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Major constraints for cattle productivity and managerial efficiency in communal areas of Omaheke Region, Namibia
International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability
Abstract
The aim of this study is to analyse the major constraints for production and managerial practices among the four communal areas in the Omaheke Region. This study applied rapid rural appraisal techniques, including a questionnaire. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 570 farmers who were registered as cattle producers with the Meat Board of Namibia at their villages. The data collection process was conducted in two months (October 2009 and November 2009). Questionnaires were administered by a group of trained enumerators in the vernacular OtjiHerero language under the supervision of the researcher through door-to-door interviews. Data were gathered on the production system and managerial practices. The research found that the main constraints were incorrect bull-to-cow ratio (1:38), low calving percentage, and high cattle mortalities and losses caused by drought, diseases, straying and theft. The research further found that farmers were applying poor weaning practices and record keeping. Shortcomings on these managerial practices can be addressed if farmers visit the extension and veterinary offices for advice and training. A proper policy guide is required with respect to grazing resource management. Farmers need access to micro-financing for cattle production systems to become economically viable.
... performance records and dates of medication application. The results of the current study agree with Mapiye et al. (2009) andHangara et al. (2011), who found that about 85% and 95% of farmers were not keeping records in the communal areas of South Africa and Namibia respectively. All the farmers who were not keeping records reported, however, that they keep the records in their head without writing it down. ...
... Ear-notching was the most commonly used cattle identification method, with 49% beneficiaries, while 28% and 23% were using branding and ear-tagging respectively. The current study is in contrast to the study by Hangara et al. (2011) who reported that branding was the most commonly used cattle identification method, compared to ear-notching and ear-tagging, by farmers in the Omaheke Region in Namibia. The differences between the current study and previous studies may be due to the fact that the previous studies included many farmers who were more informed about livestock practices such as ...
... Ear-notching is less recommended and needs to be reduced as it causes bleeding, which can lead to infections and more distress to the animal (Hangara et al., 2011). In addition, the same author reported 38 that ear-notching is not scalable and can only identify a few animals, therefore it is not suitable for large herds. ...
... and 22.5% beneficiaries respectively as shown in Table 3.4. The results of the current study agrees with Mapiye et al. (2009);Hangara et al. (2011) and Ogunkoya (2014), who found that diseases and feed shortage (drought) are the most constraints affect cattle production of smallholder famers. The water shortage was not regarded as the major constraints in all the municipalities. ...
... The current study is in contrast with the study by Hangara et al. (2011), who reported that branding was the mostly used cattle identification method than ear-notching and ear-tagging by famers in Omaheke Region in Namibia. The differences of the current study and previous studies may be due to the fact that, the previous studies had many farmers who owned land with high income to buy the machines, while the current study is dominated by poor resourced farmers without enough money to buy branding machines. ...
... Ear-notching is less recommended and needs to be reduced as it causes a lot of bleeding, which leads to infections and more distress to the animal (Leslie et al., 2010). In addition, Hangara et al. (2011) reported that ear-notching is not scalable and can only identify a few animals; therefore it is not suitable for large herds. ...
... All these variables were found to influence livestock productivity and households' ability to attain livestock goods and services. Contrary to the findings of this study, Hangara et al. (2011) found that high livestock numbers led farmers to generate more livestock outputs, such as offtake, implying that larger herd sizes could influence the TE of households in the communal area. In this study, higher livestock numbers were found in male-headed households, but higher TE was recorded in the female-headed households with less livestock. ...
