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Fish sauce products and manufacturing: A review
Abstract
Fish sauce, due to its characteristic flavor and taste, is a popular condiment for cooking and dipping. Biochemically, fish sauce is salt-soluble protein in the form of amino acids and peptides. It is developed microbiologically with halophilic bacteria, which are principally responsible for flavor and aroma. This review article covers the manufacturing methods of fish sauce, factors affecting the quality of fish sauce, nutritional values of fish sauce, microorganisms involved with fermentation, and flavor. In addition, rapid fermentation to reduce time and new parameters to estimate the quality of fish sauce are reviewed. Along with a new approach for estimating the quality of fish sauce, the quantitative analysis of degradation compounds from ATP and other specific protein compounds in fish sauce are discussed.
... It is traditionally made from a mixture of salt and fish in different proportions that is allowed to ferment [6] in a concrete tank at a temperature range of 35-40 • C, although the fermenting temperature may vary with the different regions [3,7]. During its fermentation, the hydrolysis of the proteins is induced either by the endogenous proteinases that are found in the fish muscle and digestive tract (cathepsins, pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin) or by exogenous enzymes from halotolerant microorganisms, which may also play an important ...
... pH is a highly relevant factor that must be taken into account during the fermentation process [7]. According to the Codex Standard [30], the pH of fish sauce should be between 5.0 and 6.5. ...
... All of the pH values increased during the first stages to subsequently decrease until the end of the fermentation, when the values had dropped clearly below the initial ones (5.44 ± 0.03). The release of compounds such as organic acids (lactic and acetic acid), ammonia, free amino acids, amino acids of oligopeptides, and free hydrogen ions during the fermentation process resulted in a lower pH of the sauces [7,31,32]. These compounds had been released due to the combined action of the enzymes from the fish flesh and due to the presence of highly salt-tolerant microorganisms [8], with lactic acid bacteria being the predominant microorganisms in numerous fermented fish products [32]. ...
The consequences of using 25% whole or shelled sea urchin as an ingredient in anchovy sauce on its fermentation and development of its physicochemical properties after 20 days fermentation was studied. Two varieties of fish and sea urchin sauce were made with or without shell at 1:2:1 ratio (salt:fish:sea urchin) plus a control fish sauce at 1:3 ratio (salt:fish). All sauces were fermented at 40–50 °C for 20 days, where for the first 7 days the preparation remained in a static phase. During their fermentation, pH, salt concentration, aw, TVB-N, TMA, total nitrogen, formaldehyde nitrogen, amino nitrogen, and ammonium nitrogen, as well as aerobic mesophiles and lactic acid bacteria were monitored. The fermentation of the experimental sauces proved to follow an evolution rather similar to the control sauce. The whole and shelled sea urchins provided the necessary microbial and enzymatic load to trigger an adequate hydrolysis of the fish and the production of total nitrogen (16.0–17.6 g/L), formaldehyde nitrogen (15.1–16.0 g/L), and amino nitrogen (0.7–0.8 g/L) of the same order as the control sauce, despite the lower fish content. According to TMA (9.2–13.1 mg N/100 g), VBT (40.0–47.2 mg N/100 g) contents, and pH levels (5.41–5.46), no deviation of the fermentation process was observed under the experimental conditions (salt content, temperature, and agitation after the static phase). Quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) sensory revealed that the use of sea urchin results in high quality products characterized by their aromas of crustaceans and mollusks. The present study investigates the potential use of shelled and even whole sea urchin as an ingredient for the preparation of high quality fish sauces.
... Fish sauces are known by different names throughout different countries, such as Nam-pla (Thailand), Bagoong (Philippines), Bakasang (Indonesia), Shottsuru (Japan), Aekjot (Korea), Yu-lu (China), Colombo cure (India), Ngapi (Burma) and Budu (Malaysia) (Kuda and Miyawaki, 2010;Sim et al., 2015). These varieties of fish sauce products have different fish species used as the primary raw material, salt concentrations, storage temperatures, storage containers and processing techniques, resulting in a final product with unique characteristics of different smells, tastes and colours (Lopetcharat et al., 2007). Previous research has found that fish sauce contains a high Since fresh fish are highly susceptible to microbial contamination and spoilage (Gram and Huss 1996;Adams, 2010), processing techniques especially fermentation, become a popular choice in developing countries for their low cost, ease of preparation and high acceptability among consumers. ...
... Another country involved is China, sharing 6.7% of the sales market (More, 2021). Differences in fish species, ingredients, and processing will produce each country's unique product, which possesses its different taste, appearance and chemical profile, including free amino acids and peptides (Yoshida, 1998;Lopetcharat et al., 2007). This article will focus on the processing of fish sauce, with five wellknown fish sauces reviewed, including fish sauces from Thailand (Nam-pla), Vietnam (Nuoc-mam), Japan (Ishiru and Shottsuru), China (Yu-lu), Indonesia (Bakasang), and Malaysia (Budu). ...
... Then the mixture is dumped into the tank with a layer of salt at the bottom, then layered with salt at the top of the tank to prevent any parts of the fish exposed to air that will eventually result in spoilage. The tank is closed and left to ferment based on the manufacturer's standard operating (Lopetcharat et al., 2007). Anchovy, sardine, menhaden, and mackerel are widely used as primary raw materials in Asian fish sauces (Wang et al., 2018). ...
Fish sauce is a well-known condiment for its delicious flavour developed through a fermentation process. It is generally used as an additive for flavour enhancement in cooking. The fish sauce comes in several appearances, ranging from a clear liquid with light colour and texture to a dark and cloudy liquid. This product is produced by a longduration of fermentation process by the combination of fish and salt. This high salt fermentation began with the action of enzymes from fish muscle and its digestive tracts, then continued with halophilic bacteria activity to further break down fish proteins in producing a liquid product with a mixture of soluble proteins, peptides and amino acids. This review is comprised of two sections, the first section covers various processing methods of fish sauces, mainly in the Asia region, namely Nam-pla, Nuoc-mam, Yu-lu, Ishiru, Shottsuru, Bakasang and Budu. These fish sauces roughly involve applying salt for fermentation, with different fish species, salt concentration, fermentation duration and processing techniques. The later section covers taste-contributing components of fish sauces in the scope of amino acids and peptides. Five of the major amino acids found to taste in the fish sauce, glutamic acid, threonine, alanine, methionine and histidine, are also reviewed in this paper. Sensory peptides in fish sauces shown in this paper are peptides with salt taste enhancement properties and peptides exhibiting sweet, sour, bitter, umami and kokumi tastes.
... Hydrolyzed clear brown liquid is the color of fish sauce and is commonly used as a flavor enhancer or salt substitute in various foods. The production process involves mixing salt with fish in a ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). The shortcomings of making fish sauce often take a lot of a long time and the taste of the product is very salty. ...
... Amino nitrogen is a good nutritional element for the body because it is easily digested. The manufacturing process is to mix salt with fish in a ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 (Lopetcharat et al. 2001). ...
... Fish sauce is a clear brown liquid resulting from the hydrolysis of salted fish and is usually used as a flavor enhancer or salt substitute for various types of food. The manufacturing process is by mixing salt and fish and using a ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). ...
The use of enzymes has been widely carried out in various aspects of life, one of which is in the field of fisheries, be it cultivation, or processing of fishery products. The addition of enzymes to the process of processing fishery products, more specifically what will be discussed in this article is fish sauce, can give its own quality to the products produced. This article aims to find out how it works as well as what are the effects of giving different enzymes to one type of product, namely fish sauce. The enzymes that will be discussed this time include the enzymes bromelin, papain, pepsin, and trypsin. Has a result of studies from several sources shows that there are significant differences in product quality in the use of different enzymes. So it can be concluded that the use of different enzymes in the processing of fish sauce provides a different quality of fish sauce.
... In addition to microbial synthesized compounds, during fermentation, many indigenous and microbial enzymes including proteases and lipases show a remarkable breakdown of macromolecules from fish meat, thus generating more simple compounds with enhanced functional properties and are easy to digest when consumed (da Silva, 2017). These enzymes cleave macromolecules such as proteins into peptides, amino acids, or ammonia and fat/lipids into free fatty acids, which contribute to the taste (Lopetcharat et al., 2001;Prajapati and Nair, 2003;Liberatore et al., 2010). Furthermore, metabolites such as alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids, ketones, esters, and other compounds produced by the fermenting microorganisms also provide the distinctive odor and aroma of fermented food (Salampessy et al., 2010). ...
... In Southeast Asia, the fermented fish is important in most famous cuisines and the symbol for cultural habitat (Jeyaram et al., 2009;Koo et al., 2016). In addition to fermented fish, there are various fermented fish products sold in the form of pastes to sauces, which are often produced by employing autolytic degradation of fish proteins in the presence of high salt concentrations (Lopetcharat et al., 2001;Panda et al., 2011;El Sheikha et al., 2014;Thapa, 2016). Particularly, the fish sauces are made by the extensive degradation of fish tissues, resulting in liquefaction. ...
... Particularly, the fish sauces are made by the extensive degradation of fish tissues, resulting in liquefaction. Pastes are made by a 128 7. Fermented fish products and health aspects similar method, but the processing time is comparatively less than the respective fish sauce, which results in viscous, protein-rich fish tissue products (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Various fermented fish sauces and pastes are produced around the globe. ...
Fermented fish and other aquatic fermented products are unique in terms of nutritional value and sensory attributes, thereby holding a high demand around the globe. Based on the geological significance, Southeast Asia dominates various traditional fermented fish products compared to European countries owing to the availability of a wide range of raw materials. Generally, fermentation is known to have an important role in preserving nutrients, improving textural and flavor properties of fish. Primarily, this could depend on the types of fermentation methods (spontaneous and non-spontaneous) and quality of raw material employed. During fermentation, the enzyme activity influenced by the interaction of various native or selective microflora has been correlated to generate diversified bioactive compounds. Some of these compounds are known to exhibit numerous health benefits and are termed “bioactive compounds.” In addition, these bioactive compounds are known to show a protective or preventive role against various diseases. Concerning this, the present chapter aims to provide information on fermented fish and other aquatic fermented products based on the geographic distribution, their traditional significance and types of fermentation processes, microbiome involved, bioactive compounds pertaining fermentation process, and various health benefits such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer properties, etc.
... Total nitrogen is an objective parameter for determining the quality of the fish sauce. The total nitrogen in fish sauce mainly consists of protein nitrogen and nonprotein nitrogen materials (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). The total nitrogen concentration of high-quality fish sauce must be at least 15 g/L (Thai Industrial Standard, 1983). ...
... As the salt content and temperature increased, the pH values decreased (p < 0.05). The pH change in fish sauce could be attributed to the release of amino acids from polypeptides and proteins, the production of ammonium, and interconversions between amino acids and other molecules (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). ...
