing the square root of each construct with the

corresponding figure for convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Results

confirm acceptable levels of convergent and discriminant validity.

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Effects of advertising format (3D vs. 2D) on dependent variables for geometric and

material products

A MANOVA test was applied to test for ad format (3D vs. 2D) and the product-type

(geometric vs. material) effects on the dependent variables (H1). The results show a

significant main effect of both ad format (Wilk’s lambda ¼.32, F[5,191] ¼84.16,

p< .001) and product type (Wilk’s lambda ¼.81, F[5,191] ¼8.98, p< .001). As

shown in Table 3, ad format and product type have a significant independent effects on

the participants’ cognitive, affective, and conative reactions to the product advertised.

The results also show a significant interaction effect between ad format and product

type (Wilk’s lambda ¼.78, F[5,191] ¼10.98, p< .001). These results suggest that

there were ad-format differences in responses to geometric and material products.

Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations of the dependent variables by ad

format and product type.

We performed ANOVA analyses to explore the multivariate effects of advertising

format and product type on each dependent variable. Overall, we found partial

support for our H1 hypothesis. The results revealed a positive moderating effect in

the ad format for belief confidence (F[1,195] ¼21.5, p< .001), attitude (F[1,

Table 2 Reliability and validity.

Reliability

Measurement scales Watch Coat

Belief strength .87 .88

Belief confidence .88 .82

Attitude towards the product .85 .85

Attitude confidence .79 .79

Purchase intentions .87 .85

Telepresence .92 .90

Goodness-of-fit indices

Chi-square 375.58 283.07

df 284 194

p.01 .01

Normed chi-square 1.32 1.46

GFI .91 .90

AGFI .90 .89

RMSEA .04 .06

Table 3 Effect of ad format and product type on advertising effectiveness.

Dependent variables FAd format FProduct type F(Ad format Product type)

Multivariate 84.16*** 8.98*** 10.98***

Belief strength 171.45*** 6.96** .07

Belief confidence 48.01*** 24.50*** 21.50***

Attitude 221.51*** 8.38** 6.98**

Attitude confidence 63.51*** 19.88*** 35.15***

Purchase intention 3.98* 4.93* 8.20**

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001.

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195] ¼6.98, p< .001), attitude confidence [F(1,195) ¼35.14, p< .001), and

purchase intentions [F(1,195) ¼8.2, p< .001). Effectively, subjects exposed to 3D

ad, compared to those exposed to 2D ad, developed their beliefs and attitudes with

more confidence, and exhibited more favourable purchase intentions and attitude

towards the geometric product than the material product. However, there was no

significant effect for belief strength (F[1,195] ¼.07, p> .05) – see Figure 2 . These

results are discussed further below.

Effects of advertising format (3D vs. 2D) on telepresence levels

To investigate the influence of ad format on telepresence (H2), we compared the

differences between average telepresence levels for both ad formats. These results reveal

positive and significant differences for telepresence levels (t[98] ¼8.8, p< .001) after 2D

and 3D visualisations of the material product, with respective averages of 5.3 and 4.7. The

same results (t[97] ¼12.19, p< .001) were encountered in the case of the geometric

product, with respective averages of 5.8 and 4.2, thereby validating our H2 hypothesis.

The mediating role of telepresence

To check for the existence of partial or whole mediating effect of telepresence (H3), we

followed Baron and Kenny’s (1986) regression model. The authors propose the

following three steps:

Step 1: Ad format (3D vs. 2D) must hold a significant impact on each dependent

variable. Regressions thus must be conducted on the dependent variables

according to ad format.

Regression results, as seen in Table 5 for the geometric product, confirm the

significant effect of ad format on belief strength, belief confidence, attitude

towards the watch, and confidence in this attitude. Nevertheless, ad-format

effects on purchase intentions proved to be non-significant, so this variable

was removed from the remainder of our analysis. For the material product,

regression results showed significant effects of ad format on belief strength

and attitude towards the coat. Yet no significant effects were found for belief

Table 4 Means and standard deviations by product type and ad format.

