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Managing Performance to Change Behavior
Abstract
Performance appraisal systems are often considered primarily in their role as criterion measures for validation studies. Even when they are considered in other organizational roles, there has traditionally been a strong focus on improving the accuracy of the appraisals. The present article argues that the proper focus of performance appraisal is to change employees' behavior on the job—both task performance behavior and contextual performance. Specifically, appraisals are best considered as part of a larger performance management system, where the entire focus is on improving performance. Such a focus has important implications for how concerned we are about perceived accuracy and fairness. Furthermore, when viewed in this way, it is clear that we must consider how to leverage individual level performance up to the level of the firm, since improving firm performance is critical to any organization's strategic goals.
... Distributive fairness relates to employees' feelings as to whether their performance is evaluated fairly and is concerned with perceptions of the fairness of the allocation or distribution of outcomes and/or the decisions made by supervisors (Lau and Amirthalingam, 2014;Thurston and McNall, 2010). Distributive fairness concerns employees' perceptions that such appraisals reflect effort, contributions and achievements, is considered justified and appropriate and recognises performance in the same way for all employees (DeNisi, 2011). Procedural fairness refers to the extent to which employees perceive that the processes used to evaluate their performance are perceived to be "consistent, accurate, without bias, correctable, representative and ethical" (Groen, 2018, p. 211). ...
... Procedural fairness refers to the extent to which employees perceive that the processes used to evaluate their performance are perceived to be "consistent, accurate, without bias, correctable, representative and ethical" (Groen, 2018, p. 211). Procedural fairness concerns the perception that the appraisal procedures are applied consistently and free of bias, and whether employees have the ability to voice their opinion, influence outcomes and appeal undesirable outcomes (DeNisi, 2011). ...
... Therefore, in line with social exchange theory, if employees feel their performance is evaluated fairly, either in respect to the processes used to evaluate their performance (procedural fairness), the interactions with their supervisor (interpersonal fairness), the explanations and communications received (informational fairness) and/or the outcomes or decisions made by their supervisor (distributive fairness), it is expected that they will reciprocate the positive feelings they have towards their supervisor by exerting greater effort towards achieving desired organisational outcomes. Specifically, it is expected that when managers perceive that their performance is (un)fairly evaluated they will be (less) more likely to work towards achieving organisational goals due to the cognitive motivational effect (DeNisi and Smith, 2014;DeNisi, 2011;Thurston and McNall, 2010;Burney et al., 2009). Accordingly, we hypothesise that there will be a positive association between fairness and the achievement of organisational process outcomes, i.e. performance-and staff-related outcomes. ...
Purpose
This study examines the mediating role of the fairness of performance appraisal on the association between the extent of use of strategic performance measurement systems (SPMSs) with SPMS effectiveness.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected using an online survey distributed to 656 Australian middle and lower level managers.
Findings
The findings reveal that informational fairness mediates the association between SPMSs (link to value drivers and the use of multidimensional performance measures) with performance-related outcomes; procedural fairness mediates the association between SPMSs (link to strategy and the use of multidimensional performance measures) with staff-related outcomes and distributive fairness mediates the association between the use of SPMSs (all three types) with both performance and staff-related outcomes.
Originality/value
The study provides a unique insight into the importance of fairness (the distributive, informational and procedural fairness of the performance appraisal system) in mediating the associations between the extent of use of SPMSs and SPMS effectiveness. The findings contribute to the human resource management (HRM) “black box” literature by providing an insight into the behavioural mechanism through which a specific human resource management practice (i.e. the SPMS) influences organisational performance.
... This type of PMSP is called a process PMSP. Finally, the support functions that concentrate on managing the human resources in the organisations (Adler et al., 2016;Cappelli and Tavis, 2016;DeNisi, 2011) represent the third type of functional area. In this case, the domain is the employees in the organisation, and the PMSP specialising in this domain, is referred to as the people PMSP, is referred to as the people PMSP. ...
... The control loop in people PMSPs typically departs from the goal-setting of the individual employee, includes individual feedback as well as individual performance appraisal and is linked with compensation or development plans for the individual employee (Cappelli and Tavis, 2016;McGregor, 1957;Murphy and Cleveland, 1995). Like process PMSPs, people PMSPs are specialised PMSPs that must be aligned and linked with the organisation's overall and strategic goals (Adler et al., 2016;DeNisi, 2011;Murphy, 2020). However, in parallel to the process PMSPs, HRM research has underlined the challenges that exist in terms of aligning the PMSPs of this domain with the SBU's strategic goals (e.g. ...
... The manager's overall coordination of the domain within which employees are performing (overall resource allocation and resource provision) The purposes in the typology are all design sensitive, meaning that tensions and conflicts may arise if a PMSP aims to serve different domains (DeNisi, 2011;Johnson and Kaplan, 1987;Pellinen et al., 2016) or different managerial purposes (e.g. McGregor, 1957;Meyer et al., 1965;Murphy and Cleveland, 1995;Zimmerman, 2020). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to organise, in a general typology, the different purposes of performance management systems and processes (PMSPs) that are discussed across the performance management literature in different functional areas.
Design/methodology/approach
The typology is developed based on a traditional review of the performance management literature from three types of functional areas, represented by operations and production management, management accounting and human resource management.
Findings
The cross-functional typology illustrates how the different types of purposes discussed in the literature can be organised in a hierarchical structure. In this way, the basic purpose of organisational value creation for PMSPs can be decomposed into two layers of sub-purposes, the first specifying the domain and the second outlining the specific managerial use of PMSPs.
Practical implications
The presented typology may help managers across different functional areas map the purposes of their PMSPs; this mapping will not only provide the basics for understanding a PMSP's potential value for an organisation but also serve as an important input for PMSP design.
Originality/value
The presented typology has a broader scope than existing typologies of purposes in research and, consequently, better interrelates and tracks the various types of purposes discussed across different functional areas. This contributes not only to our understanding of performance management as a cross-functional field but also to research on the use and design of PMSPs in organisations.
... Previous studies showed that performance appraisal accuracy was thoroughly examined because fair appraisal was accepted by employee due to fairness and better accurate performance ratings and respond with high job performance (Embi & Choon, 2014). Performance appraisal accuracy has been studied heavily to improve job performance and it is possible merely when rater focuses on the improvement of rating scales and consequent upon rating error (DeNisi, 2011). The body of studies formulated better rating scales that maximize rating accuracy in order to employees get satisfied and improve their performance (DeNisi, 2011). ...
... Performance appraisal accuracy has been studied heavily to improve job performance and it is possible merely when rater focuses on the improvement of rating scales and consequent upon rating error (DeNisi, 2011). The body of studies formulated better rating scales that maximize rating accuracy in order to employees get satisfied and improve their performance (DeNisi, 2011). Rating scale accuracy means how to minimize rating errors that is graphing rating scale or behaviourally anchored rating scales and offer training to the supervisors to decrease errors in their performance appraisal sessions (DeNisi, 2011;Smith & Kendall, 1963). ...
