The Anger Coping Program: An Empirically-Supported Treatment for Aggressive Children

Abstract

This article provides a history and overview of an Anger Coping Program for children with a history of aggressive behavior problems. The Anger Coping Program is a cognitive-behavioral intervention, which addresses the social-cognitive distortions and deficits of aggressive children. The structure and content of the program are briefly reviewed, and its application in residential treatment facilities is discussed. The dissemination of the program is discussed, and the results of outcome research on the Anger Coping Program are presented. The program has produced significant post-intervention improvements in children's behavior and social-cognitiveprocesses.

Full text

Anger Coping
The Anger Coping Program: An Empirically-Supported Treatment for Aggressive
Children
John E. Lochman
The University of Alabama
John F. Curry
Duke University Medical Center
Heather Dane and Mesha Ellis
The University of Alabama
Running head: Anger Coping
1

Anger Coping
Abstract
This article provides a history and overview of an Anger Coping Program for
children with a history of aggressive behavior problems. The Anger Coping Program is a
cognitive-behavioral intervention which addresses the social-cognitive distortions and
deficits of aggressive children. The structure of the program is briefly reviewed, and its
application in residential treatment facilities is discussed. The dissemination of the
program is discussed, and the results of outcome research on the Anger Coping Program
are presented. The Anger Coping Program has produced significant post-intervention
improvements in children'’ behavior and social-cognitive processes.
2

Anger Coping
History and Objectives of the Anger Coping Progam
Recent events have led to an increased interest in our culture in the early detection
and treatment of aggression in children. Aggression, which can be defined as deliberate
action directed towards other people or objects with the intent to hurt or harm that person
or object (Lochman & Lenhart, 1993), has also long been a focus of research in the field
of psychology. Past research has linked aggression to a number of negative behavioral
outcomes, among them the development of substance abuse, criminality, and other mental
health problems (Coie, Lochman, Terry, & Hyman, 1992; Kandel, 1982; Robins, 1978).
Additionally, aggression has been found to be a persistent and relatively stable behavior
pattern (Lochman, Lampron, Gemmer, & Harris, 1987; Olweus, 1979). Given the
detrimental and enduring effects of aggressive behavior, there is an ever growing effort to
develop effective intervention programs to address this aggression early in child
development. One such program is the Anger Coping program, developed be Lochman
et al. (1987).
The Anger Coping program is an 18-session cognitive-behavioral intervention
based in part on Dodge’s information processing model (Dodge, 1993; Dodge, Pettit,
McClaskey, & Brown, 1986) as applied to aggressive children. According to this model,
aggressive children have difficulties encoding social cues, accurately interpreting social
events, generating multiple adaptive solutions to problems encountered, considering
consequences of solutions and using this information to determine the best solution, and
skillfully carrying out the solution once chosen (Lochman & Lenhart, 1993). At the
encoding stage, aggressive children tend to pay attention to fewer cues (Dodge &
Newman, 1981; Dodge et al., 1986) and attend to hostile rather than benign cues (Milich
3

Anger Coping
& Dodge, 1984). Aggressive children also tend to have a hostile attributional bias and
inaccurately perceive hostile intent in ambiguous cues (Dodge et al., 1986). These
difficulties have been found more in children with reactive than proactive aggression,
highlighting the importance of recognizing individual differences among aggressive
children. Consequently, treatment programs should take into account these differences
and emphasize different components with different children.
Difficulties with generating multiple solutions to problem situations have also
been found in aggressive children. Both deficiencies in quantity and quality have been
found, with highly aggressive children generating fewer solutions overall and aggressive
children in general reporting a higher proportion of physically aggressive solutions than
other children (Lochman, Lampron, Burch, & Curry, 1985; Richard & Dodge, 1982).
Aggressive children also appear to believe aggression will lead to positive outcomes such
as tangible rewards and reduced aversive behavior from others (Hart, Ladd, & Burleson,
1990; Perry, Perry, & Rasmussen, 1986). Additionally, aggressive children have been
found to be less adept at carrying out positive solutions (Dodge et al., 1986). Successful
treatment aimed at addressing each of these issues would involve improving aggressive
children’s ability to produce and enact multiple prosocial solutions. The most effective
interventions, as mentioned before, would also be designed to incorporate individual
differences.
In accordance with this model and these findings, the Anger Coping program was
designed to improve the social-cognitive skills of aggressive children. The program
began as a 12-session anger control program (Lochman, Nelson, & Sims, 1981), and has
developed, because of ongoing intervention research findings, into the 18-session Anger
4