This paper examined the technical efficiency of livestock in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, to improve the understanding of the performance of livestock production of rural households in the communal rangelands. Surveys from 120 households were used to estimate a stochastic frontier model to assess livestock production's technical efficiency (TE) amongst households in a communal production environment where rangelands are the primary source of fodder. The estimated coefficients of the stochastic frontier model indicated that livestock units (LSU) and costs of additional feed supplements positively influenced livestock output per household. Management practices such as livestock kraaling and livestock herding influenced TE positively. An average technical efficiency score of 0.79 was estimated among households, suggesting that an improvement in efficiency could be achieved if proper interventions were employed. These interventions may include programmes such as the Extended Public Work Programmes to provide livestock herding support, gender-sensitive strategies that support the inclusion of women in livestock production, and other labour inputs related to animal husbandry. Lastly, this study provided essential information in understanding livestock production and informed policy about possible interventions that could potentially improve livestock production in rangelands.
... The most common (38.4%) major constraint listed by the beneficiaries were diseases such as tick-borne diseases (anaplasmosis and heartwater) which commonly cause death of infected animals, followed by stock theft and feed shortage at 27.5% and 22.5%, respectively (Fig. 1). The results of the current study agrees with Mapiye et al. (2009), Hangara et al. (2011) and Nkonki-Mandleni et al. (2019, who found that diseases and feed shortage (drought) are the highest constraints affecting cattle production of smallholder farmers in South Africa and Namibia. The water shortage was not regarded as a major constraints in all six municipalities. ...
This paper examines the challenges restricting the commercialization of cattle across Nguni Cattle Project beneficiaries in South Africa. Data were collected from one hundred and twenty (120) Nguni cattle beneficiaries using a structured questionnaire across six district municipalities of the Eastern Cape Province. Results revealed that majority of Nguni cattle beneficiaries were males, were above 60 years old, and have received formal training in livestock farming. Most of the beneficiaries reared cattle with other livestock species, with 45% owned non-descript breeds, 33% Nguni and 22% other breeds such as Bonsmara and Brahman. About 79.2% of the beneficiaries practised continuous grazing while 52.5% give their cattle supplements, with most commonly (48%) using rivers as the source of water. Most beneficiaries (38.4%) reported diseases as main production constraints, followed by stock theft (27.5%) and feed shortages (22.5%). Furthermore, results showed that 80.8% of beneficiaries market one to 10 cattle per year, 64.8% adult cattle (2+ years old) and 35.2% weaners (8 months to 1 year). Most beneficiaries (78.7%) used private marketing channels to sell their animals, while 4.3% used abattoirs. Factors identified as the main market constraints included low cattle numbers (41.7%), inability to meet formal market standards (25%) and inadequate government support. There was a strong association between formal livestock training and cattle marketing attributes as well as production constraints. In conclusion, more emphasis should be given to improve cattle production and commercialization through provision of more cattle, livestock trainings and market services to communal farmers.
... This loss of weight is especially prevalent in recently weaned animals in the absence of supplementation and, where weight loss becomes excessive, the survival of the animal may be threatened (McLennan et al. 2012). The low quality, highly lignified, mature pastures and crop residues often consumed by ruminants in the dry season are deficient in protein, minerals and vitamins, and it is difficult for energy from cellulose and hemicellulose to be accessed leading to low productivity (Sansoucy et al. 1992;Hangara et al. 2011). Lick blocks are used to increase productivity during the dry season when forage quality is low. ...
The addition of feed enzymes to livestock diets has contributed to significant increases in productivity over recent decades. The use of enzymes has been the most common in systems where enzyme delivery and diets can be easily managed, such as for poultry and pigs. Lick blocks supplement the forage diets of ruminants with nitrogen and minerals but not enzymes, due in part to concerns that block manufacturing temperatures would lead to unacceptable levels of enzyme degradation. The nutritional value of low quality pasture could be improved using enzyme supplemented lick blocks if enzymes remain active at the high lick block manufacturing temperatures. The aim of this study was to determine the extent of xylanase and phytase activity survival when exposed to the production of hot poured lick blocks. Lick block formulations and methods of manufacturing vary, so two enzyme containing molasses-based lick blocks were produced, one at 60°C and another at 100°C. The results showed that both the xylanase and phytase enzymes have high levels of survival at 60°C. In the 100°C lick block, the phytase displayed a half-life of ~10 min, whereas the xylanase retained 90% of the original activity after 30 min of exposure. The inherent thermostability of the enzymes were critical factors for enzyme survival and the enzymes were more stable in the lick blocks than in solution. The results indicate that it should be possible to add enzymes to lick blocks manufactured at elevated temperatures to enhance low quality pasture and thereby aid ruminant digestion and production.