Mean (SD)

Product type Dependent variable t-value 2D 3D

Geometric Belief strength 7.73*** 3.8 (1.05) 5.5 (.67)

Belief confidence 7.8*** 3.8 (.94) 5.4 (1.11)

Attitude 14.02*** 3.9 (.83) 6 (.64)

Attitude confidence 9.96*** 3.8 (.69) 5.6 (.97)

Purchase intention 1.32 3.9 (1.25) 4.7 (1.36)

Material Belief strength 8.96*** 3.5 (1.06) 5.2 (.71)

Belief confidence 1.79 3.8 (.81) 4.1 (.90)

Attitude 7.88*** 3.9 (.81) 5.4 (1.02)

Attitude confidence 1.41 4.1 (.75) 4.3 (.99)

Purchase intention .65 3.9 (1.21) 3.8 (1.12)

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001.

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or attitude confidence levels, nor for purchase intentions, so these three

variables were excluded from the rest of our study.

Step 2: Ad format must have a significant effect on telepresence (the supposedly mediating

variable). Here, it is necessary to perform regressions on the telepresence variable

according to ad format. The results confirm the significant influence of ad format

on telepresence for both the watch and the coat.

Step 3: Whenever the influence of ad format on the dependent variables has been

statistically controlled for, telepresence must necessarily and significantly

influence the dependent variables, and the relationship of the ad format with

the dependent variables is significantly lower in magnitude. For full mediation,

Figure 2 Interaction between ad format and product type.

Geometric Product

Material Product

3D2D

Ad Format

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

6,0

6,5

Belief Strength

3D2D

Ad Format

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

6,0

Belief Confidence

3D2D

Ad Format

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

6,0

6,5

7,0

Attitude

3D2D

Ad Format

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

6,0

6,5

Attitude Confidence

3D2D

Ad Format

3,2

3,4

3,6

3,8

4,0

4,2

4,4

4,6

4,8

5,0

5,2

5,4

Purchase Intention

Geometric Product

Material Product

Geometric Product

Material Product

Geometric Product

Material Product

Geometric Product

Material Product

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the independent variable (ad format) must not relate to the dependent variables

when the mediating variable (telepresence) is added. Additionally, the Sobel

(1990) test was conducted to support further the mediation effect.

Overall, we found partial support for our H3 hypothesis. In the case of the geometric

product, telepresence partially mediates the effect of ad format on belief strength, belief

confidence, and attitude and attitude confidence (the effect is less in the third condition

than in the second). In the case of the material product, however, telepresence partially

mediates the effect of ad format on belief strength and attitude only.

Discussion

The objectives of this study were to investigate: (1) the moderating effect of product

type in the relationship between ad format and advertising effectiveness; (2) the effect

Table 5 Regression analyses related to the mediating role of telepresence.

Independent

variable

Dependent

variable

Product type

Geometric product

(watch) Material product (coat)

Sobel

test (p)R

Sobel

test (p)

Step 1 Ad format Belief

strength

.44 .66 8.73 .45 .67 8.96

Belief

confidence

.37 .60 7.49 .03 .18 1.79

Attitude .44 .66 8.75 .39 .62 7.88

Attitude

Confidence

.28 .53 6.20 .02 .14 1.42

Purchase

intentions

.06 .23 1.73 .01 .06 .66

Step 2 Ad format Telepresence .33 .58 6.94 .38 .62 7.78

Step 3 Telepresence Belief

strength

.62 .56 5.57 2.52 (.01) .49 .27 2.82 2.06 (.03)

Ad format .62 .27 2.64 .49 .49 5.06

Telepresence Belief

confidence

.42 .31 2.52 1.72 (.08) – – –

Ad format .42 .37 3.02 – – –

Telepresence Attitude .71 .33 3.78 2.16 (.03) .45 .33 3.29 2.27 (.02)

Ad format .61 .56 6.39 .45 .40 3.99

Telepresence Attitude

confidence

.61 .51 4.99 2.45 (.01) – – –

Ad format .42 .32 3.14 – – –

Telepresence Purchase

intentions

––– –––

Ad Format – – – – – –

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of ad format on the level of telepresence; and (3) the mediating effect of telepresence

on the relationship between ad format and ad effectiveness. The results of the

experiment provide the following conclusions.