Anger Coping
Coping program. The mission of the Anger Coping program is to help aggressive
children develop better perspective-taking skills, increase their awareness of the
physiological signs of anger, improve social problem-solving skills, and increase their
inventory of responses to problem situations (Lochman & Lenhart, 1993). Emphasis is
placed on teaching skills in such a way that the children will be more likely to apply what
they have learned in the outside world. Repetition, active participation, discussion, and
role playing are all modes utilized to engage the children. It is important to realize that
this program is not designed to instruct children in fixed ways of responding to problem
situations, but rather to help them cultivate more adaptive ways of processing social
information and a better ability to enact positive solutions.
Included in the program are many elements designed to increase the
generalizability of results to the “real world”. Techniques such as role playing, peer
interaction, and setting goals for classroom behavior are all meant to increase the
likelihood that skills learned as part of the program aroused in the outside world. Also a
group format for the sessions is beneficial as it elicits peer feedback, which is often more
accepted by children than adult feedback, and because it provides an in vivo setting for
learning and practicing new techniques. One of the most unique features of the Anger
Coping program is that it includes exercises meant to assist children in managing
increased arousal due to interpersonal frustrations. Research has found that aggressive
children have difficulty recognizing recognizing internal cues of anger (Waas, 1988;
Quiggle, Garber, Panak, & Dodge, 1992) and that their cognitive problem-solving skills
become even more impaired when aroused. Because of this, practicing new skills while
aroused in session also lends itself to increased generalizability.
5

Anger Coping
Adapatation to residential settings. Although originally designed for elementary-
aged aggressive boys in a school setting, the Anger coping program may be altered for
use with girls, with older or younger children, or in a clinic setting. Another potential
area of adaptation of the program is to modify it for the residential setting. From a
practical standpoint, the Anger Coping program may be useful in a residential setting
because of its ability to involve multiple children through a group format and because
staff at different levels can be trained in the successful application of the program.
Ollendick and Hersen (1979) found improvements in the behavior of adolescent
antisocial males following a problem-solving training program based in a residential
facility, as did Glick and Goldstein (1987) in their evaluation of an anger replacement
training program in a similar setting. Each of these programs as well as the Anger
Coping program focuses on the social cognitive deficits of aggressive children. The
relative success of the previously mentioned programs suggests that the Anger Coping
program may experience a similar degree of success in a residential setting.
Often in a residential setting children are exposed to a number of treatment
modalities, including group, individual, and family approaches. A strength of the Anger
Coping program is that it may be readily combined with other forms of therapy, thereby
improving the chances of an overall positive outcome. An added concern with treatment
in the artificial residential setting is generalizability of strategies learned in treatment to
the outside world. As mentioned previously, the Anger Coping program has many
components designed to improve generalizability, and may be especially appropriate as
an intervention to be used in a residential facility. Although its efficacy has not been
6

Anger Coping
formally evaluated in a residential setting, adaptation of the Anger Coping program to
this environment appears promising (Lochman, White, Curry & Rumer, 1992).
Key Treatment Ingredients
[ John C’s section ]
Program Implementation
The issues related to the implementation of social-cognitive interventions in
residential settings are many. In determining the operation standards of a program, one
has to consider the basic structure of the program, training requirements, staffing and
space needs, as well as the financial commitment. In terms of basic structure, the Anger
Coping Program is quite amenable to residential settings because, like similar cognitive-
behavioral programs, it provides manualized yet flexible treatment options for clinicians
(Lochman, FitzGerald, & Whidby, in press; Lochman & Wells, 1996; Lochman, White, &
Wayland, 1991). Although group leaders are given guidelines for session planning, they
are encouraged to individualize the sessions to meet the treatment needs of participants.
With the appropriate modifications, the Anger Coping Program has been adapted for use
with children of all ages (Lochman et. al., in press; Lochman & Wells, 1996).
Although program participants generally meet once per week over the course of
18 sessions, the time commitment can potentially be reduced so that the goals are met
within 12 sessions. The program also has the capability of being expanded to 33
sessions, which allows the therapist(s) to explore more topics and teach a wider range of
coping skills. The expanded version of the program, called the Coping Power Program
(Lochman & Wells, 1996), includes group sessions and individual therapy for participants
as well as parent training and teacher consultations. Because of the flexibility that is
7