The response surface methodology was used to evaluate the influence of salt content (5–20%), fermentation tmperature (25–50 ◦C), and fermentation time (20–80 days) on the chemical characteristics and histamine level of Iranian fish sauce (Mahyaveh) prepared from Anchovy fish. The results showed that salt had a significant quadratic effect on pH, total nitrogen, salt, and histamine content. The total nitrogen, pH, and histamine of fish sauce decreased with increasing salt concentration. Salt content had a significant linear effect on amino nitrogen.
The amount of amino nitrogen decreased with increasing salt. Time had a positive quadratic effect on histamine
and total nitrogen levels in fish sauce, whereas it had a positive linear effect on amino nitrogen level. In contrast, temperature showed a significant effect on the total nitrogen, histamine, salt, and pH of fish sauce (p < 0.05). As the temperature increased, total histamine decreased whereas nitrogen concentration increased. The predicted optimal conditions as determined by Response Surface Methodology were salt content of 12.5%, fermentation temperature of 39.15 ◦C, and fermentation time of 39.79 days. Therefore, high quality Iranian fish sauce can be
produced with low salt and histamine content as a potential functional food and ingredient.
... Stolephrous spp., Ristrelliger spp., and Cirrhinus spp. are fishes commonly used in nampla's production, where fermentation with salt or brine occurs up to 18 months, depending on the size of the fish [9]. The Thai Public Health Ministry classified fish sauce into three classes, which includes pure fish sauce, hydrolysed fish sauce, and diluted fish sauce. ...
... The Thai Public Health Ministry classified fish sauce into three classes, which includes pure fish sauce, hydrolysed fish sauce, and diluted fish sauce. These classes are based on the production process, raw material, and quality of the fish sauce [9,20]. On the other hand, budu is a more turbid kind of fish sauce, with a brown-to-black colour. ...
As an easily spoiled source of valuable proteins and lipids, fish is preserved by fermentation in many cultures. Over time, diverse types of products have been produced from fish fermentation aside from whole fish, such as fermented fish paste and sauces. The consumption of fermented fish products has been shown to improve both physical and mental health due to the composition of the products. Fermented fish products can be dried prior to the fermentation process and include various additives to enhance the flavours and aid in fermentation. At the same time, the fermentation process and its conditions play a major role in determining the quality and safety of the product as the compositions change biochemically throughout fermentation. Additionally, the necessity of certain microorganisms and challenges in avoiding harmful microbes are reviewed to further optimise fermentation conditions in the future. Although several advanced technologies have emerged to produce better quality products and easier processes, the diversity of processes, ingredients, and products of fermented fish warrants further study, especially for the sake of the consumers’ health and safety. In this review, the nutritional, microbial, and sensory characteristics of fermented fish are explored to better understand the health benefits along with the safety challenges introduced by fermented fish products. An exploratory approach of the published literature was conducted to achieve the purpose of this review using numerous books and online databases, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed Central, with the goal of obtaining, compiling, and reconstructing information on a variety of fundamental aspects of fish fermentation. This review explores significant information from all available library databases from 1950 to 2022. This review can assist food industries involved in fermented fish commercialization to efficiently ferment and produce better quality products by easing the fermentation process without risking the health and safety of consumers.
... During fermentation, enzymatic digestion hydrolyzes fish tissue into short chain peptides and amino acids. The first batch of fish sauce removed from the fermented fish is the highest quality product and contains a large amount of peptides, amino acids, ammonia, and volatile fatty acids (Jiang et al. 2007;Lopetcharat et al. 2001). However, the process of fish sauce fermentation takes up to a year and requires large land areas. ...
... The total soluble nitrogen (TSN) content is one of the major quality factors for fish sauce (Lopetcharat et al. 2001) and has been used in quality classification (Thai Food and Drug Administration 2000). Changes in the TSN content of fish sauce during fermentation are shown in Figure 6a. ...
This study aimed to study the combined effect of pH and sodium chloride on black bean koji enzyme activities and the effects of these enzyme on fermentation, chemical properties, and biogenic amine formation of fermented fish sauce. A pH of 5 was optimal for the amylase and protease activity of the black bean koji enzyme. Higher sodium chloride concentrations exerted more detrimental effects on the protease than the amylase enzyme. Protease activity clearly decreased with sodium chloride concentrations higher than 5%. In contrast, during fish sauce fermentation, the protease activity in samples containing 40% koji increased over 12 weeks of fermentation, which correlated with an increase in total soluble nitrogen. The histamine content in 40% koji fish sauce samples was 13.83–16.86 mg/L, which was lower than the commercial product, and no other biogenic amines were detected. Therefore, active proteolytic enzymes from black bean koji could be used as accelerant enzymes for fish sauce fermentation and reduce the risk of scombroid fish poisoning.
... The traditional process of producing fish sauce varies by location. The ratio of salt to fish, the fermentation temperature, the kind of fish, and minor components all have a significant impact on the composition and nutritional quality of fish sauce (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). In fermentation stage, hydrolysis breaks down fish proteins into peptides and amino acids. ...
... Generally, cleaned fish is combined with salt in a 2:1 or 3:1 ratio (w/w). The salt-mixed fish is then transferred to a fermentation tank covered with a bamboo mat for fermentation period 12-18 months (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Nam pla has a distinct rate of fermentation and end product synthesis than Budu (Saisithi et al., 1966). ...
Budu is one of the most popular fermented fish products in Thailand's southern area due to its distinctive flavor. It is being manufactured in large quantities for usage in cuisine as seasonings and sauces. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of amino acids on the distinctive taste components of Budu in southern Thailand. The amino acids in Budu were determined using GC-MS after fish was fermented for 6–12 months as recommended by the manufacturer. Lysine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid are the three most abundant amino acids, with 1600, 1,540, and 1,260 mg/100g, respectively. Additionally, it was revealed that the umami taste was formed by a group of amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) followed by sweetness and bitterness. The sensory analysis discovered salty tastes, followed by umami, sour, sweet, and bitter. Four Budu samples generate a salty and umami flavor. Salt is mixed with cleaned fresh fish and fermented to enable native enzymes to auto-digest the protein and produce amino acid-rich products. Fish enzymatic fermentation produces short-chain peptides and amino acids that contribute to the umami flavor and taste. Additionally, the fermentation process creates a high glutamic acid concentration, as well as other amino acids and nucleotides that add to the umami flavor of the products. The study findings will be information that is particularly beneficial to consumers and manufacturers to promote Budu products in the country's region.
... Fish sauces and fish pastes are the most popular fermented fish products in many Asian countries and are regarded as indispensable condiments in these culinary cultures. Fish sauce is produced due to changes in physical and chemical characteristics brought about by microbial activity in high salt concentrations and low oxygen levels [26]. Another form of fermented fish product is one where the fish retains its solid form and does not get reduced to a paste or a liquid form. ...
... Staphylococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus sp., and Pseudomonas sp. were reported [58]. In nuoc mam, a fermented fish from Vietnam, microbial species like Staphylococcus sp., Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Pediococcus sp., Lactobacillus sp., Streptococcus sp., Halobacterium cutirubrum, Halobacterium salinarum was isolated [26,59]. ...
The cleaner production of biomass into value-added products via microbial processes adds uniqueness in terms of food quality. The microbe-mediated traditional process for transforming biomass into food is a sustainable practice in Asian food industries. The 18 fermented fish products derived through this process as well as the associated micro-flora and nutritional composition have been focused. This review aims to update the process of green conversion biomass into value-added food products for a more sustainable future. Fish products are classified based on the substrate and source of the enzymes used in fermentation, which includes the three types of technology processing discussed. According to the findings, these fermented fish contain a plethora of beneficial microbiota, making them a valuable source of probiotics that may confer nutritional and health benefits. Bacillus (12 products), Lactobacillus (12 products), Micrococcus (9 products), and Staphylococcus (9 products) were the most common bacterial genera found in 18 fermented fish products. Consuming fermented fish products is beneficial to human health due to their high levels of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and lactic acid. However, biogenic amines, which are produced by certain bacteria as a by-product of their catabolic activity, are a significant potential hazard in traditionally fermented fish.
... Fish sauces and fish pastes are the most popular fermented fish products in many Asian countries and are regarded as indispensable condiments in these culinary cultures. Fish sauce is produced due to changes in physical and chemical characteristics brought about by microbial activity in high salt concentrations and low oxygen levels [26]. Another form of fermented fish product is one where the fish retains its solid form and does not get reduced to a paste or a liquid form. ...
... Staphylococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus sp., and Pseudomonas sp. were reported [58]. In nuoc mam, a fermented fish from Vietnam, microbial species like Staphylococcus sp., Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Pediococcus sp., Lactobacillus sp., Streptococcus sp., Halobacterium cutirubrum, Halobacterium salinarum was isolated [26,59]. ...
The cleaner production of biomass into value-added products via microbial processes adds uniqueness in terms of food quality. The microbe-mediated traditional process for transforming biomass into food is a sustainable practice in Asian food industries. The 18 fermented fish products derived through this process as well as the associated micro-flora and nutritional composition have been focused. This review aims to update the process of green conversion biomass into value-added food products for a more sustainable future. Fish products are classified based on the substrate and source of the enzymes used in fermentation, which includes the three types of technology processing discussed. According to the findings, these fermented fish contain a plethora of beneficial microbiota, making them a valuable source of probiotics that may confer nutritional and health benefits. Bacillus (12 products), Lactobacillus (12 products), Micrococcus (9 products), and Staphylococcus (9 products) were the most common bacterial genera found in 18 fermented fish products. Consuming fermented fish products is beneficial to human health due to their high levels of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and lactic acid. However, biogenic amines, which are produced by certain bacteria as a by-product of their catabolic activity, are a significant potential hazard in traditionally fermented fish.
... Fish sauce typically exhibits a color ranging from yellowish to brownish (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). In this study, the color of all the samples was identified as amber-brown. ...
Fish sauce, a traditional Asian condiment, is derived from the prolonged hydrolysis of salted small fishes, resulting in a mixture of amino acids and proteins. While fermented products are generally considered safe for consumption, ensuring the safety of public consumers remains paramount. Despite this concern, limited research exists in the Philippines on the protein content and microbial quality of fish sauce. Therefore, this study aims to assess the protein content, total halophilic count, and the presence of Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus in fish sauce produced by unregistered manufacturers in specific provinces of the Philippines. The Kjehldal method was employed to determine the crude protein content, and the organoleptic characteristics, including color, odor, flavor, and aftertaste liking, were evaluated by a panel of 10 sensory experts using a descriptive sensory score sheet. Furthermore, the acceptability of the samples was assessed through a 9-point hedonic scale. The results indicated that the protein content of the five fish sauce samples ranged from 1.00% to 2.06%. According to the required minimum standard set by the Department of Health (DOH) (4.5-2.5%), all fish sauce samples were classified as "fish sauce below standard." Regarding microbiological quality, the Philippines currently lacks standardized limits for fish sauce products. The halophilic count in the samples ranged from 308 to 930 cfu·g-1, while all samples yielded a Staphylococcal count of <10 MPN·g-1 and were negative for Salmonella spp. Furthermore, based on the 9-point hedonic scale, the acceptance score of the five fish sauces was found to be 5.0. This research sheds light on the protein content, microbial safety, and consumer perception of fish sauce produced by unregistered manufacturers in select provinces of the Philippines, emphasizing the need for establishing quality standards to safeguard public health.