First, hypothesis 1 posited that the relationship between ad format and advertising

effectiveness would be moderated by product type. The results of this study show that

the type of product (geometric or material) positively moderates the effect of ad

format on belief confidence, attitude and attitude confidence, and purchase

intentions. These results indicate that the influence of the 3D format on product

evaluation, certainty in product evaluation, and purchase intentions depends on the

dominant product attribute (geometric vs. material) (Li et al., 2002). Unexpectedly,

the moderating effect of the product type on belief strength, effected by ad formats,

was not supported. This result confirms that the interactivity and the richness of 3D

ads were able to simulate the direct product experience for the geometric and material

product (Li et al., 2002). In fact, in the context of online advertising, individuals are

conscious that they cannot touch the product. Consequently, they take advantage of

the interactivity and the richness of 3D ads to gather sufficient visual information to

form their product beliefs (Li et al., 2002).

The results also underscore the superior nature of 3D advertising in terms of

influencing belief confidence and strength, as well as in terms of influencing

attitude and attitude confidence towards a geometric product. These findings

support the proposition that 3D advertising is capable of triggering the same

consumer responses as those that have been stimulated by direct experience.

Effectively, contrary to 2D visualisation, the interactive and rich character of

the 3D format enables consumers to actively inspect a product (Jiang and

Benbasat, 2004; Li et al., 2001, 2002). The effectiveness of 3D advertising is

derived from its ability to allow consumers to have ‘first-hand evaluation’ of

geometric product attributes, thus increasing consumers’ confidence in their

evaluations. However, the consumers’ intention to purchase the geometric

product does not depend on the ad format. This result can be explained by the

nature of the selected product (watch), which was probably perceived as an

experiential good (Li et al., 2001). In fact, previous research argued that

advertising has more effective influence for search products compared to

experiential ones (Wright & Lynch, 1995). In addition, the price of the

geometric product was not indicated to participants. Further research comparing

the influence of 3D and 2D advertising on purchase intentions when the price of the

product is provided is needed to confirm our expectations.

Contrary to our expectations, the 3D visualisation format enabled our subjects

to develop strong beliefs and a favourable attitude towards the material product

used in the experiment. Indeed, 3D advertisements are capable of attracting and

persuading consumers of the importance of specific visual features that are not

normally used to assess material products (Li et al., 2002). These results can be

explained by ‘the virtual form of the affordances theory’ introduced by Li et al.

(2002). Affordances refer to the perceptual cues that guide consumers interacting

with products during pre-purchase inspection. According to Li et al. (2002), real

affordances are what an object actually offers, while perceived affordances are

what humans think an object can offer. We find that at the onset of an

advertisement’s life cycle, the consumer tends to inspect the product according

to the affordances that he/she picks up on. However, the consumer will be led to

use the various types of interactions offered by the 3D visualisation technique.

Thanks to the sensation of telepresence, consumers perceive the inspection of the

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product as ‘real’. Telepresence thus seems to convert the perceived affordances

into virtual affordances. In an online purchasing context, telepresence tends to

persuade consumers of the importance of manipulating the product with

accuracy instead of actually touching it (Li et al., 2002). As a result, consumers

are persuaded that visual information allows them to evaluate the product. This

explains the influence of 3D advertising on belief strength and the attitude

towards the material product revealed in our study. Nevertheless, beliefs and

attitudes towards the material product are not formed with a lot of certainty

because virtual experience is unable to provide an exact replication of direct

experience, which involves touching the product. Hence, the effects of 3D

advertising on consumers’ confidence in their evaluations are manifested only

when the advertised product requires vision for inspection. This was supported

by the same effects of 3D and 2D advertising on belief confidence, attitude, and

purchase intentions for materialproductsrevealedinourstudy.

Second, as predicted in hypothesis 2, the findings confirm the superiority of 3D ads

over 2D ads in terms of telepresence for both geometric and material products. The

sensation of telepresence in the virtual environment is stimulated from the intensity of

sensory information presented and the degree of interactivity with the content (Steuer,

1992). Our results are consistent with Li et al.’s (2002) findings, which confirm that

3D advertising provides enhanced visual sensory information and user control over

how to inspect a product.