In 2019, Namibia experienced one of the worst droughts in recent decades, significantly affecting its agricultural economy, especially the livestock production sector. In this context, there is limited literature about how pastoral farmers in the country's communal agricultural areas navigated this severe dryness. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by introducing a case study involving Ovaherero pastoralists in the Okakarara constituency. Following a mixed-method approach, it describes the practices implemented by local households to keep their cattle herds alive, the challenges they experienced thereby, and the strategies used for recovering their livestock losses. The study reveals that essential drought-coping practices, such as livestock mobility along with various long-term risk reduction mechanisms, such as reservation of emergency pastures, and social institutions of exchange, are limited in the communities described in this research. The paper discusses the main reasons for these conditions and their implications for local farmers, considering that more frequent droughts of similar severity are projected for the coming years in the region.
Weather constitutes a major source of risks facing households in rural areas, which are being amplified under climate change. In this context, two main rural financial services, weather index insurance and microcredit, have been increasingly adopted by farmers worldwide. However, the understanding of the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of these rural finance schemes, including potential maladaptive outcomes, remains ambiguous. We review the recent literature on weather index insurance and microcredit for farmers and find that both rural financial services have positive economic impacts, though benefits to the poorest populations remain controversial. Moreover, their impacts on the ecological systems are less studied and are found to be mainly negative. In addition, considering that both financial instruments have strengths and limitations, we argue that combination schemes (e.g., a hybrid product) may generate positive synergistic effects on building socioeconomic resilience to climate risks in agricultural regions. However, this may also add new economic risk to local financial institutions. This comprehensive review provides a reference for the potential benefits and risks of agricultural finance innovations. Further studies on the ecological impacts of rural financial services and the synergistic effects of the combination on socioeconomic and ecosystem resilience in rural contexts are needed to fill the current research gap.
Smallholder cattle farming in most developing countries and Africa has been fingered as an area of agriculture that forms a major driver through which the aims of poverty reduction and community development can be
realized. For instance, about twenty-five to thirty percent of cattle farming contributes to the sum aggregate of farm
produce to the South Africa economy yearly. Several prevailing factors have however limited the prospect and sustainability of cattle production among rural farmers who happen to be a major player in cattle production in South Africa.
Such prevalent factors that have been identified to decline cattle productivity include poor animal breeding, lack of
available feed resources, marketing constraints and animal health challenges among others. These limiting constraints
have in turn negatively affected the potential of communal cattle farmers from exploring both the local and global markets. To upsurge farm practices that can be sustainable and the involvement of cattle production to defeat starvation
and financial lack among poor-resourced areas and in the nation at large, there is need by the government and other
vital stakeholders to tackle the prevailing challenges faced by cattle farmers. This can be achieved by adopting workable
initiatives that will promote best farming practices in rural communities with the view of utilizing locally adapted
cattle breeds to boost cattle production.
Three hundred and ninety two (n = 392) blood samples from randomly selected cattle were subjected to the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test to test for antibodies against Babesia spp. The proportions of males (49%) and females (51%) included in the study did not differ significantly. Cattle that were ³5 years constituted 63% of the sampled animals, while cattle that were 0-2 years old were in the minority (14%). Babesia bigemina had the highest prevalence (36.5%), while mixed infections had the least prevalence (13.2%). Based on age, cattle that were 3-4 years old had the highest prevalence of both B. bovis (23.9%) and B. bigemina (44.6 %). Cattle in the 0-2 year age category had the lowest prevalence of both B. bovis (12.3%) and B. bigemina (29.8 %). The 3- 4 years old age category also had the highest prevalence (18.5 %) of mixed infections, while the 0-2-years old had the lowest (8.8%). Overall, B. bigemina had the highest prevalence; however the level of the prevalence of babesiosis in the study area was not at the point where the region could be considered endemically stable.There was no significant association between infection and age, gender and place.