... Fish sauce is a common condiment in Thailand and southeastern countries (1), whose names and methods of production vary by region, such as Patis in the Philippines, Nouc-mam in Vietnam, and Bakasang in Indonesia (2). It is generally produced by mixing fish with salt in a ratio of 3:1 and fermenting for more than 6 months at 30-35 °C for the hydrolysis of fish to create an odor (3). ...
Research background
One of the issues in the production of fish sauce is the legal constraints on the concentration of histamine produced by bacteria during fermentation because it causes allergic reactions in humans. The goal of this study is therefore to eliminate histamine from the final product after fermentation to enhance the quality of fish sauce for consumer safety, manufacturer exportability and domestic sales.
Experimental approach
The bacteria that grow in the histamine medium were isolated from the salted fish. Their ability to degrade histamine in the media with high NaCl content was tested. The bacterium with the highest histamine-degrading ability was identified and the histamine-degrading conditions were optimized, including the incubation temperature and the amount of NaCl in the medium. The regression equation was generated and tested using the local fish sauce in which different concentrations of histamine were added.
Results and conclusions
Among the five bacteria isolated from the salted fish, the isolate with the greatest ability to degrade histamine was identified as Staphylococcus debuckii sp. The study of the capacity of the isolated bacteria to degrade histamine using the synthetic histamine broth (pH=7.0, t=25 °C and NaCl 25 % (m/V)) indicated that they were able to degrade up to 56 % of histamine. The optimization analysis showed that increasing the pH of the medium to 7.5 and lowering the incubation temperature to 20 °C could improve the histamine removal from 56 to 73 %. The generated regression model, validated by the experimental results of histamine removal from fish sauce, showed an acceptable error (not more than 10 %). S. debuckii, the isolated histamine-degrading bacteria, could be used as an inoculum to reduce histamine accumulated in fish products.
Novelty and scientific contribution
The microbiological technique developed here can decrease the histamine concentration in the final product, fish sauce, to improve its quality in terms of food safety and satisfy the histamine regulation requirement. The findings of this study can also be used to treat other liquid foods that contain high concentrations of histamine.
... In future commercial production, the purines in fish sauce and their derived forms like xanthine or uric acid will probably be eliminated by in vitro reconstituted purinolytic enzymes, as demonstrated in our recently published paper (Shi et al., 2022). Some reported that fish sauce is rich in amino acids and small peptides (Bu, Liu, Luan, Zhu, Li, & Li, 2021;Lopetcharat, Choi, Park, & Daeschel, 2001;Wen-yu, Jin-ling, Hua-rong, Hong-tao, & Xiang-yang, 2019), and other active components (Pham, Schilling, Yoon, Kamadia, & Marshall, 2008), which may have potential inhibitory effects on the xanthine oxidase activity (Huang, Zhang, Wen, Jiang, & Wang, 2022;Zhao, Huang, Sun, Zhao, & Tang, 2020). So, we suspected that the obtained purine-reducing result of Q201E has been discounted due to the component complexity of the fish sauce system. ...
Xanthine oxidase is an oxidase that has a molybdopterin structure with substrate inhibition. Here, we show that a single point mutation (Q201) in the Acinetobacter baumannii xanthine oxidase (AbXOD) obtained mutant Q201E (k cat =799.44 s-1, no inhibition) with high enzyme activity and decrease of substrate inhibition in 5 mmol/L high substrate model, and which cause two loops structure change at active center, characterized by complete loss of substrate inhibition without reduction of enzymatic activity. Molecular docking results showed that the change of flexible loop increased the affinity between substrate and enzyme, and the formation of a π-π bond and two hydrogen bonds made the substrate more stable in the active center. Ultimately, Q201E can still maintain better enzyme activity under high purine content (an approximately 7-fold improvement over the wild-type), indicating a broader application prospect in the manufacture of low-purine food.
... The browning of sauce is effected by certain factors such as salt concentration, storage time, and hydrolysis of fish proteins. The Maillard browning reaction contributes brown color of fish sauce yu-lu (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Peptides and amino acid release during proteolysis served as substrates for Maillard browning reaction (Yongsawatdigul et al., 2007). ...
Fish sauce, a flavored condiment produced by traditional fermentation of low-value fish. The time of fermentation and biochemical safety of sauce are the major concern in traditional fermentation. The enzymatic and fermentative methods were employed to produce Sardine (Sardinella longiceps) sauce under optimized conditions using response surface method. Salt (20%, w/w) and papain (3%, w/w) were used for enzymatic production; while, salt (25%, w/w), sugar (7.5%, w/w) and lactic culture (10%, w/v; Pediococcus pentosaceus FSBP4-40) were employed in fermentative production. Significant change in bioactive components such as pH, non-enzymatic browning, non-protein nitrogen, degree of hydrolysis, titratable acidity, total soluble nitrogen, and total volatile base nitrogen was observed in treated samples compared to the control. Total antioxidant activity (as ascorbic acid, μg/ml), percent DPPH, ABTS, and superoxide anion scavenging activities of fermented sauce were higher at 3976±90, 53.11±0.5, 99.6±0.3, 67.7±0.5 respectively; as compared to enzyme-treated samples which showed 952±70, 31.46±0.5, 76.5±1.0, 61.8±1.4 for the respective parameters, after 180 days storage. Reducing potential was found significantly higher (P<0.05) in treated sauces compared to the control and fatty acid profile showed different changes. The study emphasizes the role of accelerating fermentation, either enzymatically or fermentatively, to produce biochemically and biofunctional superior Sardine sauce.
... More than 20% NaCl is required to suppress bacterial growth to prevent spoilage during fish sauce production (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Viable mesophilic bacterial cell growth may be inhibited to an acceptable level at 20% NaCl in FS con ; however, all types of FS CO 2 did not contain any viable mesophilic bacteria. ...
High concentrations of salt (> 20%) inhibit the growth of undesirable microorganisms during fish sauce production. However, consumer demand for reduced-salt foods is increasing. Herein, pressurized CO2 (pCO2) was applied during fish sauce fermentation to control microbial growth in fish sauce with reduced salt. Reduced-salt fish sauces were prepared from Sardinops melanostictus, Trachurus japonicus, Konosirus punctatus, Odontamblyopus lacepedii, and their mixture under pressurized carbon dioxide (pCO2) at 5 MPa and 30 °C for 2 months with 10% NaCl (\({FS}_{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}\)). The fish sauces were then compared with those produced from the same raw materials under atmospheric pressure with 10–20% NaCl (\({FS}_{\mathrm{con}}\)). The \({FS}_{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}\) had increased levels of free amino acids, lightened color, and mild characteristic odor, compared to \({FS}_{\mathrm{con}}\). Based on the taste analyses using taste sensors and odor compounds via gas chromatography, \({FS}_{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}\) assimilated the flavor of fish sauces prepared from different fish species. Overall, \({FS}_{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}\) led to the preparation of reduced-salt fish sauce with improved quality, regardless of the fish species.
... According to the amount of salt added to the process, products are classified as 1) high salt (20% or more); 2) low salt (6-8%) and 3) no salt products. High concentration of salt reduces the water activity; prevents microbial spoilage; and restricts the increase of pathogens supporting halotolerant and halophilic microorganisms [90]. ...
Fermentation is the second-oldest food preservation method after drying. It is an age-old process used for processing of meat (Sausages), fish (Pickle), dairy (Cheese, yogurt), legumes (Sour dough), cereals (Bear), fruits and vegetables (pickle, kimchi, Sauerkraut, wine) and other by-product utilization. Fermentation is mostly carried out by microorganisms to enhance texture, flavor, aroma and nutritional profile, to improve the digestibility of grains and legumes, to favour mycotoxin reduction, to detoxify and eliminate anti-nutritive, pro inflammatory and toxic compounds and to increase shelf life and preservation. However, commercial production of anti-proliferative agents, antibiotics, immune boosters, hepato-protective agents, anti-diabetic agents, etc., by fermentation process is of great interest to food and pharmaceutical industries these days. Moreover, generation of nutraceuticals and bioactive peptides during fermentation process exhibits compounds possessing antiosteoporotic, antihypertensive, opioid, antioxidant, immunomodulating, mucin-stimulating and insulin-mimetic attributes acts as a "global boon" because of their nutritional, functional and health-promoting potential. The process parameters for commercialization of these products, limitations and hurdles during the fermentation process and their effects in food stuffs will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
... Fish sauce is a clear brown liquid hydrolysate from salted fresh fish. It can be made from many fish species and a few of sea creatures; but the most common species is anchovies (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Fish sauce is essential in the diets of almost all Vietnamese and more than 250 million Southeast Asians. ...
An atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) method was performed to determine the total, inorganic, and organic arsenic in fish sauce. The total organic arsenic was calculated from the total and inorganic arsenic values quantified using the hydride generation AAS (HG-AAS). Under optimal experimental conditions at the absorbance wavelength of 193.7 nm, the concentration of inorganic arsenic in fish sauce ranged from 0.05 to 1.2 mg/L, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.015 mg/L. The detectable total arsenic concentrations varied widely, ranging from 0.03 to 2.5 mg/L with the LOD of as low as 0.01 mg/L. The practical applicability of the method was demonstrated with the recovery in the range from 97 to 102% for inorganic arsenic, and 97 to 101% for organic arsenic. The method was applied to the analysis of commercial products from Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, and Phu Quoc City, Vietnam. The total organic arsenic in fish sauce samples determined by HG-AAS was compared with the results of liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP/MS). The f-test and t-test showed null hypothesis for acceptable variance and mean at a confidence level of 95%. The results showed that the HG-AAS method had high efficiency, accuracy, and sensitivity in quantifying inorganic and total organic arsenic in fish sauce using simple instrumentation.
... Previous sensory studies on fish sauce samples only limited to taste active components in Nuoc-mam, salt-taste enhancing components in Nam-pla, kokumi peptide in Pla-ra, Yulu, Shottsuru, Ishiru and Garum (Kuroda et al., 2012;Miyamura et al, 2015;Park et al., 2002;Schindler et al., 2011), while there is more variety of fish sauces to discover. Since most of fish sauces especially in Asia were mainly made from anchovy (Lopetcharat et al., 2007), there is a need to explore more potential taste-active peptides and amino acids from anchovy proteins which covers five basic human tastes. In this article, in silico analysis is applied to screen and to perform in silico digestion in order to discover potential taste-active peptides and amino acids. ...