... The body of studies formulated better rating scales that maximize rating accuracy in order to employees get satisfied and improve their performance (DeNisi, 2011). Rating scale accuracy means how to minimize rating errors that is graphing rating scale or behaviourally anchored rating scales and offer training to the supervisors to decrease errors in their performance appraisal sessions (DeNisi, 2011;Smith & Kendall, 1963). However, there is no such proofs on the ground that which rating scale format is better than others (Landy & Farr, 1983). ...
The aim of this article is to explore the moderating effect of employee satisfaction on the relationship of goal-setting and purposes, fairness and rating scale format with employee job performance in the academic setting. Data were collected through survey questionnaire from 300 employees working in six public sector universities of KP, Pakistan. Multiple regression analysis has been used to test the hypothesis. The dimensions of the performance appraisal were found to be significantly correlated to employee job performance and employee satisfaction played a crucial role in moderating this relationship. Potential reasons and suggestions for managers and employees are discussed. The paper adds to the current pool of knowledge on the links among goal-setting and purposes, fairness, rating scale format, employee satisfaction and employee job performance. Various facets of these constructs were analyzed, so as to give an extensive and more ample understanding of the determinants that influence employer and employees.
... According to Lawler (2003), effectiveness of a PMS lies in its ability to motivate employees to change their behavior voluntarily. The term "voluntary" is important because PMS is not a control mechanism but a developmental intervention that seeks to shape employee attitudes to maximize performance (DeNisi, 2011;Bezerra George, 2016). DeNisi (2011) suggests that change in employee behavior is essentially a "reaction" to an effective PMS. ...
... As an HR system, PMS assumes significant importance as it directly impacts every single employee in the organization (DeNisi and Pritchard, 2006). PMS is responsible for communicating the organization's goals to employees, creating alignment between personal and organizational goals and aiding the achievement of these goals by providing necessary support (DeNisi, 2011). It is argued that when a PMS is effective (i.e. it is perceived to be high on distinctiveness, consensus and consistency), it transmits information on goals and objectives more clearly, provide proper guidelines of how employees are expected to behave and gives them a clear view of the benefits to be realized by following the system (Singh and Loncar, 2010). ...
... 0440_proof ▪ 11 April 2020 ▪ 1:21 am Finally, the study lends empirical support to the use of the PMS effectiveness scale developed by Sharma et al. (2016). A proper measure for PMS effectiveness has been lacking for a long time. Many studies tend to use appraisal effectiveness as a proxy for PMS effectiveness which may lead to misleading outcomes (Denisi. 2011;Sharma et al., 2016). In this study, the instrument displayed excellent reliability and validity in the Indian context. ...
Purpose
Performance management systems (PMS) are integral to an organization's human resource management but research is ambivalent on their positive impact and the mechanism through which they influence employee behavior. This study fills this gap by positing work engagement as a mediator in the relationship between perceptions of PMS effectiveness, employee job satisfaction and turnover intentions.
Design/methodology/approach
The study uses a survey-based design. Data were collected from 322 employees in India attending a management development program at a premier business school. Partial least squares–based structure equation modeling package ADANCO was used for data analysis.
Findings
Positive perception of PMS effectiveness was found to enhance employee work engagement. This increased job satisfaction and reduced turnover intentions among employees. Thus, work engagement mediated the relationship between PMS perceptions and job satisfaction and turnover intentions.
Practical implications
The results suggest that organizations need to focus on three characteristics of PMS, namely its distinctiveness, consistency and consensus. These characteristics determine the effectiveness of PMS in engaging employees and influencing their job satisfaction and turnover intentions.
Originality/value
Prior studies on performance management have largely been limited to aspects of justice and focused disproportionately on the appraisal aspect of performance management. This study takes a systems view of performance management and addresses prior shortcomings by examining the role of clarity and horizontal fit between PMS practices in determining employee engagement. The study also provides much needed empirical support to theoretical studies which have argued that PMS is a driver of engagement in organizations (Gruman and Saks, 2011; Mone and London, 2014).
... PM is not a new concept and its research has been around for the past two decades [11,14,61]. PM may include, regular performance meetings or reviews [40], goal-orientation, and resource allocation [17], training, and performance improvement [17,18]. Contributing to the discussion, Gerrish [23] used a meta-analysis and identified four variables that are important to PM research: best practices, second-generation PM systems, effect size, and the context of the study. ...
... The sample frame in the study consist of 1,849 local government sector employees in the Greater Accra region who were below the grade of deputy director (DD) (Level 21), which included Assistant Director I (Level 19) to Senior Executive (Level 15), and the equivalent grades in the region. Grades that were below DD are Level 19,18,16, and 15 which are termed middle-management level in this study. Therefore, grades that fall below this category were not be included in the study because the focus of the study was to understand the nexus between PM and organizational environment antecedents from the perspectives of middle management. ...
The study aimed to investigate the relationship between organizational environment antecedents and their impact on performance management among local government authorities and to further understand the role of the stakeholder and political support in the performance monitoring and review of local governments. The study used quantitative research design techniques in the data collection phase between May and August 2017 in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The sample included 850 middle level and senior managers of the Local Government Service. Multiple regression was used to analyze the data. The results of the findings indicate that there is a strong relationship between two organizational environment variables: “stakeholder participation”, political support, and performance management providing a variance of 31.8 percent of the changes in the dependent variable. However, the findings further suggest that stakeholder participation was a better predictor of performance management than political support. Additionally, employees’ age, gender, and organizational size were statistically significant in the model fit. This study is one of the first of its kind to link two organizational environment indicators (stakeholder support and political support) and their effect on two performance management dimensions (performance monitoring and evaluation, and performance review). Also, few studies have used the structural contingency theory in explaining the influence of the environment on internal business processes of organizations in the performance management literature.
... As stated by Castke et al. (2003), the main objective of performance management is to ensure the integrated nature of all subsystems of the organization to achieve their ultimate objectives. Several scholars have identified the significance of performance management for the organizations for ensuring the overall effectiveness (DeNiSi, 2011;Dewettinck & Dijk, 2013;Rashidi, 2015) as it leads the organization towards higher efficiency, effectiveness, profitability and quality of service. McDonald and Smith (1991) further endorse this argument as they have found that the organizations who are engeged in managing their employee performance are benefited with higher profit, cash flows and strong stock market performance (Armstrong, 2014). ...
... Effectiveness of a performance management system can be defined as 'the degree to which the system delivers its intended results and simply helping organizations to plan, measure and control their performance' (Bento and Bento, 2006). Different researchers have conducted a variety of studies in relation to the relationship between organizational contextual variables such as organizational culture, employee engagement, fairness, psychological contract, employee attitudes, employee behavior, employee satisfaction, employee loyalty and the effectiveness of performance management system ( Stiles et al. , 2007;Rao, 2007;Robbins and Charbonneau, 2008;DeNisi, 2011;Kagaari, 2011;Dewettinck andDijk, 2013, Jaksic andJaksic, 2013;Rishipal and Manish, 2013;Qureshi and Hassan, 2013;Bawole, et al. , 2013;Clark, 2015). But, it can be noted that, there is a shortage of studies which have been conducted on the entire performance management system and the overall effectiveness of the system. ...