Finally, the findings confirm our prediction that telepresence mediates the

relationship between ad format and advertising effectiveness (H3). More precisely,

the findings indicate that telepresence acts as a mediator of the influence of ad format

on belief strength and attitude towards both the geometric and material products, and

belief and attitude confidence towards the geometric product. Thus it becomes

obvious that advertising effectiveness is enhanced by the effects of high-level

telepresence perceived during product visualisation, which ensures a better

simulation of the direct experience (Li et al., 2002) thus improving the believability

of the virtual experience notably in the case of the geometric product. We can

therefore see that belief and attitude formation towards the geometric product –

provided that the confidence levels are high – fosters the virtual experience’s ability

to prevent consumers from calling the advertisement’s credibility into question. This

result confirms the relationship between telepresence, virtual experience, and

advertising effectiveness that several scholars have suggested (Hoffman & Novak,

1996; Klein, 2003; Li et al., 2002).

Furthermore, our study puts forth the situations for which telepresence is less

effective in terms of simulating direct product experience. In fact, we note that

the virtual experience created by telepresence was insufficient to enable

participants to form their beliefs and attitude towards the material product

with a high level of certainty. Given that salient attributes of the material

product require touching to be assessed, telepresence is unable to persuade

participants that it allows them a ‘first-hand evaluation’ of product claims.

Thus telepresence cannot increase participants’ confidence in their evaluations.

Additionally, the mediating effect of telepresence on the relationship between ad

format and the intentions to purchase geometric and material products was not

supported, given the non-significant effect of 3D ads on purchase intention

discussed above.

Telepresence was found to have only a partial mediating role. A possible

explanation is that participants interacting with the 3D product acknowledge the

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role of the technology in their experience. That is, participants were not completely

telepresent in the virtual environment (Lombard & Snyder-Duch, 2001).

Consequently, they form their evaluations on the virtual experience created by

telepresence (Griffith & Chen, 2004) but also on their perception of the ad’s

interactivity and richness (Li et al., 2001). These results can be explained by the

participants’ product-involvement level, which was probably low. As argued by

Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann (1983), lowly involved individuals form their beliefs

and attitudes by processing an ad’s executional cues, such as its interactivity and

richness. A key area that warrants additional research attention is the moderating

effect of the product-involvement level on the relationship between telepresence and

ad effectiveness.

Theoretical and managerial implications

Several theoretical and managerial implications can be drawn from our study. On

the theoretical side, our results contribute to reinforcing the literature on

measuring online advertising’s effectiveness, particularly in the case of

experiential products. The results are in line with Li et al.’s (2001, 2002)

findings, thus confirming the influence of 3D advertising on attitude towards

geometric and material products. In addition, by validating the superior influence

of 3D advertising compared to that of 2D on consumer confidence in beliefs and

attitude, results provide evidence that virtual experience created by telepresence

in 3D advertising is perceived as ‘real’.

On the managerial side, several implications arise from the current study for

website designers that can mutually provide beneficial outcomes for both consumers

and marketers. The use of 3D product visualisation can enhance consumer online

experiences and thus improve the effectiveness of online advertising by fostering the

formation of strong beliefs and a favourable attitude towards the product. While this

advertising is unable to get consumers to buy the product online, it can increase the

likelihood for repeated visits to the site and/or for searching for the product in offline

stores. In addition, by using 3D interactive product visualisation, advertisers have the

opportunity to create situations in which consumers are able to examine the product as

they would when shopping offline.

Limitations and future trends

Our study presents some limitations that should be taken into account in further

research. First, it is important to note that experiments with students limit the

external validity of the study. In fact, students often show other reasons for and

reactions to participation than do the consumers in a real website environment.

According to Hoffman and Novak (1996), different browsing behaviours (such as

goal-oriented and experiential behaviours) may have different advertising effects.

Second, the negative impact of the time spent to download 3D applets when

visualising the product (Weinberg, 1995) was not taken into account here. Third,

the impact of the users’ familiarity with simulated 3D environments was not taken into

account in this study. Future inroads to be made along the lines of our research include

looking further into the effects of the users’ characteristics (e.g. involvement, cognitive

and perceptive abilities, familiarity with virtual environments, etc.) on telepresence,

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and their consequences on consumer responses to the advertisement. We also see the

need to examine the effects of the users’ demographic characteristics (e.g. gender, etc.)

on consumers’ responses.