Enzymatic activity and microbial fermentation play a prominent role in the bioconversion of complex muscle tissue into smaller units of peptides and amino acids, possibly contribute to sensory properties. Thus, this study screens and evaluate anchovy proteins with taste-active peptides and amino acids by the reaction of multiple enzymes using an in silico approach. Information about sensory components was provided based on an in silico analysis using tools available in the BIOPEP-UWM database. Proteins from anchovy, namely myosin heavy chain 6 alpha, myosin light chain 1, cytochrome B, and NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase, were subjected to in silico digestion with the combination of 23 enzymes. This led to the release of taste-active peptides and amino acids, including umami, sweet, salty, sour, and bitter sensory properties. The combination of multiple enzymes released a more significant number of taste-active peptides and amino acids for both myosins compared to other proteins.
... On the one hand, high concentrations of salt inhibit the growth of spoilage microorganisms on account of their inherent antibacterial characteristics. On the other hand, it is beneficial to the growth of salt-tolerant or halophilic microorganisms (Lopetcharat et al. 2001). Meanwhile, salts can also improve the flavor by activating some enzymes intrinsic in the flesh of fish or microorganisms (Mariutti and Bragagnolo 2017). ...
Fish sauce is a special flavored condiment formed by traditional fermentation of low-value fish in coastal areas, which are consumed and produced in many parts of the world, especially in Southeast Asia. In the process of fish sauce fermentation, the diversity of microbial flora and the complex metabolic reactions of microorganisms, especially lipid oxidation, carbohydrate fermentation and protein degradation, are accompanied by the formation of flavor substances. However, the precise reaction of microorganisms during the fermentation process is difficult to accurately control in modern industrial production, which leads to the loss of traditional characteristic flavors in fermented fish sauces. This paper reviews the manufacturing processes, core microorganisms, metabolic characteristics and flavor formation mechanisms of fermented fish sauces at home and abroad. Various methods have been utilized to analyze and characterize the composition and function of microorganisms. Additionally, the potential safety issues of fermented fish sauces and their health benefits are also reviewed. Furthermore, some future directions and prospects of fermented fish sauces are also reviewed in this paper. By comprehensive understanding of this review, it is expected to address the challenges in the modern production of fish sauce thereby expanding its application in food or diet.
... Our results demonstrated that the type and proportion of rice bran and concentration of salt significantly influenced the volatile metabolite fingerprints of Pla-ra samples. It has been reported that different enzymes were activated and the type and activity of microbes changed at different salt levels, resulting in different end products (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Unsupervised pattern recognition was performed using PCA in order to determine the overall biomolecular characteristics of Pla-ra in association with production area and manufacturing process (Figure 2A). ...
Bacterial diversity of the Thai traditional salt fermented fish with roasted rice bran (Pla-ra) was investigated using classical and molecular approaches. Bacterial population of Pla-ra ranged from 10 ² –10 ⁶ in solid-state (SSF) and 10 ⁶ –10 ⁹ CFU/g in submerged (SMF) fermentation types. Halanaerobium spp. and Lentibacillus spp. were the main genera particularly detected when rRNA analysis was applied. Tetragenococcus halophillus were dominant during the final stage in sea salt-recipe samples while Bacillus spp. were found in those rock salt recipes. In contrast, cultural plating demonstrated that Bacillus spp., generally B. amyloliquefaciens, were the dominant genera. In addition, B. pumilus, B. autrophaeus, B.subtilis and B. velezensis shown some relations with rock salt-recipe samples. The main volatile metabolites in all samples were butanoic acid and its derivatives. Key factors affected bacterial profiles and volatile compounds of salt fermented fish were type of salt, addition of roasted rice bran, and fermenting conditions.
... Fish sauce is a clear brown liquid hydrolysate from salted fresh fish. It can be made from many fish species and a few of sea creatures; but the most common species is anchovies (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Fish sauce is essential in the diets of almost all Vietnamese and more than 250 million Southeast Asians. ...
An atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) method was performed to determine the total, inorganic, and organic arsenic in fish sauce. The total organic arsenic was calculated from the total and inorganic arsenic values quantified using the hydride generation AAS (HG-AAS). Under optimal experimental conditions at the absorbance wavelength of 193.7 nm, the concentration of inorganic arsenic in fish sauce ranged from 0.05 to 1.2 mg/L, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.015 mg/L. The detectable total arsenic concentrations varied widely, ranging from 0.03 to 2.5 mg/L with the LOD of 0.01 mg/L. The practical applicability of the method was demonstrated with the recovery in the range from 97 to 102% for inorganic arsenic, and 97 to 101% for organic arsenic. The method was applied to the analysis of commercial products from Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, and Phu Quoc City, Vietnam. The total organic arsenic in fish sauce samples determined by HG-AAS was compared with the results of liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP/MS). The The f-test and t-test showed null hypothesis acceptable for variance and mean at a confidence level of 95%. The results showed that the HG-AAS method had high efficiency, accuracy, and sensitivity in quantifying inorganic and total organic arsenic in fish sauce using simple instrumentation.
... The product is later sliced and fried in hot oil which causes it to expand into a porous, low-density product (Fang, Huang, & Sung, 2021;Kyaw et al., 1999). Fish dipping sauces, due to their characteristic flavor and taste, are popular condiments for cooking and dipping (Lopetcharat, Choi, Park, & Daeschel, 2001). Therefore, as proposed by Aguilera-Perera (2013), diversification of lionfish products is a strategy that indirectly aims to decrease the negative impact of this species by increasing its consumption. ...
Lionfish (Pterois volitans) have proliferated over the Caribbean Sea causing massive damage to coral reefs ecosystems. The development of products using lionfish is a control strategy that aims to decrease the negative impact of this species. In this research, the lionfish was processed to obtain surimi with a different set of binders (liquid egg white and starch) and high-power ultrasound. The surimi was used to elaborate two novel products: snacks and dipping sauce. A sensory panel was organized to determine the culinary applications with the highest appeal. The most liked fish snacks were obtained with ultrasound: (1) without binders and (2) with starch (3%). In case of dipping sauce, the most liked one was made by conventional method and egg white (1.5%). The use of ultrasound to obtain lionfish surimi in combination with binders demonstrated its potential to be used in the preparation of novel products with high sensory qualities.
... containing natural flavor-enhancing ingredients and left to ferment in earthen containers for 6 to 12 months (Rosma et al., 2009). Compared to other Southeast Asian fish sauces like Nuoc Mam from Vietnam and Nampla from Thailand, which are transparent, Budu is turbid and heterogeneous (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Fish sauce is a popular food condiment in Southeast Asia because of its pleasant umami flavor. ...
Budu is a Malaysian fermented anchovy sauce produced by immersing small fishes into a brine solution for 6 to 18 months. Microbial enzymes are known to contribute to fermentation; however, not much is known about the microbial community in Budu . Therefore, a better understanding of the Budu microbiome is necessary to improve the quality, consistency, and safety of the Budu products.
In this study, we collected 60 samples from 20 bottles of Budu produced by seven manufacturers. We analyzed their microbiota using V3–V4 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing when we first opened the bottle (month 0), as well as 3 and 7 months post-opening (months 3 and 7). Tetragenococcus was the dominant genus in many samples, reaching a maximum proportion of 98.62%, but was found in low abundance, or absent, in other samples. When Budu samples were not dominated by a dominant taxa, we observed a wider genera diversity such as Staphylococcus , Acinetobacter , Halanaerobium and Bacillus . While the taxonomic composition was relatively stable across sampling periods, samples from two brands showed a sudden increase in relative abundance of the genus Chromobacterium at month 7. Based on prediction of metagenome functions, non- Tetragenococcus -dominated samples were predicted to have enriched functional pathways related to amino acid metabolism and purine metabolism compared to Tetragenococcus -dominated samples; these two pathways are fundamental to fermentation quality and health attributes of fish sauce. Among the non- Tetragenococcus -dominated samples, contributions towards amino acid metabolism and purine metabolism were biased towards the dominant taxa when species evenness is low, while in samples with higher species evenness, the contributions towards the two pathways were predicted to be evenly distributed between taxa. Our results demonstrated that the utility of 16S sequencing to assess batch variation in fermented food production. The distinct microbiota was shown to correlate with characteristic metagenome function including functions potentially related to fermented food nutrition and quality.
... Moreover, the quality of sauce was determined by amino proteins content and the activity of protease directly affected amino proteins content (Lu et al., 2009). Lopetcharat et al. (2001) reported that amino proteins contributed significantly to the aroma of soy sauce. From the results, the amino protein and reducing sugar contents decreased when prolonging the fermentation time. ...
Oyster mushrooms are used as raw materials for sauce because of their enhanced nutritious and sensory flavour. The study was aimed to select the optimal parameters of moromi fermentation of oyster mushrooms sauce. Optimizing moromi fermentation from oyster mushrooms by response surface method (RSM) was conducted with 3 factors including salt concentration (15-25% w/v), the brine ratio [150-250% (compared to raw materials, v/w)] and fermentation time (50-70 days). The central composite design used for optimizing the effect of salt concentration, amount of brine and fermentation time showed that the parameters were in agreement with the quadratic regression models well with R2 >0.95. Based on the response surface plots, the optimal parameters of moromi fermentation were salt concentration 20% (w/v), brine ratio 190% (compared to raw materials, v/w) and 60 days of fermentation time. In the optimized condition, the chemical composition (reducing sugar, amino protein, total acids) and the bioactive compounds (βglucan, total phenolic, total flavonoid) (per kg of dry matter) of fermentation sauce were 258.94 g, 204.76 g, 99.06 g, 86.57 g, 108.32 mg TAE and 93.78 mg QE, respectively
Lipidomics is a rapidly expanding field of study that provides a comprehensive approach to the analysis of lipids in meat and fish food products. Lipidomics has become an important tool for evaluating the functional quality of animal and fish products as well as their potential health benefits. This review article provides an overview of the current state of the art in lipidomics for food assessment and its application in improving the quality and nutritional value of animal and fish food. This review covers a wide range of topics, including an examination of the lipid content and composition of animal and fish products, the effect of processing and storage conditions on lipid quality, and the potential health benefits of consuming lipid-rich animal and fish products. It also covers the important roles that lipids play in animal and fish products, such as their impact on flavor, texture, and stability. The article concludes with a discussion of the future directions of lipidomics research and the potential applications of this technology in the food industry. This review article provides valuable information for researchers, food scientists, and industry professionals who are interested in exploring the functional quality of animal and fish products through the lens of lipidomics.
[in Japanese]
Graphical Abstract Fullsize Image
The fermentation of Malaysian fish sauce (budu) varies from one to twelve months depending on the producer, resulting in inconsistent quality. The microbiota, their predicted metabolic pathways and volatile metabolites profiles were determined at different stages of budu fermentation. Budu fermented for 1 and 3 months were characterized by the presence of Gram negative Enterobacterales, Gammaproteobacteria, and Fusobacteriaceae, which continuously decrease in abundance over fermentation time. The metabolic pathways prediction grouped 1- and 3- month budu in a cluster enriched with degradation reactions. 6-month budu were dominated by Halanaerobium and Staphylococcus, while the 12-month were dominated by Lentibacillus, Bacilli, and Halomonas. Biosynthesis-type predicted pathways involving protein and lipid derivatives were enriched in 6- and 12-month fermented budu, accumulating 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, methyl 2-ethyldecanoate, 2-phenylacetaldehyde, 3-methylbutanal, and 3-methylbutanoic acid. These compounds may indicate budu maturity and quality. This result may assist as a reference for quality control and fermentation monitoring.