Anger Coping
allowed through the Anger Coping Program, residential treatment planners should be
careful to consider the time and space commitment needed in order for the program to
work optimally.
The Anger Coping Program has been found to be most effective in the context of
group therapy with sessions ranging between one hour and one and one-half hours.
Group therapy allows participants to learn skills through a variety of modalities; the most
important being through the interaction with as well as from receiving feedback from
peers. Research suggests that a small, closed group, comprised of 5-7 children, provides
the most conducive environment for participants as well as clinicians to gain from the
program (Lochman et. al., in press; Lochman & Wells, 1996; Lochman et. al., 1987).
Limiting the group size to seven children helps to insure that the interactions within the
group remain manageable for the group leaders and aid in preventing excess distractions
for participants. Closed groups also help to foster close relationships among group
members (Lochman et. al., in press).
A number of staffing issues related to group management arise even when small
groups are formed in residential settings. Consequently, the Anger Coping Program
suggests that two co-therapists lead the groups. If a school campus is located on the
grounds of the residential facility, teachers or school counselors are strongly encouraged
to act as a co-leader. All leading therapists should have a Masters Degree or Doctorate in
psychology, social work, counseling, or psychiatry. They should also have extensive
experience working with aggressive and behaviorally difficult children.
Intensive Anger Coping Program training typically consists of three full days of
workshop sessions, monthly follow-up workshops, telephone consultations, and weekly
8

Anger Coping
session planning meetings. Group co-leaders should also take time to create and
periodically reevaluate a group behavior-contingency program that outlines specific
rewards and response costs for participants. Furthermore, because of the extreme
behavioral difficulties that often accompany children enrolled in residential facilities, it is
recommended that a behavioral aid attend group sessions in order to help with the
behavioral management of participants.
When planning a residentially based intervention, clinicians should be aware that
the Anger Coping program has been found to be most effective when the groups are
comprised of same-sex children with similar behavioral difficulties. When selecting
participants, planners should recruit participants who are aware that their aggressive
behavior not only is a nuisance to others but is also problematic for themselves (Lochman
et. al., in press; Lochman & Wells, 1996; Lochman et. al., 1987). Similarly, participants
should have a desire to benefit from treatment. Consequently, a general assessment of
potential group members is suggested to help clinicians select group members and
customize the program to the needs of participants. The basic assessment should consist
of a semi-structured interview with the child as well as self-report cognitive and
behavioral rating scales.
Because many aggressive children are highly distractible, it is imperative for the
group sessions to be held in a large room with very few visual, tactile, and auditory
distractions. The therapy room should also have enough chairs for group participants and
the group leaders to sit comfortably. When selecting group space, program planners
should make certain that the therapy room is large enough to allow for the use of a poster
board, chalkboard, or a dry-erase board. Finally, because of the unpredictable nature of
9

Anger Coping
children with behavioral difficulties, the residential facility should allow space for a
"time-out" area that allows for the removal of disruptive participants from the group.
Due to the demanding nature and, often times, limited resources available to staff,
clinicians and program planners may find themselves restricted within the residential
setting. This is especially the case when attempting to secure staff and space.
Consequently, the Anger Coping Program allows clinicians to work with residents
individually. Although group participants gain invaluable experience through their
interactions with peers, the use of the Anger Coping Program in individual therapy has
been found to be very effective in teaching children effective coping as well as social
problem solving skills (Lochman et. al., in press).
Finally, the budget for implementing the Anger Coping Program in a residential
setting should reflect wages for the group co-leaders and behavioral aids. If a parent
training component is established, program planners may maximize parent attendance
through snacks at meetings, arrangement for transportation, and provision of child care
during the meetings. Program planners should also allow for the purchase of rewards,
tokens, toys, and session materials for group or individual therapy participants. Session
materials will include session specific boards and pictures, record keeping materials, a
video tape recorder, video tapes, playing cards, dominoes, puppets, and photocopying
costs.
Replication and Transportability
The intervention research that has been conducted on the Anger Coping Program
has occurred in a series of randomized clinical trials conducted in the public school
system in Durham, NC, over a 10 year period. The program has become well-
institutionalized in those settings, and continues to be provided by local school staff
10