... Through the feedback mechanism, remedial action and steps to improve performance should be discussed. This presents an opportunity for managers to coach employees and aid improvement in performance on an ongoing basis [13]. ...
... Some identified challenges include a world-wide shortage of nurses, health worker's commitment and job satisfaction [8,[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. These factors have an impact on patient care and the provision of quality service delivery. ...
Background:
Nurses make up the largest constituent of the health workforce. The success of health care interventions depends on nurses' ability and willingness to provide quality health care services. A well-implemented performance management (PM) system can be a valuable asset in ensuring that nurses are motivated, promoted, trained and rewarded appropriately. Despite the significant benefits of effective PM such as improved motivation, job satisfaction and morale, PM systems are highly contested. Therefore, it is important to examine evidence on PM methods and practices in order to understand its consequences among nursing professionals in primary health care (PHC) settings.
Methods:
The search strategy of this systematic scoping review will involve various electronic databases which include Academic Search Complete, PsycARTICLES. PsycINFO, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Applied Health Literature, Medline and Cochrane Library from the EbsocHost Database Platform. Electronic databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar, Union catalogue of theses and dissertations via SABINET online and WorldCat dissertations will be incorporated. A grey literature search will be conducted on websites such as the World Health Organization and government websites to find relevant policies and guidelines. The period for the search is from 1978 to 2018. This time period was chosen to coincide with the Declaration of Alma-Ata on PHC adopted in 1978. All references will be exported to Endnote library. Two independent reviewers will begin screening for eligible titles, abstracts and full articles. During title and abstract screening, duplicates will be removed. The Mixed Method Appraisal Tool will determine the quality of included studies. Thematic analysis will be used to analyse the included articles.
Discussion:
Evidence of preferences on PM methods and practices will generate insight on the use of PM systems in PHC and how this can be used for the purpose of improving nurses' performance and in turn, the provision of quality health care. We hope to expose knowledge gaps and inform future research.
... Goal-setting is well-established as a motivational tool in the literature (e.g. Locke and Latham, 2002), but as part of the performance management process, goal setting needs to be tied to strategic planning (DeNisi, 2011). The OSH inspectors are intended to promote regulatory compliance, and they an advantage as outsiders that they have the potential to assist the duty holders to 'learn how to comply' and to 'self-regulate' and to develop systematic approaches to OSH even if other regulatory method will be requires to ensure that they are sustained, evaluated and improved (e.g. ...
... First, due to positivity of the workers' OSH representative with respect to input-output the broadened thought-action repertoires and expanded inventory of workers' resources can be particularly relevant for problem-solving OSH performance and potentially enhanced OSH innovations (applied from Luthans et al., 2011). The stronger the connection between goal accomplishment and the reception of valued outcomes, the stronger the motivation to work to accomplish goals (DeNisi, 2011). This confirms the commonsense, conventional wisdom that workers are more creative when in a positive environment and mindset. ...
... Goal-setting is well-established as a motivational tool in the literature (e.g. Locke and Latham, 2002), but as part of the performance management process, goal setting needs to be tied to strategic planning (DeNisi, 2011). The OSH inspectors are intended to promote regulatory compliance, and they an advantage as outsiders that they have the potential to assist the duty holders to 'learn how to comply' and to 'self-regulate' and to develop systematic approaches to OSH even if other regulatory method will be requires to ensure that they are sustained, evaluated and improved (e.g. ...
... First, due to positivity of the workers' OSH representative with respect to input-output the broadened thought-action repertoires and expanded inventory of workers' resources can be particularly relevant for problem-solving OSH performance and potentially enhanced OSH innovations (applied from Luthans et al., 2011). The stronger the connection between goal accomplishment and the reception of valued outcomes, the stronger the motivation to work to accomplish goals (DeNisi, 2011). This confirms the commonsense, conventional wisdom that workers are more creative when in a positive environment and mindset. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the administrational supervision of occupational safety and health (OSH) inspectors in the workplaces that they inspect. In the questionnaire survey, the respondents were OSH managers and workers' OSH representatives in the chemical companies' plants. For workers, the aggregated variable 'General OSH enforcement operations' was positively related to the aggregated variable 'Effects of the current OSH inspection'. In contrast, for the OSH managers, the corresponding data did not reveal any correlation. The professional competence in carrying out the OSH inspections was positively related to the different variables of the aggregated variable 'Effects of the current OSH inspection (Outputs)'. In contrast, for the workers' OSH representatives, the analysis failed to confirm this relationship. The present findings are that OSH managers and workers' OSH representatives desired that the OSH inspector should follow up more effectively that OSH management systems are being implemented in practice. They should provide more advice to workplaces in order to help them to exceed the minimum level laid down by law. Workers' OSH representatives expressed clearly that the OSH inspector should more often impose binding obligations. The professional skills of the OSH inspectors need to correspond better to the needs of today's working life and to be able to react to system changes in the workplaces. The OSH enforcement approach should become more uniform and be harmonized between the individual OSH inspectors and the OSH agencies. The development of the quality of OSH inspections and the professional competence of inspectors are important aspects from the point of the effectiveness.
... An essential element of these models is the emphasis on the employee as the driver of improved firm financial performance. If an employee achieves their goals, it is easier for the firm to do the same (DeNisi, 2011). It is, however, not surprising that the model by DeNisi and Pritchard (2006) focussed primarily on the motivational processes of the individual employee. ...
Purpose
This paper investigates the impact of performance management (PM) practices on firms' financial performance and the mediating role of co-worker and supervisor support.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected through a two-wave survey. The authors tested the hypotheses using data from 439 employees.
Findings
The authors find that PM practices positively influence a firm financial performance. The results also show a positive indirect relationship between PM practices and firm financial performance through co-worker support. The mediated effect is about 0.2 times as large as the direct effect of PM practices on firm financial performance. The results also show that supervisor support partially mediates the relationship between PM practices and firm financial performance.
Research limitations/implications
The authors extend our knowledge of PM practices–firm financial performance relationships. The study advances the existing knowledge on this relationship beyond the traditional input-output models by exploring the mediating role of employee involvement in the relationship between PM practices and firm financial performance. Specifically, the authors' findings reveal that co-worker and supervisory support can act as a mediator in this relationship, shedding new light on the importance of employee/supervisor involvement in PM practices.
Practical implications
The findings highlight the need for managers to take a crucial look at the importance of co-worker and supervisor support. This suggests that organisations can focus on providing adequate training to managers and supervisors to enhance their ability to provide social support to their employees. Organisations can also encourage a positive and supportive workplace culture to foster an environment that promotes employee engagement, motivation and performance.
Originality/value
The results of this study enrich the literature on PM practices–firm financial performance by conceptualising supervisor and co-worker support as mechanisms through which this relationship occurs. By so doing, the authors clarify how PM practices affect firm financial performance.