Traditionally produced fish sauce can contain significant amounts of histamine. In some instances, the histamine concentration may be well above the limit recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The aim of this study was to discover new bacterial strains capable of growing under the stressful environmental conditions of fish sauce fermentation and metabolizing histamine. In this study, 28 bacterial strains were isolated from Vietnamese fish sauce products based on their ability to grow at high salt concentrations (23% NaCl) and tested for their ability to degrade histamine. Strain TT8.5 showed the highest histamine-degradation (45.1±0.2% of initially 5mM histamine within 7 days) and was identified as Virgibacillus campisalis TT8.5. Its histamine-degrading activity was shown to be localized intracellularly and the enzyme is a putative histamine dehydrogenase. The strain exhibited optimal growth and histamine-degrading activity at 37oC, pH 7, and 5% NaCl in halophilic archaea (HA) histamine broth. It also showed pronounced histamine-degrading activity in HA histamine broth when cultivated at temperatures of up to 40°C as well as in the presence of up to 23% NaCl. After treatment with immobilized cells, 17.6% to 26.9% of the initial histamine in various fish sauce products were reduced within 24h of incubation, while no significant changes in other parameters of fish sauce quality were observed after this treatment. Our results indicate that V. campisalis TT8.5 is of potential interest to be applied in histamine degradation of traditional fish sauce.
Fermented striped snake-head fish, known as Pla-ra, is a popular traditional food that is eaten throughout Thailand. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are found as the dominant microorganisms in many fermented fish products. The primary role of LAB is to ferment the available carbohydrates, and thereby causes a decrease in pH. The combination of low pH and organic acids (mainly lactic acid) are the main preservative factors found in fermented fish products. The purpose of this study was to determine the change in physicochemical properties, amino acid composition, and active volatile compounds of Pla-ra, by adding halophilic bacteria and LAB into the fish fermentation. The results revealed that the pH of the 8 Pla-ra treatments were found between 5.33 - 5.63, and the salt content of all Pla-ra treatments, ranged from 20.60 to 22.28 %. The increase in total acidity and the degree of hydrolysis (DH), is generally accompanied by a decrease in pH. The FMP treatment had the highest total acidity, protein, salt, DH and amino acid contents, but had the lowest pH. The important amino acids in all 8 Pla-ra treatments were glutamic acid, lysine, and leucine. There were 43 volatile compounds detected in Pla-ra, and the 7 prime ones were aldehyde, alcohol, ester, furan, pyrazine, sulfur, and ketone. Micrococcus sp., Bacillus subtilis and Pediococcus halophilus strains, and roasted rice powder were added to the fish fermentation, which greatly enhanced the flavour and volatile compounds in Pla-ra. HIGHLIGHTS Halophilic bacteria and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) added into the striped snake-head fish or Pla-Chon fermentation were greatly enhanced the flavour and volatile compounds in Pla-ra Striped snake-head fish fermentation can be accelerated by the addition of halophilic bacteria and LAB, and roasted rice powder 9 Non-essential amino acids and 9 essential amino acids were detected in Pla-ra Dominant amino acids in all 8 Pla-ra treatments were glutamic acid, lysine, and leucine 43 Volatile compounds were detected in Pla-ra with aldehyde, alcohol, ester, furan, pyrazine, sulfur, and ketone were the 7 prime ones GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
Pacific whiting (PW) is an inexpensive, protease rich fish which make it an excellent candidate as a source for fish sauce. However, fish sauce fermentation requires elevated ambient temperatures (20–35 °C) for 12–18 mo. Ambient temperature where PW is harvested ranges from 1 to 20 °C and therefore external heating would be required. To make fish sauce from PW economically feasible, both accelerated fermentation and a heat process that is not energy intensive would be required. Ohmic heating is an alternative heating process that uses less energy than conventional heating. This project evaluated fish sauce produced using step-wise thermal treatments with conventional indirect heating (water bath) or alternative direct heating (ohmic). Three parts whole PW was comminuted with 1 part salt then fermented using a step-wise thermal treatment protocol to target endogenous protease activity optimums: 25 °C, 1 wk; 35 °C, 1 wk; 55 °C, 6 wk. Ohmic heated samples had significantly higher brownness, taste value, and overall nitrogen content (p < 0.05). The difference was hypothesized to be due to electroporation and consistent heat. This study discovered that ohmic heating can be utilized for Pacific whiting fish sauce production as it not only provides heat cost effectively, but also significantly accelerates fermentation quality factors.
Proteinase‐producing halophilic archaea were isolated from Thai fish sauce collected from industrial fermentation tanks at various periods of fermentation. Five isolates namely, J‐1‐S4, J‐1‐S13, J‐1‐S22, 2 m‐40‐15‐R2, and P‐1‐S8, were identified as Halobacterium salinarum with slightly different colony and morphological characteristics among isolates. Starters of five isolates were prepared and added to the anchovy mixed with 25% solar salt and fermented for 180 days at 30–35°C. Halophilic bacteria/archaea counts of inoculated samples were decreased and undetected after 120 days of fermentation. At 180 days of fermentation, α‐amino group contents of inoculated fish sauce samples (856–1010 mM) and total nitrogen content (2.2%–2.5%) were higher than the control without archaea inoculation (p < 0.05). All samples contained low amounts of biogenic amines, suggesting that all starters were not biogenic amine formers. The major volatile compound found in samples inoculated with H. salinarum P‐1‐S8 and H. salinarum 2 m‐40‐15‐R2 was 3‐methylbutanal, which contributes to the meaty note. Dimethyl disulfide, a compound that contributes to fecal note, was detected in all inoculated samples in a lower amount than in the commercial fish sauce (p < 0.05). Thus, H. salinarum accelerated protein hydrolysis and produced desirable volatile compounds during fish sauce fermentation in a strain‐specific manner.
Today, information technology has enabled the accumulation of large amounts of data from social websites and the simple extraction of such data using search engines. The history of data extraction would reflect the people's interests and be useful to understand consumer behavior. On the other hand, fish sauce production is gaining interest because inedible fish materials and fish with low market value can be used to produce fish sauce; hence, many varieties of fish sauces are produced throughout Japan. This study aimed to give new value to salmon fish sauce based on data-mining of the internet activity of consumers and electronic sensor analyses of the products. Mining Google search activity indicated that Japanese consumers associate fish sauce produced in Japan with a limited type of dishes, namely nabe cuisine (a Japanese-style stew). It also suggested the increasing popularity of shirako as an ingredient in nabe cuisine. Based on these findings, we attempted to produce salmon fish sauce by supplementing the fermentation materials with shirako, as well as by using salmon of low market value. The products were evaluated with an e-panel, a combination of electronic nose (e-nose), tongue (e-tongue), and eye (e-eye) analyses. The results indicated that the fish sauce products made with low-quality salmon compared favorably to those made with high-quality salmon, and supplementing the fermentation materials with shirako does not significantly affect the flavor, taste, or appearance of the products.
Fish sauce is a popular condiment for cooking and dipping, especially in Southeastern Asian countries, owing to its distinctive flavor and taste. Biochemically, proteins in fish are degraded into small molecules, which contribute to taste. Fish sauce is prepared with halophilic bacteria, which also contribute to its flavor. In this study, we assessed the chemical properties of 46 fish sauce products from Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, and Italy using chemical and electric nose (e-nose) analyses. Fish sauce products exhibited significant variations in salt concentration, protein degradation products, acidic compounds, as well as flavors characterized with the e-nose. These variations probably arise from differences in procedures for preparation of fish sauce products, and are related to country-specific preferences and acceptance for food taste and flavor selected by consumers.
Fish sauce is a product that is widely used around the world, has a characteristic odor and is obtained from salted fish. In the modern diet, fish sauces, like other sauces, have become an indispensable part of the meal as a flavoring. In this study, with the aim of producing fish sauce from sardine fish (Sardina pilchardus), which is identified with Çanakkale-Gelibolu, and determining the sensory properties of the product, sauces were produced with three different salinity rates (10-15-20%). The obtained product groups were examined by trained panelists according to pre-defined characteristics within descriptive sensory analysis. The color characteristics of the products were determined by instrumental analysis. As a result of the study, caramelized, fermented, fishy and partially roasted aromas were clearly determined in all fish sauces. In terms of basic taste, an umami taste dominated by sourness was determined in 10% salty sauces, while only saltiness was dominant in 15% and 20% salty sauces. In the aromas left in the mouth after tasting, the fishy taste was dominant in the product prepared with 10% salt, the presence of salty and caramelized taste was determined in the 15% salty ones. It was observed that the salt taste was dominant and the other aromas were suppressed in the 20% salty sauces. According to color properties, while the L* values of the sauces were determined in the range of 45.12-52.19, the a* value of sauces prepared with 10%, 15%, and 20% salinity was 3.30, 3.37, and 15.47, respectively. The b* values of the sauces were 20.11, 32.94 and 49.31, respectively, with the increase in salinity. The color results indicated that 10% and 15% salted fish sauces resulted in lighter brown color than the other sauces in terms of color intensity and the desired amber color level was reached in 20% salted fish sauce. As a result, among the fish sauce groups, the sauce prepared with 15% salinity was generally the best product group.
In order to investigate the presence of S. aureus in some dairy products in Baghdad markets, a total of 50 samples were collected randomly from different regions and markets in Baghdad from November 2021 to January 2022. The samples were analyzed and processed according to standard reference food microbiological protocols, with some modifications by the authors.
Traditional fermentation of fish sauce is mainly carried out by complex microbial communities from raw anchovies and processing environments. However, it is still unclear how the environmental microbiota influences the quality and the safety of fish sauce products.
This study aims to investigate the effect of cold (5 ± 2 °C) and ambient (33 ± 2 °C) storage conditions on the storage quality of anchovy fish (Engraulis encrasicolus) sauce. Fish samples were obtained from Qarun Lake, Egypt, during the summer of 2019. They were dry-salted with a salt content of 20% (w/w) and stored at a range of 28–32 °C for 60 days. Plain sauce was treated with 0.1% of garlic (Allium sativum), black seed (Nigella sativa), rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) and jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) extracts, and stored at different conditions. The results showed that the plain sauce had a pH of 6.17, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) of 72.23 mg/100 ml, free amino nitrogen (FAN) of 12.86 mg/100 ml, acid value (AV) of 0.63 mg KOH/ml oil, and free fatty acids (FFAs) of 0.66 mg/100 ml. Fish sauce with garlic was the best compared to others based on sensory evaluation. With regard to the effect of storage conditions on the efficacy of plant extracts, it was found that at 33 ± 2 °C jojoba, black seed and rosemary extracts controlled most quality indices, whereas at 5 ± 2 °C all extracts were more effective in controlling the quality indices of the anchovy sauce. In conclusion, this study suggests that plant extracts especially under cold storage could improve the storage quality and extended shelf life of anchovy sauce. In general, both storage conditions and periods affected the protein and lipid hydrolysis of the fish sauce samples. Fish sauce is safe for human consumption based on the international permissible values. In addition, the resultant dried cake can be exploited in the field of food industry as a value-added product.