Anger Coping
without further direction or supervision from our staff, and is provided on a regular basis
through a child psychiatry outpatient clinic at Duke University Medical Center and a
children’s inpatient unit at Umstead Hospital in North Carolina.
Because of the significant improvements found in randomized controlled studies,
the Anger Coping Program has been identified as one of the ten probably efficacious
treatments for child and adolescent conduct problems by a task force sponsored by the
American Psychological Association on effective psychosocial interventions with this
form of psychopathology (Brestan & Eyberg, 1998). As a result, a workshop on the
Anger Coping program was presented at The Niagara Conference on Evidence-Based
Treatments for Childhood Mental Health Problems in the summer of 1999. Over the past
20 years a number of similar workshops have been provided nationally on the Anger
Coping Program to mental health clinicians, school counselors and school psychologists,
and juvenile corrections staff. Successful large scale implementations of the program
have taken place in school systems in several counties, including Wake and Guilford
counties in North Carolina. In the Wake County implementation, groups in 40 schools
were conducted with over 200 children, and a local program evaluation found that
children who had been in the program had reduced levels of aggressive behavior,
improved problem-solving skills and improved academic achievement following their
involvement in the program. These dissemination efforts have suggested that the Anger
Coping program can be usefully implemented by local staff in agencies and schools.
Grant-funded intervention research is currently being conducted on an expanded
version of the Anger Coping Program. This expanded version is the Coping Power
Program, which consists of a 33 session group intervention for children and a 16 session
11

Anger Coping
parent group intervention (Lochman & Wells, 1996). This program is typically offered
over a 15 to 18 month period of time, and is particularly directed towards children
making the transition from elementary to middle school. This program has been adapted
for clinical research in several residential facilities, including a child psychiatry facility in
the Netherlands, and a residential school for the deaf in North Carolina, indicating that
these programs can be effectively used in residential settings.
In the course of these dissemination efforts, we have had to attend to the language
and cultural appropriateness of the intervention, including adjusting the program to be
relevant for children and families in other countries and with children who have unique
communication difficulties because of a physical handicap. The curriculum and the
program delivery system have been designed to be responsive to cultural and ethnic
differences (e.g. African-American vs European-American) in four ways. First, the
literature about ethnic factors which influence social-cognitive processes and parenting
processes which are the targets of our intervention were carefully reviewed. Second, we
involve our African-American staff very actively in the development of our interventions,
and they had a major impact effect on how we attempt to deliver our interventions. For
example, through their input, we have relied less on videotape modeling of skills and
more on the group leaders providing live modeling of competent and incompetent social
skills. Third, rather than using a strict didactic approach in our groups, we actively have
participants discuss what they do that already sometimes works, and we then use their
examples to illustrate positive coping methods. We use a problem-solving approach to
intervention, where we act as collaborative coaches rather than as teachers. Fourth, in our
research we examine whether ethnic status influences the strength of intervention effects.
12

Anger Coping
In our research on these and other similar programs, we have found these forms of child
and parent interventions to be similarly effective with African-American and European-
American children and parents (Lochman, Coie, Terry & Hyman, 1993; Conduct
Problems Prevention Research Group, 1999).
Program Evaluation and Outcomes
A thorough assessment of children’s aggressive behavior and of the social-
cognitive factors with their aggression is an extremely important part of designing a
comprehensive treatment plan, and is critical for program evaluation efforts. In our
intervention research and in our clinical assessments, we include a battery of these
behavioral and social-cognitive measures, and this battery is described in detail elsewhere
(Lochman, Whidby & Fitzgerald, in press). The core battery can include (a) a behavior
rating scale such as the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991) completed by the
parents and if possible by the teachers, (b) a social problem-solving measure, such as the
Problem Solving Measure for Conflict (Lochman & Lampron, 1986; Dunn, Lochman &
Colder, 1997) which assesses children’s rates of solution generation along with the
content or quality of the solutions, and (c) a measure of children’s distorted encoding
skills or their distorted attributional abilities, assessing their tendency to be overly
sensitive to hostile cues. Other useful assessment measures can include a structured
interview, peer reports of children’s behavior, measures of children’s social goals, and
measures of children’s emotional understanding and empathy (Lochman, Whidby &
FitzGerald, in press).
Research on the Anger Coping Program has indicated its effects on children’s
behavior by the end of intervention. In comparison with randomly assigned minimal
13