... Performance management (PM) systems currently constitute a key function in human resource management and are considered indispensable tools for organisations to improve employees' motivation, performance and productivity (Denisi, 2011). PM has no single definition but is generally defined as managing employees' performance of their work duties (Schleicher et al., 2018). ...
Performance management (PM) systems are intended to positively influence employee behaviour but do they also motivate significant gaming? This concern is increasingly noted in the literature yet research into gaming and how it arises has been very limited. Using data collected from 65 semi-structured interviews with academics working in 13 research intensive business schools/schools of management in the United Kingdom (UK), this paper demonstrates how PM systems can encourage employees to engage in a range of behaviours termed gaming in order to navigate PM systems. It categorises gaming behaviours into five types: gratuitous proliferation, hoarding performance, collusive alliances, playing safe and cooking the books. The paper then examines the distinctive features of each type and illustrates how it arises as a response to PM systems. Given the widespread use of PM systems and the close similarities in the way they are implemented in different public and private sector organisations, the derived categories are relevant to contexts beyond the university setting.
... This is possible with employees with high entrepreneurial tendencies and high individual performance. Denisi (2011) underlined that performance is affected by many factors such as innovation and change. Ogbanufe and Gerhart (2020) claimed that the entrepreneurial tendencies of employees increase their individual performances. ...
This research aims to reveal the effect of entrepreneurial tendencies of human resources employees on their individual performances and the mediating role of perception of towards change that AI can create. This research has been carried out with human resources employees of Turkey's largest second 500 companies in terms of capital. According to the results of the research, the entrepreneurial tendency of human resources employees significantly and positively affects their perception of towards change that AI can create; perception of towards change that AI can create of human resources employees significantly and positively affects their individual performance; the entrepreneurial tendency of human resources employees doesn't affect their individual performance.
... This is possible with employees with high entrepreneurial tendencies and high individual performance. Denisi (2011) underlined that performance is affected by many factors such as innovation and change. Ogbanufe and Gerhart (2020) claimed that the entrepreneurial tendencies of employees increase their individual performances. ...
This research aims to reveal the effect of entrepreneurial tendencies of human resources employees on their individual performances and the mediating role of perception of towards change that AI can create. This research has been carried out with human resources employees of Turkey’s largest second 500 companies in terms of capital. According to the results of the research, the entrepreneurial tendency of human resources employees significantly and positively affects their perception of towards change that AI can create; perception of towards change that AI can create of human resources employees significantly and positively affects their individual performance; the entrepreneurial tendency of human resources employees doesn’t affect their individual performance.
... From the above literature, it was clear that many researches have been done linking performance management systems with factors such as innovation behavior, competitive advantage and climate. PMS effectiveness can bring an effect not only on the task performance of an employee but to other significant results, such as Creativity, Organizational Innovation and Organization citizenship behaviors (Busaibe, 2017;Denisi, 2011;DeNisi, 2014). Even though here they are linking the effectiveness of PMS with organizational innovation, the effect or the linkage with individual innovative behavior wasn't studied. ...
The COVID-19 forced governments worldwide to deploy contact-tracing apps as an integral part of their lockdown exit strategies. The challenge was mass users’ Adoption of tracing apps deployed. One such app was Aarogya Setu, deployed by the Indian Government. The initiative did not see an exciting response from most of the population in the initial phase. The Government had to change the approach after a while. The current study proposes a conceptual model establishing the theoretical connection among four critical factors: Innovation Resistance, Perceive Security, Perceived Risk, Privacy, and Co-production.
... From the above literature, it was clear that many researches have been done linking performance management systems with factors such as innovation behavior, competitive advantage and climate. PMS effectiveness can bring an effect not only on the task performance of an employee but to other significant results, such as Creativity, Organizational Innovation and Organization citizenship behaviors (Busaibe, 2017;Denisi, 2011;DeNisi, 2014). Even though here they are linking the effectiveness of PMS with organizational innovation, the effect or the linkage with individual innovative behavior wasn't studied. ...
Sentiment Analysis (SA) is an active area of study in the field of text mining. SA is the computational treatment of thoughts, emotions and literary subjectivity. This paper addresses a detailed summary of the latest update in this area. The related fields of SA (transfer learning, emotional detection, and resource building) that attracted researchers have recently been explored. The paper provides a description of the various approaches to sentiment classification and methods used for sentiment analysis. Starting from this summary, the paper introduces a classification of methods with respect to features, advantages and limitations.
... In this context, scholarly attention has shifted to the role of internal HR systems and processes that promote engagement, especially the role of the employee performance management system (Albrecht et al., 2015). The mandate of a performance management system in an organization is to facilitate employee efforts in meeting the organization's performance expectations (DeNisi, 2011). ...
The study investigates the influence of performance management system consistency on employee work engagement. Drawing on the ‘job demands-resources model’ and ‘regulatory focus theory’, it was hypothesized that when employees perceive their performance management system to be consistent, they develop positive outcome expectations, which primes their achievement-oriented motivation (promotion regulatory focus) and increases their engagement. Responses were collected from 779 employees belonging to three large, multi-national organizations in India. Data were analyzed using PLS-SEM package ADANCO and Hayes’ PROCESS macro. Support was found for a moderated-mediation model. Specifically, promotion focus was found to mediate the relationship between performance management system consistency and work engagement, while positive affect moderated the relationship between performance management system consistency and promotion focus. The study advances scholarly understanding of the psychological impact of performance management systems on employees by clarifying the cognitive-affective processes underlying this relationship. The study also adds to the literature on work engagement by establishing consistency as a key attribute for performance management systems to act as a ‘job resource’ for employees and enhance their engagement. The study makes a strong case for organizations to look at performance management as an integrated system and move away from an insular focus on performance-related practices such as appraisals.
... Firm performance is often attributed to factors such as inadequate government support, or managerial competencies, ignoring other factors such as effective performance management. Performance management is a variety of integrated activities executed by a firm to continuously augment performance by setting goals, analysing results and remunerating the performance of employees (DeNisi 2011;Gravina & Siers 2011). Performance management (particularly use of the performance appraisal tool) is suggested in literature as pivotal in supporting firm growth (Bititci, Cocca & Ates 2015), especially amongst small-to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). ...
Orientation: The increasing focus on human resource management (HRM) and performance
appraisal, in particular, in small- to- medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is a comparatively
recent phenomenon. Unfortunately, much of our knowledge of traditional HRM topics in
large corporations may not necessarily apply in the enterprises.
Research purpose: This study purposed to examine whether performance appraisal had an
impact on SMEs’ performance measured by return on investment (ROI) and innovation in
Harare Province, Zimbabwe.
Motivation for the study: Small- to- medium-sized enterprises are becoming the dominant
form of business in terms of the socio-economic development of countries worldwide, in areas
such as gross domestic product and employment. In view of this, a systematic collection of
information about employees in the enterprises, which forms the bedrock of all human
resource (HR) practice, can be done through performance appraisal. Unfortunately,
performance appraisal in SMEs has not received adequate research attention.