Small rock oyster (Saccostrea spp.) are abundant in the Province of Samar and presently there is no oyster sauce produced from this species available in the Philippine markets. Hence, this study aimed to produce small rock oyster sauce at different concentrations (i.e. 70, 80 and 90%; treatments 1–3) and investigated their microbial and sensorial qualities. Based on the result of the overall acceptability of sensory evaluation, treatment 1 containing 70% of small rock oyster extract showed no significant difference with the control commercial oyster sauce suggesting that the treatment 1 is the most acceptable product. There is no microbiological standard limit for fermented fishery products in the Philippines. The total plate counts of the treatments ranged from 3.64 to 4.62 log CFU ml–1. Halophilic bacteria were present in all treatments, ranging from 3.49 – 4.67 log CFU ml–1. Also, lactic acid bacteria were detected in all treatments, ranged from 1.75 – 3.07 CFU ml–1. This study concludes that the small rock oyster sauce produced locally can compete with the available commercial oyster sauces in the market.
Kecap ikan adalah salah satu produk hasil fermentasi dengan bahan baku ikan. Ikan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah ikan tongkol ( Euthynnus Affinis C. ) yang merupakan hasil tertinggi komoditi perikanan di Sulawesi Utara yang memiliki kandungan protein, asam lemak omega-3, vitamin dan mineral yang tinggi dan juga sangat kaya gizi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan konsentrasi terbaik dari buah nenas yang ditambahkan dan meningkatkan pengaruh konsentrasi buah nenas terhadap lama fermentasi dan profil asam amino. Penelitian menggunakan penambahan sari buah nanas dengan konsentrasi (0%, 10%, 15% dan 20%) dan garam 10% dengan lama penyimpanan selama 10 hari dalam inkubator.Variabel yang diamati dalam penelitian ini adalah Asam Amino, Kadar Protein, Kadar Karbohidrat, Kadar Lemak, Kadar Nitrogen, Kadar Abu, Kadar Air, dan pH. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sampel kecap ikan sari buah nanas 15% dengan garam 10% dapat mempercepat proses hidrolisis pada hari ke-10. Dari mutu kimiawi, hasil laporan asam amino LC / MS didapatkan 9 kandungan utama yang ada pada kecap ikan tongkol 15% yaitu: L-Leucine, L-Valine, L-Tryosine, L-Cystine, AABA, L-Alanine, L-Glutamic Asam, Glisin, dan L-Serin.Hasil analisis kandungan proksimat (kadar air 61,3%, kadar abu 9,22%, kadar lemak 1,52%, kadar protein 3,98%, kadar karbohidrat 3,11%) pada kecap ikan tongkol 15% masih dalam standar mutu kecap ikan yang baik, dan kandungan nitrogen kecap ikan tongkol 15% dapat memenuhi Standar Industri Thailand Grade 1.
Fermented fish products have been in existence in Sub-Saharan Africa from time immemorial due to the prolonged shelf life of the product when there was no access to electricity. It has the potential of improving the economy and standard of living of people if properly harnessed. Africans have different fermented fish products including gyagawere, adjuevan, bunyi, youri, momone, djegue, jalan, aku, guedj, fessiekh, terkeen/mindeshi tambadiang, yet, salanga. Advantages of fish fermentation include; using microorganisms naturally present in fermented fish to add flavouring and biogenic amines to the product, many microorganisms involved in fish fermentation also have antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihypertensive, enzymatic, anticoagulant and fibrinolytic activities while peptides from fermented fish stimulate the proliferation of human white blood cells at low concentration. However, it could be a source of nematodes and heavy metals if poorly prepared. Scientists from the region should therefore consider more research in the area of fermentation as a method of fish preservation. All stakeholders should also shift attention to the development and production of fermented fish products in Africa to reduce postharvest fish loss and improve African economy.
The intensive amount of chemical usage in agricultural practices could contribute to a significant impact on food safety issues and environmental health. Over-usage of chemical fertilisers may alter soil characteristics and contaminate water sources, leading to several human and animal health issues. Recently, there have been efforts to use microbial biofertilisers as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural practice in the common household of Southeast Asia. Traditionally, this method tends to utilise leftover food materials and readily available bacterial cultures, such as yoghurt drinks, and ferment them under a specific period in either solid or liquid form. So far, most of the testimonial-based feedbacks from local communities have been positive, but only limited information is available in the literature regarding the usage of biofertiliser fermented food (BFF). Previously, raw food waste has been used in the agriculture system to promote plant growth, however, the functional role of fermented food in enhancing plant growth have yet to be discovered. An understanding of the symbiotic relationship between fermented food and plants could be exploited to improve agricultural plant production more sustainably. Fermented food is known to be rich in good microbial flora (especially lactic acid bacteria (LAB)). LAB exist in different sources of fermented food and can act as a plant growth-promoting agent, improving the nutrient availability of food waste and other organic materials. Therefore, in this review, the potential use of seafood-based, plant-based, and animal-based fermented food as biofertiliser, especially from Southeast Asia, will be discussed based on their types and microbial and nutritional contents. The different types of fermented food provide a wide range of microbial flora for the enrichment of proteins, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals content in enhancing plant growth and overall development of the plant. The current advances of biofertiliser and practices of BFF will also be discussed in this review.
Background
Seafood processing activity causes production of considerable amount of waste/by-products and discards, resulting in negative economic and environmental impacts. Management of sustainable utilisation of seafood resources is essential to avoid environmental problems and provide resource sustainability.
Scope and approach
Fishery discards and seafood by-products are rich in bioactive compounds, including omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, peptides, enzymes, gelatine, collagen, chitin, vitamins, polyphenolic constituents, carotenoids etc. Fish discards are also regarded as a good and cheap material for biodiesel production. These high value added compounds have potential applications in many industrial sectors including food, nutraceuticals, pharmacology, medical, agriculture, depending on their functional and structural characteristics. This review will provide a comprehensive information on recent approaches for valorisation of bioactive compounds derived from discards and seafood by products.
Key findings and conclusions
Many studies on the bioactive compounds derived from fishery discards and processing by-products were carried out in terms of nutritional and functional properties. Further studies on bioavailability of nutrients, yield, physicochemical properties, interaction with other ingredients, together with innovative approaches for extraction methods and legislation and safety issues should be considered
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The purpose of the present study has been to develop simple fish preservation techniques applicable at artisanal level in developing countries in the tropical zone. Mesophilic motile Aeromonas spp. which were classified as specific spoilage bacteria of Nile perch (Lates niloticus) from Lake Victoria stored at ambient temperature were inhibited in laboratory model systems using NaCl, potassium sorbate, and liquid smoke. Growth was not detected when the salt concentration exceeded 5% or the temperature was below 5°C. At 25-37°C growth occurred within 24 h when no preservation was applied, but a combination of 5% salt and 1000 ppm sorbate inhibited growth at 25-37°C. Liquid smoke inhibited growth at 37°C only when an initial low inoculum (102 CFU/ml) was used. Based on the model experiments, trials were carried out in Kenya and a lightly preserved fish product stable at ambient temperature was developed. The addition of 1.5% salt (w/w) and 1500 ppm sorbate (w/w) followed by 3 d of sun-drying resulted in a lightly brown, well preserved fish product which could be produced at artisanal level and was palatable to local consumers. Good agreement was seen between results from model experiments and trials with fish. Copyright © International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians.
The biogenic amine content of various foods has been widely studied because of their potential toxicity. Biogenic amines, such as tyramine and β-phenylefhylamine, have been proposed as the initiators of hypertensive crisis in certain patients and of dietary-induced migraine. Another amine, histamine, has been implicated as the causative agent in several outbreaks of food poisoning. Histamine poisoning is a foodborne chemical intoxication resulting from the ingestion of foods containing excessive amounts of histamine. Although commonly associated with the consumption of scombroid-type fish, other foods such as cheese have also been associated with outbreaks of histamine poisoning. Fermented foods such as wine, dry sausage, sauerkraut, MISO, and soy sauce can also contain histamine along with other biogenic amines. Microorganisms possessing the enzyme histidine decarboxylase, which converts histidine to histamine, are responsible for the formation of histamine in foods. One organism, Lactobacillus buchneri, may be important to the dairy industry due to its involvement in cheese-related outbreaks of histamine-poisoning. The toxicity of histamine appears to be enhanced by the presence of other biogenic amines found in foods that can inhibit histamine-metabolizing enzymes in the small intestine. Estimating the frequency of histamine poisoning is difficult because most countries do not regulate histamine levels in foods, nor do they require notification when an incident of histamine poisoning occurs. Also, because histamine poisoning closely resembles a food allergy, it may often be misdiagnosed. This review will focus on the importance of histamine and biogenic amines in cheese and other fermented foods. Copyright © International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians.
To establish the quality criteria of low-salt fermented seafoods in terms of consumer acceptability, sensory assessment and physicochemical analysis were undertaken using commercial products. In case of low-salt fermented Alaska pollack (Theragra chalcogramma) roe, Brix over for unseasoned products and for seasoned ones were considered as acceptable products. In spite of some variations between manufacturers, increase in whiteness was observed as consumer acceptability was decreased. In contrast, whiteness was not suitable criteria for low-salt fermented squid (Sepiella maindroni). Brix can be used as good criteria as long as its relationship was established to acceptability of different products; pH also showed the same tendency as Brix. In case of low-salt fermented Alaska pollack tripe, Brix was likely to be the best criteria; whiteness, in addition, could be used as quality criteria.
The specific activity of histidine-decarboxylase of halophilic histamine-forming bacteria, Photobacterium phosphoreum and Photobacterium histaminum sp. nov., remained 27∼53% of the initial value after seven days storage at −20°C, while the viable cells decreased by more than 6 log cycles of the initial counts. This finding suggests the possibility that outbreaks of scombroid fish poisoning are caused by the ingestion of frozen-thawed fish and its products, even when the viable count of histamine-forming bacteria is low.
The chemical and microbiological analyses of putrid shotturu (fish sauce) were carried out in order to compare them with the normal products investigated in the preceeding article. The results were as follows: pH 6.2-6.3, NaCl 26.5-27.0%, total nitrogen 658–693 mg/100 ml, volatile basic nitrogen 89.1-95.2/100 m/, trimethylamine 12.2-32.1 mg-N/100 ml. The volatile acids showed high values of 92.9 mg/100 ml for acetic acid and 25.8 mg/100 ml for n-butyric acid. The aerobic and anaerobic viable cell counts in 2.5% Nacl- and 20% NaCl-medium increased up to 5.8 x 10⁶-2.8 x 10⁷/m/, though the counts drastically changed during storage. The dominant microflora (aerobes) of putrid shotturu in 2.5 % NaCI-medium were the bacteria of genus Streptococcus, and the one in 20% Nacl-medium were the members of Halobacterium, Micrococcus, Bacillus and unidentified cocci. © 1984, The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science. All rights reserved.