Anger Coping
treatment and untreated control conditions, Lochman, Burch, Curry & Lampron (1984)
found that treated aggressive elementary school boys had reductions in independently
observed disruptive-aggressive off-task behavior, reductions in parents’ ratings of
aggression, and improvements in self esteem. Boys in the Anger Coping Program in this
study who had the greatest reductions in aggressive behavior were boys who were
initially the poorest problem solvers (Lochman, Lampron, Burch & Curry, 1985). In
addition, better outcomes tended to occur for boys with more initial anxiety and
somatization, and lower social acceptance from peers, suggesting that boys may have
been more motivated for treatment because of a desire to decrease peer rejection and
worries about the consequences resulting from their aggressive behavior. The
posttreatment behavioral improvements in this study were replicated in subsequent
studies (Lochman & Curry, 1986; Lochman, Lampron, Gemmer, Harris & Wyckoff,
1989). Gains in classroom on-task behavior were found to be maintained at a seven-
month follow-up (Lochman & Lampron, 1988), and at a three-year follow-up Anger
Coping boys were found to have better problem-solving skills, self-esteem gains, and
lower levels of substance use than an untreated control condition (Lochman, 1992). On
these measures, the treated boys were in the same range as nonaggressive boys,
indicating noteable prevention effects on early substance use at the followup when boys
were age 15. However, continued reduction in off-task behavior at school and in parents’
ratings of aggression were only evident for treated boys who had received a brief booster
treatment for themselves and their parents in a second school year. Thus, booster
treatments with children and their parents may be critical for the maintenance of
behavioral gains following this cognitive-behavioral Anger Coping Program.
14

Anger Coping
Based on these findings, the multicomponent Coping Power intervention, which is
an extension of the Anger Coping Program, is being evaluated in two randomized,
controlled intervention trials (Lochman, in press; Lochman & Wells, 1996). Initial
outcome analyses of this Coping Power Program have found improvements in boys’
social competence, social information processing, and aggressive behavior, and in
parents’ parenting practices and marital relationship, for children and families who
received Coping Power, in comparison to children and families in an untreated aggressive
control group. This series of programmatic research studies have indicated that the Anger
Coping and Coping Power Programs are promising, effective intervention methods for
children who have had a history of aggressive behavior.
Authors’ Note
The preparation of this article was supported by grants from the National Institute
of Drug Abuse, and from the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration. Correspondence can be addressed to John E.
Lochman, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Box 870348, The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.
15

Anger Coping
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior checklist/ 4-18 and
1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Brestan, E.V. & Eyberg, S.M. (1998). Effective psychosocial treatments of
conduct-disordered children and adolescents: 29 years, 82 studies, and 5,272 kids.
Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 180-189.
16

Anger Coping
Coie, J. D., Lochman, J. E., Terry, R., & Hyman, C. (1992). Predicting early
adolescent disorder from childhood aggression and peer rejection. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, 60, 783-792.
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1999). Initial impact of the Fast
Track prevention trial for conduct problems: I. The high-risk sample. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 631-647.
Dodge, K. A. (1993). Social cognitive mechanisms in the development of
conduct disorder and depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 559-584.
Dodge, K. A., Newman, J. P. (1981). Biased decision-making processes in
aggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 375-379.
Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., McClaskey, C. L., & Brown, M. M. (1986). Social
competence in children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,
51, (2, Serial No. 213).
Dunn, S.E., Lochman, J.E., & Colder, C.R. (1997). Social problem-solving skills
in boys with Conduct and Oppositional Defiant Disorders. Aggressive Behavior, 23,
457-469.
Glick, B., & Goldstein, A. P. (1987). Aggression replacement training. Journal of
Counseling and Development, 65, 356-362.
Hart, C. H., Ladd, G. W., & Burleson, B. R. (1990). Children’s expectations of
the outcomes of social strategies: Relations with sociometric status and maternal
disciplinary styles. Child Development, 61, 127-137.
17