The multiple benefits from livestock production to rural households are evaluated in Thorndale, a communal area of the Limpopo Province South Africa. Monetary values of livestock products are presented. Values from most previous studies are static (and thus outdated), as a result of conceptual and methodological shifts. The net monetary value of the direct benefits from livestock was estimated as 33 per household/annum. Policy concerns are the provision of adequate market and pricing mechanisms for communal area livestock, tailored savings, investment support, credit schemes, and infrastructure. An appropriate multipurpose benefit production model, other than a commercialised model is suggested for the sector.
Cattle production is the most important livestock sub-sector in South Africa. It contributes about 25 - 30% to the total agricultural output per annum. However, cattle productivity is declining due to diseases and parasites prevalence, lack of feed resources, and poor breeding and marketing management. To increase sustainability and contribution of cattle in eradicating hunger and poverty in communal areas, there is need to make use of locally adapted breeds. In South Africa’s communal cattle enterprise, the Nguni breed is becoming a very important socio-economic drive for the resource-poor farmers. Nguni cattle development projects have been initiated in South Africa to improve livelihood of communal farmers. However, these projects are mainly concentrating on solving production constraints and ignoring marketing factors. This paper reviews the neglected marketing constraints and opportunities faced by beneficiaries of the Nguni cattle development program.
The relationship between nutrition and reproduction is a topic of increasing importance. Many research reports have clearly demonstrated that energy, protein and minerals intake are the most important nutritional factors affecting reproduction and therefore milk production in dairy farms. This is particularly evident on smallholder farms in the tropics where feed is often inadequate. On these farms, voluntary feed intake in relation to the feed required for maintenance is the most important factor determining the animal`s body condition. Many of the dairy animals on smallholder farms cannot build sufficient body reserves (particularly energy and protein) due to lack of adequate feed. As a direct consequence of feed inadequacy, dairy stock on most smallholder resource-poor farms are often in poor body condition (emaciated). Conception rate and calving intervals have been shown to be highly correlated, to by weight and body condition. The study revealed that animals with low body weights showed low conception rate and long calving interval. Energy and protein have shown to maintain essential levels of blood cholesterol and improve pregnancy from 42 to 72% respectively. Correlation of reproductive hormone cycle, calf and lamb birth rates, weaning rates, lactation length and yield with plane of nutrition, have been adequately illustrated. This is evidenced by the current high incidences of dairy cow infertility on smallholder farms in Kenya. Based on the literature reviewed, the current study concluded that poor nutrition is a major contributor to the current poor reproductive performance of dairy cows on smallholder farms. Poor nutrition is also largely incriminated for predisposing animals to diseases leading to high mortality and morbidity rates on these farms. It is therefore perceived that improvement of ruminant livestock diets on smallholder farms will greatly improve reproductive performance and therefore herd productivity on smallholder farms. In the long run, this will also impact positively on the economic status of the household.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of dietary P concentrations of 0.37 (recommended) or 0.57% (excess; dry matter basis) on reproductive performance. At calving, Holstein cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 dietary treatments (n = 134 for 0.37% P and n = 133 for 0.57% P). Cows were fitted with a radiotelemetric transmitter (50 d in milk [DIM]) to record mounting activity during estrus and bred to natural estrus from 50 to 100 DIM, then to synchronized estrus (Ovsynch protocol) after 100 DIM. Weekly ultrasonography was performed from 50 DIM until pregnancy was diagnosed (-30 d after artificial insemination). Pregnancy was confirmed approximately 60 d after artificial insemination (artificial insemination). Weekly blood samples were analyzed for progesterone concentrations. Days to first increase (>1 ng/ml) in progesterone, days to first estrus detected by radiotelemetry, days to first service detected by herd personnel, and conception rate at first service did not differ between the recommended and excess P groups, respectively. Similarly, conception rate at 30 d, days open, pregnancies lost from 30 to 60 d, multiple ovulation rate, and the incidence of anovulatory condition at 71 DIM did not differ between these groups. The mean duration of estrus was 8.7 +/- 0.5 and 8.7 +/- 0.7 h, and the average number of mounts per estrus was 7.4 +/- 0.5 and 7.8 +/- 0.5 for a total mounting time during estrus of 25.8 +/- 1.8 and 24.5 +/- 1.6 s for cows fed the recommended and excess P diet, respectively. Phosphorus treatment had no detectable effect on reproductive performance.