The chemical and microbiological analyses of patis (fish sauce) and bagoong (fish paste) produced in the Philippines were carried out. The composition of patis was as fallows: pH 5.1, ash 22.5%, water content 66.2%, NaCl 29.1%, total nitrogen 1550 mg/100 ml, volatile basic nitrogen 151 mg/100 ml, trimethylamine 14.9 mg-N/100 ml, hydrogen sulfide 130ng/ml, and viable cell count 4.5×10³cells/ml. The composition of bagoong was as follows: pH 5.2, ash 22.8%, water content 61.6%, NaCl 30.2%, total nitrogen 1450 mg/100 ml (supernatant liquid) and 2290 mg/100 ml (fish paste), volatile basic nitrogen 175 mg/100 ml, trimethylamine 15.2 mg-N/100 ml, hydrogen sulfide 11.5 ng/ml, and viable cell count 6.5× 10³ cells/ml. The classification of bacteria at the genus level was performed on 40 strains isolated from bagoong. The dominant flora were Bacillus, Micrococcus and Moraxella, some of which can grow well on the medium containing more than 20% NaCl. © 1980, The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science. All rights reserved.
Organic acid and mineral concentrations were analyzed along with β-buffer capacity measurement to characterize Chinese and Korean soy and fish sauce. The organic acid composition of Chinese products resembled that of Japanese ordinary soy sauce (Koikuchi) and lactic and succinic acids formed about 70% of total organic acid. However, these two organic acids occupied less than half of the total amount in Korean products and volatile acids such as formic acid accounted for a considerable part. In Chinese soy sauce, the magnitude of the β-buffer capacity was parallel with sweetness and Umami, although saltiness and bitterness showed a counter correlation with the β-buffer capacity. Korean soy sauces showed almost the same curve as each other and no clear feature was observed with reference to their flavor. Small but distinct peaks, resulting from the presence of fish extractive constituents, were observed in the case of the fish sauce-buffer curve.
This study aims to clarify the role of brine which was used for the production of fermented sardine Etrumeus micropus with rice-bran (FSR). Fermented sardine in brine (FSB) was experimentally prepared by soaking salted sardine in brine. Most of the nitrogenous components in FSB were higher than those of FSR, while microbial counts of FSB were lower than those of FSR. The content of histamine and tyramine in FSB during the fermentation was higher than that of FSR. During the fermentation alkaline protease activity in FSB was higher than that of FSR. The crude enzyme prepared from brine showed a significantly higher alkaline protease activity. Sardine homogenates were enzymatically hydrolyzed with the addition of various crude enzymes (brine, koji, and rice-bran), and the amino-N (nitrogen) contents were determined. Amino-N content of sardine homogenate with antibiotics was also determined. Amino-N content of each hydrolysate increased after incubation. The degree of enzymatic hydrolysis by brine was higher than those by koji and rice-bran; the degree of enzymatic hydrolysis with antibiotics was almost the same as that without the enzymes and antibiotics. These results showed that brine might play an important role in the protein decomposition of FSR during its fermentation.
This chapter focuses on the profile method of flavor analysis and tabulates the flavor methodology. The flavor profile marks a step in the development of the field of sensory flavor testing. It was designed as an additional aid in solving flavor problems. Like other techniques of taste testing, the profile was developed to meet needs arising in the expanding food industry. To see the flavor profile's relationship to the various flavor-testing approaches and to understand its origin and purpose, it is necessary to look briefly at the development of the field of analytical sensory flavor testing. The flavor profile of a food almost invariably includes two parts: analysis of the aroma, followed by analysis of the flavor-by-mouth. The dimensions of flavor analysis by the profile method include: perceptible aroma and flavor factors; degree of intensity of each factor; order in which these factors are perceived; aftertaste; and overall impressions of aroma and flavor, referred to as amplitudes. Two types of flavor profile records have been employed. Both provide the same information.
The chemical and microbiological analyses of shotturu (Japanese fish sauce) produced in Akita district were carried out. The composition of shotturu was as follows: pH 6.0, NaCl 27,5-27.8%, total nitrogen 644–735 mg/100 m/, volatile basic nitrogen 74,4-82.0 mg/100 ml, trimethylamine 8.4-12.4 mg-N/100 ml and acetic acid 19.3 mg/100 ml. Both aerobic and anaerobic viable cell counts in 2.5% NaCl- and 20% NaCl-medium were between the range of 2.3 x 10³-3.6x 10δ/ml. The dominant microbial flora were Vibrionaceae and Bacillus in 2.5% NaCl-medium, and the members of genus Halobacterium, Bacillus and unidentified cocci in 20 % NaCl-medium. © 1984, The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science. All rights reserved.
Proximate and free amino acid compositions of Chinese, Korean, and Japanese traditional sauce made from grain or fish were analyzed to describe not only their common and individual characteristics but also their formative role in the food culture of the pan-Japan Sea region. Ordinary Japanese soy sauce (Koikuchi type) was used as a comparative index. Since wheat bran is used in China as one of the principal raw materials, Chinese soy sauce contained higher glutamic acid and a little less lysine than that the Japanese product. Korean soy sauce was generally rich in glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and arginine because hydrolyzed vegetable protein was added as a supplementary material to the fermented sauce. The amino acid composition of the Chinese fish sauce was similar to that of the Japanese product, but the total amount was almost half.
Effects of temperature and NaCl on trimethylamine (TMA) production by some bacteria were examined. The addition of a high concentration of NaCl to the medium at 5°C inhibited more strongly TMA production than bacterial growth as compared with at 20°C. The optimum temperature of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) reductase activity was 36°C and the optimum NaCl concentration of it ranged from 2 to 3 %. The reductase was induced by TMAO. The level of induction of the reductase in the cells grown at 20°C was almost constant in the NaCl concentrations of 1.5 to 5 %. But the level of it in the cells grown at 5°C decreased as the NaCl concentration increased. It is assumed that the depression of TMA production by addition of NaCl at high concentrations at low temperature is probably caused by both the decreased enzyme activity and the repression of the enzyme synthesis. © 1979, The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science. All rights reserved.
Commercial Philippine fish sauce (Patis) was steam-distilled and the distillate was fractionated into four fractions, neutral, basic, acidic and phenolic and each fraction was analyzed using gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As a result of this study, a total of 66 compounds were identified in Patis, 14 of which were only a tentative identification. Out of these 66 identified compounds, 40 identified compounds have not been reported in previous studies on fish sauces. These identified compounds include 19 acids, 14 alcohols, 12 nitrogen containing compounds, 5 esters, 3 sulfur containing compounds, 1 phenol, 3 carbonyls, 7 hydrocarbons and 2 others. In the acidic fraction, 5 acids were considered major constituents which accounted for about 98% of the total acids. «-Butanoic acid was found to be the most abundant accounting for about 50% of the total acids.
Comparative study on the aromas of three kinds of fish sauces, Shottsuru, Nampla and Noucmam was conducted. Volatile compounds of all samples were separately collected by steam distillation, and separated and identified by gas chromatography and gas chromatography massspectrometry, respectively.
Subjectively, these three fish sauces revealed aromas different from each other. A total of 50, 44 and 49 volatile compounds were identified in Shottsuru, Nampla and Noucmam respectively. Acids, alcohols, nitrogen-containing compounds, sulfur-containing compounds, lactones, esters, phenols, carbonyls and hydrocarbons were among the main groups of volatile compounds identified. The differences in the aromas of the samples were thought to be due to the differences in the level of concentrations of the major acids. Moreover, some differences in the kinds of the minor volatile compounds were possible contributing factors in the differences of the total aromas.
The bacterial flora in 9 solar salt samples imported in 1972 were investigated. Bacterial counts were conducted by the smear plate method using media containing 0, 5, 5, 12, and 25% NaCl. In general, the highest bacterial counts, ranging from 103 to 105 bacteria per gram of salt, were obtained in 25% NaCl medium.It was shown that most of the bacteria present in salt samples could not grow in 5% or less NaCl. Among 63 strains isolated from 25% NaCl containing medium 49 were identified as genus Halobacterium. These organisms were obligately aerobic, catalase positive, non-motile, rod-shaped, and required at least 12%. NaCl for growth, with the optimal salt concentration being in the range of 20 to 30%. They failed to produce hydrogen sulfide and indole. Most of them produced water insoluble red pigment, and produced nitrite from nitrate. In addition to the rod-shaped bacteria described above, 2 strains of red-colored, extremely halophilic coccus, Micrococcus morrhuae, were isolated. Furthermore, a few strains of rods or cocci which were able to grow in the range of 5 to 25% NaCl were found. Among these organisms the pigmented rod forms were identified as genus Flavobacterium, and the cocci were Micrococcus.
Male, inshore capelin and salt (4:1 w/w) were used to prepare fish sauce. Addition of proteolytic enzymes (fungal protease, pronase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, squid protease) or squid hepatopancreas to minced and salted capelin inceased the rate of protein solubilization during the first month of the fermentation. After 13 months, the free amino acid content of fish sauce prepared from mince was 4.4% compared to only 2.7% for sauce prepared from round fish and 6.3% for sauce prepared from mince containing hepatopancreas. Supplementing mince with fungal protease, pronase, or trypsin resulted in somewhat lower yields of free amino acid, 3.3, 3.3 and 3.6%, respectively. Alanine was the most abundant free amino acid in all samples (11.9–13.0 mole %) except pronase supplemented mince (15.6 mole % leucine) and hepatopancreas sup-plemented mince (11.5 mole % glutamic).
Gram-positive and catalase-positive cocci isolated from fermented fish and soy sauce mash were systematically studied based on phenotypic and chemotaxonomic characteristics. They were separated into 2 groups (A and B) by photobiotin labeling DNA-DNA hybridization. Of 18 isolates studied, 10 (Group A) showed DNA homologies of more than 69% compared to the type strain of Staphylococcus carnosus and were identified as S. carnosus. Eight isolates (Group B) showed DNA homologies of less than 50% compared to the type strain of S. carnosus and no relatedness to the reference strains of Staphylococcus species. The DNA base composition of these two groups ranged from 34.4 to 37.3 mol% of guanine plus cytosine. They contained MK-7 as a major menaquinone and MK-6 or MK-6 and MK-8 as minor menaquinones, and the tested strains had anteiso-C15:0 as a major fatty acid. Detailed characteristics of S. carnosus were described.