Finally, this study did not assess the possible relationships between the different

variables measuring advertising effectiveness. By taking the interrelationships between

these variables into account, future research would undoubtedly improve our

understanding in this area.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the editor, the anonymous reviewers, Michelle Mielly, and Marine Le Drast

for their helpful feedback on this article.

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Appendix. Measurement scales

Belief strength (watch):

1. How strongly do you believe that this watch is attractive?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

2. How strongly do you believe that this watch is stylish?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

3. How strongly do you believe that this watch is functional?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

4. How strongly do you believe that the quality of this watchband is good?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

5. How strongly do you believe that this watch is water-resistant?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

6. How strongly do you believe that this watch is comfortable?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

Belief strength (coat):

1. How strongly do you believe that this coat is attractive?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

2. How strongly do you believe that this coat is stylish?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

3. How strongly do you believe that this coat is fashionable?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

4. How strongly do you believe that the quality of the coat materials is good?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

5. How strongly do you believe that this coat is warm?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

6. How strongly do you believe that this coat is comfortable?

Not strongly at all Extremely strongly

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

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General attitudes

1. My general appreciation of this watch/coat is:

Extremely negative Extremely positive

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

2. I can say, globally, that my feeling towards this watch/coat is:

Extremely unfavourable Extremely favourable

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

Attitude confidence

1. 1. How certain are you of your assessment of the watch/coat?

Highly uncertain Highly certain

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

2. 2. How certain are you of your feeling towards the watch/coat?

Highly uncertain Highly certain

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

Telepresence

1. During the exercise, I felt I was in the world the computer created.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

2. During the exercise, I forgot that I was in the middle of an experiment.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

3. During the exercise, my body was in the room, but my mind was inside the world

created by the computer.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

4. The computer-generated world seemed to me ‘somewhere I visited’ rather than

‘something I saw’.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

5. I felt I was more in the ‘computer world’ than the ‘real world’ around me when I was

going through the exercise.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

6. I forgot about my immediate surroundings when I was navigating through the

exercise.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

7. When the computer exercise ended, I felt like I came back to the ‘real world’ after a

journey.

Strongly disagree Strongly agree

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

Debbabi et al. Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses 991

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Purchase intention

1. Would you buy the watch/coat from the website?

Not likely Very likely

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

2. Would you buy the watch/coat if you saw it in a store?

Not likely Very likely

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

3. Would you actively seek out the watch/coat in a store to purchase it?

Not likely Very likely

1.......2.......3.......4.......5.......6.......7

About the authors

Sana Debbabi has a PhD in Marketing and is an associate professor at the University of Franc¸ois

Rabelais in France. Her current research and teaching interests include online consumer

behaviour, experiential marketing, and online advertising effectiveness.

Tþ33247367549

E sana.debbabi@univ-tours.fr

Mohamed Daassi has a PhD in management information systems and is an associate professor at

the University of Bretagne Occidentale in France. He holds a BSc in operations research and a

European MSc in management and technology of information systems. His current research and

teaching interests include collaborative technologies, virtual teams, social aspects of

human–computer interaction, and online consumer behavior.

Corresponding author: Mohamed Daassi, IUT-GEA, Rue de Kergoat - CS 93837, 29238

Brest Cedex 3 – France.

Tþ33298016069

E mohamed.daassi@univ-brest.fr

Serge Baile is professor of management information systems at the University of Toulouse 1 in

France, and director of the IS Management and Organizational Development Research Group

(IAE – PhD Programme). He is also affiliate professor of IT management at the ESCT Group, in

charge of the Specialized Master in MISI, and associate professor at the IAE Aix en Provence

(CERGAM – PhD programme). Dr Baile holds two PhD degrees in MIS: one in marketing

management IS (group decision making) from the University of Grenoble 2, the other in

marketing decision support system from the University of Montpellier 2. His research focuses

on DSS and man–machine interaction, B2B and EDI process management, IS planning, and IT

governance and performance. His research has appeared in several French edited books. Dr

Baile has also published over 60 research articles in leading academic journals and conference

proceedings. He has taught extensively on MSc, MBA, and executive programmes in Canada,

Switzerland, Belgium, Tunisia, and Morocco.