Research design, approach and method: The study employed an ex post facto correlational design
that adopted a purely quantitative approach. A total of 106 owners or managers took part in the
survey. A self-constructed structured questionnaire was used to collect data. The Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used for both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Main findings: Most owner or managers made use of the 360-degree performance appraisal
method. The study established that very weak and statistically insignificant relationships existed
between performance appraisal and firm performance measured by both ROI and innovation.
Practical/managerial implications: It is recommended that the government through the relevant
ministries and agencies should consider more financial inducements, tax relief for start-ups and
additional grants to support investments in new technology, and more training for owner or
managers. This could, amongst other things, go a long way in assisting them to acquire sufficient
information technology infrastructure for effective implementation of performance appraisals.
Contribution/value-add: The current study is one of the very few, if any, that sheds light on
the nexus between HRM and performance appraisal in particular and the performance of
SMEs in the country. Unlike most studies, the current study adopted a hybrid approach in the
measurement of performance, making use of both objective and subjective measures.
Keywords: performance appraisal; performance; small-to-medium, performance management,
Zimbabwe.
... Performance management. Performance management involves a set of integrated activities performed by a firm such as setting expectations, reviewing results and rewarding performance to enhance the performance of employees (DeNisi, 2011;Gravina and Siers, 2011). A firm's performance management should be based on performance targets or key performance indicators by translating organizational strategies into operational terms (Gravina and Siers, 2011). ...
Purpose
This study investigates the effect of continuous improvement initiatives in streamlining HRM practices in Sri Lanka.
Design/methodology/approach
Survey methodology was used and 217 respondents who fulfilled the selection criteria set for the study responded. Structural equation modelling was performed to examine the hypothesized relationships.
Findings
The analysis supported the hypotheses that continuous improvement initiatives significantly positively influence to streamline HRM practices of performance management, job-related training, employee involvement and team work.
Practical implications
Continuous improvement initiatives that are aligned with the strategic direction of firms guide to design and implement better focused HRM practices.
Originality/value
The failure to streamline HRM practices in accordance with continuous improvement initiatives has been identified as a key barrier for the effective utilization of human resources. Although continuous improvement initiatives demand changes in the way HRM is practiced, so far, little empirical attention has been paid to understand the implications of continuous improvement initiatives for HRM practices.
... As the underlying notion of the portfolio process is that setting goals, planning actions and receiving feedback will help to increase effective behaviors (DeNisi, 2011), and as the portfolio process can be regarded as a structured and job-embedded experiential learning process (cf. Pulakos et al., 2015), we expect that it will enhance self-rated and other-rated agility. ...
The fast‐paced and changeable nature of contemporary society results in organizations that increasingly need to train their employees to become more energetic, flexible, and adaptable: the so called “agile” employees. This study used personal development portfolios including frequent feedback interviews (with mentors and peers) over 2.5 years to assist 32 employees working in an organization undergoing change to become more agile. A portfolio implies setting agility goals, recording and assessing progress in one's agility. Data were collected on employees' agility, and were related to their portfolio. Results showed that the portfolio use significantly increased employees' agility and significantly enhanced the agreement between self‐rated and other‐rated agility. Findings favor the use of development portfolios by organizations in improving agility among their employees. Therefore, this study gives tools for the practice of Human Resources Development (HRD).
... Dit kunnen de veranderingen van de determinanten of van het eigenlijke gedrag zijn. In feite kan elk concreet gewenst gedrag worden gemeten via zelf-rapportage of observatie door anderen (Choi, Johnson, Moon & Oah, 2018;DeNisi, 2011). Idealiter worden tijdens de effectevaluatie deelnemers van het programma met een controlegroep vergeleken, en worden deze vergelijkingen op meerdere tijdstippen na de interventie uitgevoerd (Coffeng et al., 2014;Kok et al., 2014;McEachan et al., 2011). ...
In dit artikel wordt gesteld dat het Intervention Mapping protocol (IM) vier extra specifieke punten van aandacht biedt die in de meeste interventiemethoden niet aan bod komen, maar die kunnen bijdragen aan het plannen en uitvoeren van een effectieve interventie binnen een organisatie. Ten eerste ziet IM een gezondheidsprobleem en de oplossing als concrete gedragingen van individuen, en dat een interventie als doel moet hebben dat individuen blijvend gezondheid bevorderend gedrag vertonen. Ten tweede benut het protocol niet alleen meerdere empirisch gefundeerde theorieën om het gezondheidsprobleem te beschrijven, maar ook om empirisch bewezen methoden van gedragsverandering vast te stellen. Ten derde ziet IM in dat de veelal contexttonafhankelijke veranderingsmethoden niet direct kunnen worden toegepast, maar dat deze methoden vertaald moeten worden naar afgewogen veranderingstoepassingen die passen bij de specifieke doelgroep. Ten slotte onderkent IM dat concrete gedragsveranderingen van individuen uit de primaire risicogroep moeten worden gesteund door individuen uit de omgeving, zoals leidinggevenden. Om gerichte steun te kunnen verlenen zijn ook deze individuen onderdeel van een interventieplan tot gedragsverandering. Deze vier aspecten worden in het huidige artikel belicht en onderbouwd aan de hand van de resultaten van een aantal IM-evaluatiestudies. We besluiten met een kritische blik op de wijze waarop IM meer gericht kan worden toegepast binnen organisaties, aangezien dit naast kennis van (theorieën over) gezondheidsgedrag ook kennis over organisatie-psychologische aspecten vereist.
... The manager is the leader of a team or a department, who is responsible for conducting performance management interviews. One of the subjects of these interviews is the manner in which the professional is going to react to change (DeNisi, 2011), and whether the professional needs anything (e.g., budget or time) to develop talents or broaden strengths in reaction to complex new social experiences (Van Woerkom, Bakker, & Nishii, 2016). During these interviews, in between feedback and goals, becoming conscious-incompetent will be brought into practice. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate whether it is possible for a manager to get a professional to become conscious of his or her thoughts during a complex new social experience. In all, 19 managers from organizations in the Netherlands were trained to use the Episodic Memory Interview (EMI), a method to retrieve thoughts intertwined with episodic memory. The managers conducted interviews with professionals immediately at the end of training sessions and after some time at the workplace. In this quasi-experimental longitudinal study, we analyzed 104 interviews in a deductive way. We found that managers often succeeded in using EMI after training, and even more often back at the workplace. We conclude that it is possible for managers to get professionals to retrieve thoughts that occurred during a complex new social experience and become conscious of them. Hence, EMI can contribute to research on the conscious competence learning model on how to advance to the conscious incompetence stage.
... Directly tested (Continued ) and supported by top management (Appelbaum, Nadeau, & Cyr, 2008;DeNisi, 2011;DeNisi & Pritchard, 2006). PM practices are also strategic when they are linked internally to other practices within the overall HR system including compensation, promotion, termination, career development, etc. (Heneman & Gresham, 1998;Korsgaard & Roberson, 1995;Latham, Almost, Mann, & Moore, 2005). ...