This paper describes simple methods for diversified utilization of fish stomach and intestines for food, feed and biotechnological purposes. A high concentration of pepsin (9 g/litre) was obtained by ultrafiltration of the aqueous phase from a cod-stomach silage preserved with formic acid. A concentrate of trypsin-like enzymes could be obtained by ultrafiltration of fish sauce produced by salt fermentation of cod intestines. The permeate from the ultrafiltration contained the major part of proteinous material (peptides and amino acids), and had a palatable taste similar to traditional fish sauce. The results show that 7 litres of enzyme concentrate and 50 litres of fish sauce can be produced from 100 kg cod intestines within 16 days of fermentation at 27°C.
Volatiles from the headspace gas of fish sauce with no change in the pH (pH as is) were trapped in a Tenax TA column and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC-mass spectrometry (MS). Fish sauce was alkalized (pH 11.0) to enhance the release of nitrogenous and sulfurous compounds and was likewise analyzed. About 124 volatile compounds, including 20 nitrogen-containing compounds, 20 alcohols, 18 sulfur-containing compounds, 16 ketones, 10 aromatic hydrocarbons, 8 acids, 8 aldehydes, 8 esters, 4 furans, and 12 miscellaneous compounds, were definitely and tentatively identified. Detection of highly volatile nitrogenous and sulfurous compounds such as trimethylamine and dimethyl disulfide, which could not be easily detected by already existing methods, was enhanced after alkalization. Keywords: Headspace gas; volatile compounds; odor; fish sauce
Volatile compounds in fish sauce were isolated by a column concentration method using Porapak Q and by a simultaneous distillation and extraction method with diethyl ether under reduced pressure. Column concentration isolates were further fractionated by silica gel column chromatography and organoleptically evaluated. About 155 volatile compounds, including 14 acids, 36 carbonyls, 17 nitrogen-containing compounds, and 10 sulfur-containing compounds, were identified. Column concentration could be a suitable method for isolating volatile compounds in fish sauce. Large amounts of acids, large numbers of carbonyls and sulfur-containing compounds, such as, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, and 3-(methylthio)propanal, as well as many types of nitrogen-containing compounds are thought to be major contributors to fish sauce odor. Keywords: Fish sauce; odor; volatile compounds
Forty-three previously unidentified compounds have been found in Nam-pla fermented fish sauce. This included 8 acids, 10 alcohols, 6 amines, 7 other nitrogen-containing compounds, 4 lactones, 3 carbonyls, and 5 sulfur-containing compounds. The fish sauce was solvent extracted in order to obtain a flavor isolate. This isolate was fractionated into acidic, neutral, and basic fractions via pH adjustment and liquid-liquid extraction in order to facilitate gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. All gas chromatography was done by using fused silica Carbowax 20M capillary columns.
The aroma of fermented fish sauce comprises three distinct notes, cheesy, meaty and ammoniacal. Analysis showed that the cheesy odour was produced by lower fatty acids and the ammoniacal odour by ammonia and amines. The meatyaroma was much more complicated and was not analysed, but it was shown that it could be produced by atmospheric oxidation of precursors that were still present in mature sauces. Individual fatty acids were determined in sauces at various stages of fermentation and an hypothesis explaining the origin of the acids is deduced from the results.
The changes that occur during the commercial production of budu, a Malaysian fish sauce were examined. It was shown that the maximum volume of liquid was produced after 140 days and that proteolysis continued to occur until 200 days when 56% of the insoluble fish protein had been hydrolysed into soluble form. The colour was produced early during the fermentation. The aroma constituents, ammonia and trimethylamine, were produced early in the fermentation process, but the volatile fatty acids did not appear when fresh fish (Stolephorus) was used for the fermentation. In the commercial production, n-butanoic acid concentration remained constant during the fermentation but ethanoic acid did increase during the period. The salt concentration and the pH were approximately constant throughout, at 26% and 5.65, respectively.
Volatile acids of aerobically and anaerobically fermented fish sauces were investigated using GC and GC-MS. There was no significant difference in pH values of the two types of sauces. Volatile acids found in the aerobically fermented sauce had concentrations significantly higher than the anaerobically fermented one. Sensory evaluation revealed that the aroma of the anaerobically fermented sauce was a little sweet, less acidic and less rancid than the aerobically made sauce which was sharp, and cheesy. Thus, fermentation under anaerobic condition altered the aroma quality of the sauce during manufacturing, yielding an acceptable product.
The origin and mechanism of formation of the volatile fatty acids (VFA) present in budu were investigated. The acids did not appear to derive from the breakdown of the fish lipid. When the fish was allowed to spoil, a single bacterial species predominated, and as the fermentation progressed, the appropriate VFA were formed. Using (U−14C)-protein hydrolysate it was shown that amino acids are the precursors of the n-butanoic and n-pentanoic acid and also contributed to the formation of other acids. The bacterium did not use glucose as a carbon source nor did any particular combination of unlabelled amino acids produce the fatty acids. The metabolic route by which the fatty acids are produced from the amino acids is not known. An experiment that allowed spoilage to occur, prior to salting, in the normal environment involved in the preparation of budu, showed that the VFA were produced.
The production of ‘Bakasang’, an Indonesian fermented fish sauce, was replicated in the laboratory in order to study the physicochemical and microbiological changes associated with the process. Bakasang samples were produced by incubating mixtures of small sardine (Engraulis japonicus) at different concentrations of sodium chloride and glucose at 37°C for 40 days. Changes in pH, total soluble nitrogen, total free amino nitrogen, amino acid composition and total plate counts were observed. The isolation and identification of microflora were also performed. In general, the pH decreased throughout the incubation period, irrespective of NaCl and glucose concentrations. Increases in the amounts of total soluble nitrogen and total free amino nitrogen were noticed during the 40 days of fermentation. The amino acids, glutamic acid, alanine, isoleucine, and lysine were prominent at the end of the process. The total plate count increased during the first 10 days and then decreased gradually for both total microbial population and lactic acid bacteria population.Micrococcus,StreptococcusandPediococcusspp were predominantly present during Bakasang fermentation.
Use of specific proteinase, inhibitors established a trypsin-like enzyme as the principal agent of proteolysis in Patis fermentation and this was confirmed by temperature, pH and rate studies. The trypsin-like activity developed a few days after fermentation was initiated, was maximal during the first month of fermentation and then declined rapidly and remained low throughout the remaining fermentation period. The decline is due mainly to inhibition by end product (amino acids and small peptides) accumulation. Initial inhibition of trypsin-like activity may be due to inhibitors in fish blood or substances produced by bacteria introduced with the fish. Bacteria are not responsible for proteolysis.
The production of a fish hydrolysate, using plant proteases, which could be added to traditionally fermented fish sauce to increase the total volume without affecting the overall nutritional quality was investigated.
The effect of adding bromelain, papain or ficin, on the rate of hydrolysis and the extent of the conversion of insoluble fish protein, to soluble nitrogen was examined. The conditions employed were similar to those used in traditional fish sauce manufacture but both whole and minced Ikanbilis (Stolephorus sp.) were investigated. Measurement of the extent of hydrolysis after 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 27, 28 and 35 days at 33°C showed that bromelain tended to give slightly better results with some 65% of the protein being hydrolysed. The effect of temperature enzyme, co-enzyme and salt concentrations for the hydrolysis by bromelain were investigated and the optimum conditions established at the pH normally found in fish sauce production. The hydrolysate produced in 18–21 days was comparable to traditional fish sauce in the distribution and concentrations of nitrogenous compounds and had very little aroma. The product could be added to the traditional sauce without affecting its quality.
A fish hydrolysate was produced from homogenized mackerel using bromelain to increase the rate and extent of proteolysis. Measurement of the extent of hydrolysis and conversion of insoluble to soluble nitrogen compounds after 1, 2, 3, 5 and 14 days of incubation at 38°C showed that a hydrolysate having some of the characteristics of an oriental fish sauce could be formed from mackerel within this period with a net protein conversion rate of over 75%, but it was necessary to include a 24 hr incubation period prior to the addition of salt.
The technique was used for the investigation of the causative agents of aroma production in the mackerel homogenate. Assuming that the proteolysis was still carried out by the protease, the mackerel homogenate was subjected to heat treatment, or mixed with antibiotics, or TGA prior to addition of bromelain. These treatments caused the loss of some of the constituents (associated with oriental fish sauce aroma) which suggests that with mackerel, micro-organisms play a significant role in aroma development. The method could be used for the investigation of sauces prepared from oriental fish; as the causative agents of aroma production might well be different. The bacteria, involved with mackerel could easily produce harmful products which were not investigated.
The following amines were tentatively identified in fermented fish paste: ethanolamine, 2-methylbutylamine, 2-mercaptoethylamine, 2-phenylethylamine, cadaverine, tyramine, dopamine, octopamine, tryptamine, and histamine. The concentration of these amines ranged from 0.5–64 mg/100g. Histamine and 2-phenylethylamine were the major amine found with maximal amounts of 64.0 and 60.0 mg/100g, respectively.
The microbiology and chemistry of Thai fish sauce was investigated in relation to the development of flavor and aroma. Total viable count decreased steadily as fermentation time advanced. The counts were higher when media containing 10% NaCl were used than when media containing 0.5% NaCl were used. Approximately 70% of the bacterial isolates from a nine-month-old fish sauce were halophiles of Bacillus types. These bacteria produced volatile acids from cultures in a medium prepared by hydrolyzing rockfish (Sebastodes sp.) with a mineral acid. A diethyl-ether-ethanol-soluble fraction contained the typical aroma of fish sauce. This extract could be separated further by column chroma tography (AGl-X8, formate form) into a fraction containing amino compounds and a second fraction containing weakly acidic compounds. The amino acids, principally glutamic acid, histidine, proline, etc., and other amines were identified by thin-layer chromatography. The identification of acidic compounds has not been completed.
Volatile compounds in salt-fermented anchovy, big-eyed herring, hair tail viscera, and shrimp pastes were compared by simultaneous steam distillation-solvent extraction/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (SDE/GC/MS). A total of 155 volatile compounds were detected. Of these, 111 were positively identified consisting mainly of aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters, aromatics, nitrogen-, and sulfur-containing compounds. Lipid-derived components, such as aldehydes, alcohols, and esters, comprised the majority of volatile compounds from fish pastes, while heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compounds, such as pyrazines, were predominant in shrimp paste.
Addition of histidine accelerated hydrolysis of fish protein during fermentation in the manufacture of fish sauce and after 4 mo fermentation yielded a product typical of traditional fish sauce. The liquefaction rate of the histidine-treated sauce was faster than that of the control. The degree of hydrolysis was much greater in the histidine-added sauces than in the control. Most amino acids were higher in the histidine sauces compared to commercial patis sauce (as reference). Addition of histidine to the fish mixture during fermentation did not increase the histamine content of the sauces.
An extremely halophilic archaeobacterium (halobacterium), strain ORE, was isolated from traditionally fermented Thai fish sauce (nam pla), which has a concentration of 4·4–5·1 M NaCl. Polar liquid analysis and DNA hybridization revealed that it was a representative of the species Halobacterium salinarium. In common with many other strains of H. salinarium this organism produces salt-stable extracellular proteases which are likely to be important in the fermentation process.