Tþ33561635642

E serge.baile@univ-tlse1.fr

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Aug 1983

The role of direct versus indirect experience in the attitude-behavior consistency issue is reviewed. Using a new communications model, the authors extend the direct/indirect experience paradigm to a common marketing scenario: product trial versus product advertising. The specific contributions of attitude strength and type of behavior are examined, and results show that when attitudes are based on trial they predict purchase very well. When attitudes are based on advertising, however, attitude-behavior consistency is significantly reduced. Implications for when attitude models should be applied in marketing research and practice are discussed.

The Use of Product Sampling and Advertising: Effects of Sequence of Exposure and Degree of Advertising Claim Exaggeration on Consumers’ Belief Strength, Belief Confidence, and Attitudes

Article

Aug 1988

Using Smith and Swinyard's integrated information response model as a theoretical foundation, the authors investigate the effects of sequence of exposure to exaggerated advertising and product sampling on subjects’ belief strength, belief confidence, attitude, and purchase intention toward a product. Consistent with the model's assumptions, belief and attitudinal confidence are found to be higher for subjects exposed to product sampling alone than for those exposed only to product advertising. Attitude change is significantly greater for subjects receiving an advertising-sample exposure sequence than for those exposed to the reverse sequence, supporting the model's contention that indirect product experiences create low order beliefs that are more susceptable to change than the higher order beliefs created by direct product experience. When the subjects received a negatively disconfirming experience, those who had been exposed to highly exaggerated advertisements had greater shifts in attitude than those exposed to slight exaggeration. This effect was greater for global attitude measures when the advertisement was highly exaggerated. Finally, measures of product attitude and behavioral intentions for subjects exposed to greatly exaggerated advertising in an advertisement-sampling sequence are found generally to be lower than those for subjects exposed to sampling alone, indicating a contrast effect.

Marketing in Hypermedia Computer-Mediated Environments: Conceptual Foundations

Article

Jul 1996
J MARKETING

The authors address the role of marketing in hypermedia computer-mediated environments (CMEs). Their approach considers hypermedia CMEs to be large-scale (i.e., national or global) networked environments, of which the World Wide Web on the Internet is the first and current global implementation. They introduce marketers to this revolutionary new medium, propose a structural model of consumer navigation behavior in a CME that incorporates the notion of flow, and examine a series of research issues and marketing implications that follow from the model.

Managing What Consumers Learn from Experience

Article

Apr 1989
J MARKETING

The authors argue that what consumers learn from the experience of using products is not a simple matter of discovering objective truth. They frame the problem of learning from experience as a four-stage process (hypothesizing—exposure—encoding—integration) with three moderating factors (familiarity with the domain, motivation to learn, and the ambiguity of the information environment). The framework is used to identify where learning from product consumption experience is most open to managerial influence. The authors discuss strategic tools for managing experiential learning and consider applications to the simulation of learning in concept and pre-test-market product testing.

Virtual Product Experience: Effects of Visual and Functional Control of Products on Perceived Diagnosticity and Flow in Electronic Shopping

Article

Nov 2004
J MANAGE INFORM SYST

The development of electronic commerce has been constrained by the inability of online consumers to feel, touch, and sample products through Web interfaces, as they are able to do in conventional in-store shopping. Previous academic studies have argued that this limitation could be partly alleviated by providing consumers with virtual product experience (VPE), to enable potential customers to experience products virtually. This paper discusses virtual control, a specific type of VPE implementation, and identifies its two dimensions: visual control and functional control. Visual control enables consumers to manipulate Web product images, to view products from various angles and distances; functional control enables consumers to explore and experience different features and functions of products. The individual and joint effects of visual and functional control were investigated in a laboratory experiment, the results of which indicated that visual and functional control increased the perceived diagnosticity (i.e., the extent to which a consumer believes the shopping experience is helpful to evaluate a product) of their corresponding attribute factors, and that both visual and functional control increased consumer overall perceived diagnosticity and flow.

Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error

Article

Feb 1981

The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.

Perceived usefulness, perceived ease, and user acceptance of information technology

Article

Jan 1989
MIS QUART

F.D. Davis

Effect of online 3D advertising on consumer responses: The mediating role of telepresence

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