This study presents a taxonomic foundation for research on employee performance management practices based on a comprehensive review of the literature (198 articles and book chapters). The taxonomy consists of 50 practices organized within seven topic categories, including an evaluation of the amount of research evidence supporting each practice. This taxonomic foundation facilitates the aggregation, integration, interpretation, and explanation of performance management research based on a role-theoretic perspective derived from the behavioural approach to strategic human resource management. The proposed direct-linkage path model shows how this taxonomic foundation ties performance management practices to behaviours and results. We build on this Practice – Behaviour – Results (PBR) critical path model with moderators and mediators based on cognitive and social factors identified in the extensive previous research. This PBR model provides a foundation for orderly and structured growth for future research that will enhance the connection between research and improved organizational practices in performance management, as well as a guide to best practices in performance management.
... Performance management is a continuous process of identifying, measuring, and improving the performance of target individuals and units with the ultimate intention of achieving strategic organizational objectives (Abu-Doleh & Weir, 2007;DeNisi, 2011). The success of performance management depends on the active involvement of both employees and their supervisors in setting performance goals, reviewing results, and rewarding performance (Biron, Farndale, & Paauwe, 2011). ...
Balancing the short-term goals of the organization with employees’ long-term development is of particular interest to the leaders of offshore outsourcing firms. To better understand this challenge, researchers surveyed 170 virtual team members in 14 IT outsourcing firms in Sri Lanka about the impact of their employers’ human resource management practices on their performance and career growth. The findings reveal the importance of performance management, capability development, and the integration of various human resource management practices in fostering both the teamwork that is crucial to attain business objectives, as well as the professional development essential to meeting employees’ expectations regarding their career growth.
... The term performance management refers to a range of integrated activities continuously performed by a firm toenhance the performance of a target individual or group by setting expectations, reviewing results, and rewarding performance (DeNisi, 2011;Gravina&Siers, 2011;Molleman& Timmerman, 2003). The overall purpose of performance management is to ensure that the subsystems of organisation are aligned and complement each other in an optimal fashion to achieve results desired by the organisation (Biron, Farndale, &Paauwe, 2011). ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate ways in which performance management is practiced in medium-sized enterprises in Sri Lanka. Medium-sized enterprises in Sri Lanka having a total number of employees between 50 to 99, more than seven years of business operation, and total investment between 5 to 50 million Sri Lankan rupees were surveyed. The hypothesized relationships were examined by structural equation modeling. It was found that the six characteristics of performance management (i.e., focus, target setting, administrative work procedures, interdependency, integration with other human resource management functions, and responsibility) significantly predict performance management effectiveness. Although medium-sized enterprises in the sample have devoted considerable energy to implementing performance management practices, considerable improvements are needed in the level of adoption.
... While deteriorating administrative culture may necessitate the use of performance appraisal as an instrument of control, it is still inconclusive whether appraisers and the appraisees have been able to use the appraisal process to exercise behavioral control. In order to guarantee behavior change, performance information must generate unquestionable information and feedback that is associated with desired performance outcomes (DeNisi, 2011). It is argued that employees perception of the appraisal process or their notions of "procedural justice" tend to affect both the legitimacy and acceptance of appraisal ratings (Greenberg & Tyler, 1987;Cloutier & Vilhuber, 2008). ...
This article examines the practice of performance appraisal as a critical element of administrative culture in the Ghana Civil Service (CS). It relies on three focus group discussions with senior civil servants to analyze the practice and its implications for performance of civil servants in Ghana. The article argues that: Leadership seldom gives the needed attention to this administrative practice; the process lacks objectivity; it is fraught with superstition, spirituality, and fear; appraisers are rarely trained; and civil servants only become more interested in performance appraisals (PAs) during promotion-related interviews. The article therefore concludes that this process has become rhetoric rather than an important practice and that performance only gets praised rather than being appraised. The article recommends an overhaul of the PA system by integrating it into a holistic performance management program; integrating PA training into civil service mandatory training programs; and the revision and computerization of the PA system.
... There are well-established techniques in organisations to achieve this. Performance management (see, for example, [22]) is a term that covers one type of selection pressure applied to people and organisations. When the IE is part or all of an organisation, organisational change management (see the review, for example, in [23]) provides a set of [11] discusses the techniques required. ...
Digital information changes the ways in which people and organisations interact. This paper examines the nature of this change in the context of the author’s Model for Information (MfI). It investigates the relationship between outcomes and value, selection processes and some attributes of information and explores how this relationship changes in the move from analogue to digital information. Selection processes shape the evolution of information ecosystems in which conventions are established for the ways in which information is used. The conventions determine norms for information friction and information quality as well as the sources of information and channels used. Digital information reduces information friction, often dramatically, and changes information quality. The increasing use of analytics in business increasingly delivers predictive or prescriptive digital information. These changes are happening faster than information ecosystem conventions can change. The relationships established in the paper enable an analysis of, and guide changes to, these conventions enabling a more effective use of digital information.
... While deteriorating administrative culture may necessitate the use of performance appraisal as an instrument of control, it is still inconclusive whether appraisers and the appraisees have been able to use the appraisal process to exercise behavioral control. In order to guarantee behavior change, performance information must generate unquestionable information and feedback that is associated with desired performance outcomes (DeNisi, 2011). It is argued that employees perception of the appraisal process or their notions of "procedural justice" tend to affect both the legitimacy and acceptance of appraisal ratings (Greenberg & Tyler, 1987;Cloutier & Vilhuber, 2008). ...
Based on desk study, this article adduces theoretical and empirical evidence to analyze the claims of advocates and critics of performance audit (PA). The paper establishes that the application of PA in some developed countries has led to improvement in aspects of public sector performance albeit sometimes short of the often highlighted effects of economy, efficiency and effectiveness. The article further provides evidence to support the claim that despite its touted contribution to performance, PA could rather lead to anti-innovation, nit-picking, expectations gap, lapdog, headline hunting, unnecessary systems and hollow ritual. The paper questions the quality of reported PA systems in the literature and advocates a PA regime that strikes a delicate balance between compliance and performance.
... While deteriorating administrative culture may necessitate the use of performance appraisal as an instrument of control, it is still inconclusive whether appraisers and the appraisees have been able to use the appraisal process to exercise behavioral control. In order to guarantee behavior change, performance information must generate unquestionable information and feedback that is associated with desired performance outcomes (DeNisi, 2011). It is argued that employees perception of the appraisal process or their notions of "procedural justice" tend to affect both the legitimacy and acceptance of appraisal ratings (Greenberg & Tyler, 1987;Cloutier & Vilhuber, 2008). ...