The effects of work stress and dietary supplementation on ovarian activity were determined in 16 multiparous Mashona cows in Sanyati Communal Area, which lies in a semi-arid environment of Zimbabwe. The cows were assigned to one of four treatments: supplemented working (SW), supplemented non-working (SNW), non-supplemented working (NSW) and non-supplemented non-working (NSNW) cows in a 2 × 2 factorial treatment arrangement with two dietary and two work levels. Cows in the SW and NSW groups pulled a cart with a 200-1 water drum for 18 km (9 km with drum empty, 9 km with drum full) every day for 5 days/week for a total of 12 weeks.
Rectal temperatures were recorded at specific points along the route to and from the river where the water was obtained. Blood samples were collected by jugular venipuncture once a week, before working, for the determination of plasma glucose and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA). In addition, blood samples were collected once every 3 days for the determination of progesterone concentration. There were no differences ( P > 0⋅05) in the rectal temperatures between SW and NSW cows. Cows in the NSW group had the highest decrease in glucose levels and also showed marked increases in NEFA concentrations. The incidence of ovarian activity was similar between SNW and SW cows ( P > 0⋅05). The incidence of ovarian activity was least in NSW cows. We conclude that nutritional stress was more important in suppressing ovarian activity than work stress and that dietary supplementation can reduce the negative effects of draught on ovarian activity.
The study identified the cattle marketing strategies used by small-scale farmers in Kamastone village, Eastern Cape Province. Factors influencing the smallholder farmers' choice of cattle marketing channels were investigated. Based on the findings, the study suggested strategies to improve the marketing of cattle by the small scale farmers. The development of an efficient and sustainable livestock marketing system for the small-scale farmers was identified as one of the main strategy that would improve small scale farmers' access to formal markets. An improved livestock marketing system is likely to increase participation of small scale farmers in commercial agriculture that would mean higher income for them.
Namibia, the driest country in sub-Saharan Africa, experiences more years of below-average than above-average rainfall. Extensive livestock farmers should have drought contingency plans, but too many react on an ad hoc basis and depend on decreasing government support. A three-pronged survival strategy is suggested, consisting of anticipatory measures, drought crisis management per se and drought aftercare. In the preparatory phase, farmers are advised to heed ever more accurate drought forecasts by meteorological services, accumulate fodder banks, apply systematic veld resting to ensure grazing reseryes and establish pastures of indigenous grasses and plantations of drought-resistant fodder plants. Livestock herds should become more flexible by containing at least 30% (of carrying capacity) filler animals, which can be readily disposed of, depending on forage conditions and market prices. Such a high proportion of fillers requires deliberate actions, as it is not achieved by routine herd management. Income generated by the sale of fillers should be retained to cover drought-related emergency expenses. Drought crisis management consists of progressive destocking in accordance with the worsening forage situation while utilising the accumulated fodder and monetary reseryes to buffer the effects of the drought; even pen-feeding the nucleus herd. Once the rains and veld condition improve, the veld requires an initial period of recovery based on the phenophase of certain indicator species before restocking occurs. lndividual farmers need to have their livestock numbers track the rainfall, but to be successful, any drought survival strategy needs a conducive policy environment created by government.