Anger Coping
Kandel, D. B. (1982). Epidemiological and psychosocial perspectives in
adolescent drug abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 21, 328-
347.
Lochman, J.E. (1992). Cognitive-behavioral intervention with aggressive boys:
Three-year follow-up and preventive effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 60, 426-432.
Lochman, J.E. (in press). Preventive intervention with precursors to substance
use. In W.J. Bukoski & Z. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook of drug abuse: Theory, science, and
practice. New York: Plenum.
Lochman, J.E., Burch, P.R., Curry, J.F., & Lampron, L.B. (1984). Treatment and
generalization effects of cognitive-behavioral and goal-setting interventions with
aggressive boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 915-916.
Lochman, J.E., Coie, J.D., Underwood, M., & Terry, R. (1993). Effectiveness of a
social relations intervention program for aggressive and nonaggressive rejected children.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 1053-1058.
Lochman, J.E. & Curry, J.F. (1986). Effects of social problem-solving training
and self-instruction training with aggressive boys. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,
15,159-164.
Lochman, J.E., & Lampron, L.B. (1986). Situational social problem-solving
skills and self-esteem of aggressive and nonaggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 14, 605-617.
18

Anger Coping
Lochman, J.E., & Lampron, L.B. (1988). Cognitive-behavioral interventions for
aggressive boys: Seven month follow-up effects. Journal of Child and Adolescent
Psychotherapy, 5, 15-23.
Lochman, J.E., Lampron, L.B., Burch, P.R., & Curry, J.F. (1985). Client
characteristics associated with behavior change for treated and untreated boys. Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 527-538.
Lochman, J. E., Lampron, L. B., Gemmer, T. C., & Harris, S. R. (1987). Anger
coping intervention with aggressive children: A guide to implementation in school
settings. In P. A. Keller & S. R. Heyman (Eds.), Innovations in clinial practice: A source
book (Vol. 6, pp. 339-356). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.
Lochman, J.E., Lampron, L.B., Gemmer, T.V., Harris, S., & Wyckoff, G.M.
(1989). Teacher consultation and cognitive-behavioral interventions with aggressive
boys. Psychology in the Schools, 26, 179-188.
Lochman, J. E., & Lenhart, L. A. (1993) Anger Coping intervention for
aggressive children: Conceptual models and outcome effects. Clinical Psychology
Review, 13, 785-805.
Lochman, J. E., Nelson, W. M., & Sims, J. P. (1981). A cognitive behavioral
program for use with aggressive children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 10, 146-
148.
Lochman, J.E. & Wells, K.C. (1996). A social-cognitive intervention with
aggressive children: Prevention effects and contextual implementation issues. In R. Dev.
Peters & R. J. McMahon (Eds.), Prevention and early intervention: Childhood disorders,
substance use, and delinquency (pp 111-143). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
19

Anger Coping
Lochman, J.E., Whidby, J.M., & FitzGerald, D.P. (in press). Cognitive-behavioral
assessment and treatment with aggressive children. In P. Kendall (Ed.), Child and
adolescent therapy, Second Edition. New York: Guilford.
Lochman, J.E., White, K.J., & Wayland, K.K. (1991). Cognitive-behavioral
assessment and treatment with aggressive children. In P.C. Kendall (Ed.), Child and
adolescent therapy; Cognitive-behavioral procedures, pp. 25-35. New York: Guilford
Press.
Ollendick, T. H., & Hersen, M. Social skills training for juvenile delinquents.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17, 547-554.
Olweus, D. (1979). Stability of aggressive reaction patterns in males: A review.
Psychological Bulletin, 86, 852-875.
Perry, D. G., Perry, L. C., & Rasmussen, P. (1986). Cognitive social learning
mediators of aggression. Child Development, 57, 700-711.
Quiggle, N. L., Garber, J., Panak, W. F., & Dodge, K. A. (1992). Social
information processing in aggressive and depressed children. Child Development, 63,
1305-1320.
Richard, B. A., & Dodge, K. A. (1982). Social maladjustment and problem
solving in school-aged children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 226-
233.
Robins, L. N. (1978). Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behaviour:
Replications from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611-622.
Waas, G. A. (1988). Social attributional biases of peer-rejected and aggressive
children. Child Development, 59, 969-975.
20