This article examines the practice of performance appraisal as a critical element of administrative culture in the Ghana Civil Service (CS). It relies on three focus group discussions with senior civil servants to analyze the practice and its implications for performance of civil servants in Ghana. The article argues that: leadership seldom gives the needed attention to this administrative practice; the process lacks objectivity; it is fraught with superstition, spirituality, and fear; appraisers are rarely trained; and civil servants only become more interested in performance appraisals (PAs) during promotion-related interviews. The article therefore concludes that this process has become rhetoric rather than an important practice and that performance only gets praised rather than being appraised. The article recommends an overhaul of the PA system by integrating it into a holistic performance management program; integrating PA training into civil service mandatory training programs; and the revision and computerization of the PA system.
Feedback interventions play a vital and pervasive role in organizations. However, there is no consensus on how feedback interventions work or why their effectiveness varies over time. This study responds to the call by feedback intervention theorists to engage in primary research in organizational settings. It analyzes the impact of a feedback intervention consisting of two important characteristics—feedback source and content—by using a multilevel model framework that considers job performance scores (Level 1) nested within managers (Level 2) from a 6‐year longitudinal study in a manufacturing firm in India. In a field experiment, 331 managers received 6 waves of performance feedback and were randomly assigned to a fully crossed 2 × 2 factorial field experiment with feedback source and content. Surprisingly, an external performance coach is more effective as a feedback source than an internal human resource professional; however, the latter is more effective when feedback content is considered over a longer timeframe, irrespective of the type of feedback content delivered. Furthermore, developmental feedback is not effective in the short term but has a positive impact in the long term. This study challenges the prevailing assumptions by finding empirical evidence that low‐performing managers have greater performance improvements than high‐performing managers. The results suggest a ceiling effect in managerial performance, as scores converged toward the end of the 6 years, highlighting the limitations of feedback interventions in organizations. We also find that the feedback source exerts more impact than the feedback content over time, suggesting a pecking order of the social context variables that affect feedback effectiveness. This study bridges the gap between theory and practice in feedback intervention theory and suggests future research avenues along with actionable recommendations for academicians and practitioners.
Despite its recognized centrality as an organizational tool, there are decades of mixed findings relating to the employee performance benefits associated with different forms of performance feedback. The ambiguity present in the literature has been attributed to multiple factors, including feedback purpose and the context within which feedback occurs. Integrating these broad themes, we develop a model expanding the breadth of relevant social context variables to include horizontal pay dispersion. Building from tournament theory, in a field experiment of 267 employees across 22 units, we find improved performance from diagnostic feedback delivered under increasing pay dispersion; however, substantively different patterns emerge for criterion‐referenced feedback. The current findings have implications for both performance feedback research and tournament theory.
We estimate the influence of various factors on life satisfaction of Czech
seniors in a large survey sample. We find that good health, more education and
awareness of voluntary work participation, employee satisfaction and being currently employed are the main factors that contribute to being satisfied with the current quality of life in the group of Czech seniors. Surprisingly enough, increasing selfreported financial sufficiency is negatively associated with the quality of life. The main factors contributing to the life dissatisfaction are associated with being socially
separated. The worst outcomes are recorded for those living in social homes and
living alone. Any reported expectations of expected life changes (both positive and
negative expectations) are associated with lower probability of life satisfaction
Purpose
Performance management systems (PMSs) are critical for organizational success, but research is undecided on their constructive influence and the means through which they impact work engagement and turnover intention. This study aims to fill this gap by surmising psychological contract fulfillment as a mediator in the relationship between PMS effectiveness (PMSE) and employee outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach
The study uses a survey research design. Data were collected from 327 working professionals in India. The Statistical Package for Social Science Version 10.0 (SPSS 10.0) and the Analysis of Moments Structure (AMOS) 4.0 were used for data analyses.
Findings
The two-factor construct perceived PMSE was found to explain a larger variance in work engagement and turnover intention than the separate measures for its constituents PMS accuracy (PMSA) and PMS fairness (PMSF). Psychological contract fulfillment and work engagement were found to mediate the relationship between PMSE and turnover intention.
Research limitations/implications
The study broadens the field of research on PMS in important ways. It demonstrates that the two-factor construct PMSE has a larger influence on employee outcomes in comparison to its constituent individual measures PMSA and PMSF. This is also the first study to suggest that in contrast to PMSF, PMSA explains a higher variance in employee outcomes.
Practical implications
This study validates the strong relationship between PMSE and key employee outcomes. Besides PMSF, managers can use the findings of this study to focus on the “right things” or accuracy in the PMS context to enhance work engagement and reduce turnover.
Social implications
The study findings will have value everywhere owing to the diffusion and convergence in the human resource management practices of multinational firms irrespective of their contexts (Ananthram and Nankervis, 2013).
Originality/value
Earlier PMS studies have mostly been limited to either its fairness or accuracy and attended unduly to its appraisal element. This study adopts a systems vision of PMS and overcomes earlier drawbacks by investigating the role of both PMSA and PMSF in shaping employee outcomes. This is the first study to empirically confirm that in contrast to PMSF, the PMSA constituent of PMSE explains a higher variance in employee outcomes. The study provides greatly essential pragmatic support to the conjecture that PMSs advance work engagement (Mone and London, 2014; Gruman and Saks, 2011) and lower turnover intention (Kwak and Choi, 2015).
This paper highlights the various dimensions of Performance Improvement Plan and their implications to
different organizations of developing countries. The proposed approach might be supportive in the development
of model that improves the performance of developing world. Various steps of model including analyze the
economic, political, and legal situation of the country, availability of resources, effective tools for improving
performance, evaluation tools, develop effective communication with employees, feedback and analytical
estimates. The developing countries are facing some challenges which are hinder to improve performance. These
countries can improve the performance by adopting alternatives and effective management of the available
resources is the key factor to improve performance
Article presents the results of testing managers’ behavior and response towards business environment. The study develops ideas how to extend current management theory with behavioral approach. Research method is based on in-depth empirical qualitative analysis, results are subject of quantitative verification using statistical methods which allows reaching better results. Research proceeds inductively, it means that new knowledge is generated as outcome and matched to theories. Decisions are examined as responses towards business environment components, correlations and significances between active or passive managers’ behavior are demonstrated. Proactive managerial approach is characterized by frequent change and diversification in suppliers, customers, human resources and product portfolio. As a conclusion, managerial response can be interpreted as a product of managers’ activity, personal preferences and abilities. The re-orientation towards recognition of active or passive behavior is developed and matched towards current theories. It can be assumed, that the current scientific discussion is potentially relevant in seeking to explain the role of individual manager. In summary, the analysis and the outcomes have proved managers’ exceptional flexibility in counteracting actively the shortcomings of external context.
To navigate the complex ecosystem of societal challenges, the International Conference on Knowledge Management Conference (ICKM 2017) focused on big data and data analytics as part of the relationship to the wider concept of knowledge management processes and practices.
This book includes top papers presenting the major, and diverse, topics discussed at the conference. The papers covered various aspects of big data ranging from enhancing access to the big data to facilitating its wide applications in healthcare, social media, library and information centers, governments, and corporations.
This chapter reviews the performance appraisal theory and research to examine the expectations that (a) performance ratings are accurate and (b) performance improves as a result of receiving feedback. It provides a critical analysis of the performance appraisal literature and identify successes and challenges in living up to these expectations. The chapter organizes the review in two major sections. The first major section discusses the predominant strategies and challenges to improve the quality of ratings. The second major section also reviews a research on performance feedback, focusing on the characteristics of feedback that are likely to lead to employee development. To address the influence of rater motivations, rater training could incorporate interventions designed to increase motivation to rate accurately and reduce competing motivations. Future research can work to develop and test the efficacy of rater training programs that address motivations in order to improve the quality of ratings.
A formidable challenge most school leaders in South Africa face is to improve the academic results in state schools. In terms of their contracts, principals are accountable for the academic results as reflected in examination and test results for their schools. The National Department of Education (currently the Department of Basic Education) has made attempts to implement a performance agreement with principals and deputy principals, which would hold them directly and specifically accountable for the examination results. The article explores the proposed performance agreement and its potential influence on principals’ motivation to improve their own, and therefore also the teachers’ and learners’ academic performance. The focus group interviews conducted with principals and deputy principals indicate that principals do not want to be held accountable, because there are too many factors outside their control. They perceive a performance agreement of this kind as potentially demotivating because they do not feel they would be able to achieve the goals it sets. © 2015, Foundation for Education Science and Technology. All rights reserved.
The aim of this article is to stimulate thoughts and introduce new prospects to the study of performance appraisal accuracy, especially in the raters’ perspective. It focuses on a relatively understudied aspect of performance appraisal which is raters’ intention towards appraising accurately. In order to understand
the application of this aspect, this paper attempts to develop a conceptual framework based on hypotheses of the direct and indirect factors that predict the raters’ intention to appraise accurately. It is hypothesized that the raters’ experience in appraising, raters’ perceived purposes of appraisal, and raters’ perceived information adequacy for appraising will predict the raters’ intention towards appraising accurately by influencing the raters’ attitude towards appraising accurately, raters’ perceived
subjective norms towards appraising accurately, and raters’ perceived behavioral control towards appraising accurately.
This chapter begins with a re-examination of Skinner's rarely quoted and valuable writings about what work and the workplace can be, and goes on to highlight the core skills required to practice organizational behavior management (OBM). Next, the chapter examines how human resource systems define the culture of the workplace through a range of reinforced behavior patterns. Then, the chapter discusses the emerging behavior systems perspective that moves beyond linear views of systems control. The authors promote a new contextual view that sustains effective and fluent workplace behavior without the need for most of the current manager-led processes of supervision that are intended to guide workplace behavior today. OBM has a strong research foundation, solid methods for increasing positive behavior, tools for designing systems that can allow individuals to accomplish worthwhile objectives, and techniques to create fluency across new and required skills.
Principals, as one of the professional leaders in a school, are accountable for the quality of education in the school. This is a part of the normal job description and expectations for the person in such a post. In the South African context with a large number of underperforming schools, there is an intention to have an additional performance agreement as a part of performance management, to be signed by principals to hold them accountable for the expected examination results. This article investigated the understanding of principals of the possible motivational implications if the performance agreement is implemented. It also focuses on the issue of what may motivate principals to improve their performance towards sustainable quality education. Motivational theories are used as the lens to understand the principals’ perceptions of this performance agreement process. The focus group interviews indicated that most principals are not in favour of the intended implementation and that it may rather have a negative influence on their motivation levels.
Models of comprehensive Performance Management systems include both employee development and evaluative components. The Organizational Behavior Management discipline focuses almost exclusively on the developmental component, while the Industrial and Organizational Psychology discipline is focused on use of performance appraisals. Performance appraisals have several well-documented shortcomings. Despite those limitations, an examination of Performance Management models suggests that they often include an appraisal component. However, there is little consensus on how Performance Management should incorporate appraisals. The authors argue that performance data should be an output of a Performance Management process, not as an input or starting-point for developmental activities. This emphasizes goal-setting, feedback, and coaching throughout the year, and performance data are aggregated to provide enough information about performance to facilitate administrative decision-making when needed. An optimal performance management system that serves both the developmental and administrative functions can be created by carefully combining the approaches of both disciplines.
Because organizations may increasingly utilize a variety of different methods to communicate with employees both on- and off-site, performance feedback may not continue to be bound to traditional face-to-face interaction. Knowing how channel and synchronicity may affect perceptions of feedback may be very useful to organizations and supervisors as the use of alternative work arrangements increases. This study was conducted to learn more about the delivery of performance feedback to employees and what would cause them to feel justly versus unjustly treated by their supervisors. Synchronicity, channel, and valence effects on perceptions of justice in feedback delivery were examined through a fully crossed 2 × 2 × 2 design of 447 participants. Findings suggest that positive feedback and delivery via phone call rather than text message were associated with higher perceptions of organizational justice. Practical implications for organizations are also addressed.
Finland has a relatively small student dropout rate compared with other countries like
the United States. This paper examines one school in Jyväskylä municipality in order to
determine the leadership tools they use in preventing student dropout. Qualitative
research methods were used. While individual face to face interviews were used for data
collection, thematic analysis was used in analysing the data. The principal, the school
counsellor, special education teacher, and four other teachers were interviewed
individually to collect the data. The conceptual frame for preventing student dropout
such as engaging and forming a partnership with parents, looking for warning signs,
making learning relevant and the classroom environments safe, and embracing a
student – centred funding model are used.
The major findings include the existence of systemic leadership tool that are used
for early identification of students at risk of dropping out. These leadership tools include
the “Student Welfare Group” that brings in preventive measures that help to stop
students from dropping out. Other existing tools also include the use of Wilma – an
extensive communication tool linking the school, the parents, and the student involved.
This study has provided practical solutions for curbing student dropout that can be
emulated by other institutions around the world.
There has been a long history in management and industrial/organizational psychology of studying methods to improve performance at work. These efforts have traditionally been concerned with individual-level performance (with some attention paid to team performance as well); even when research began to more broadly consider the topic of performance management instead of just performance appraisal. However, the often unstated assumption was that, if an organization could effectively improve the performance of individual employees, this would accrue to improvements in firm-level performance as well. A review of the literature suggested that this link had never really been established in a direct way. Instead, we found considerable support for relating “bundles” of human resource (HR) practices to firm-level performance, and several models for how these practices could create the transformation from individual-level to firm-level performance. We drew upon several of these models, from somewhat diverse literatures, to propose a model whereby bundles of HR practices, when aligned with the strategic goals of the organization, can be used to create a climate for performance that could transform generic knowledges, skills, and abilities (KSAs) into specific KSAs needed to improve firm-level performance.
Perspectives on job satisfaction and its relations with job performance among members of the Industrial/Organizational Psychology (IOP) and Organizational Behavior Management (OBM) cultures are identified and compared. Comparisons include vantage points of each culture on the roles of theory and data regarding the definitions of behavior, job performance, job satisfaction, and the potential causal relations among them. Literature reviewed suggests the IOP culture has validated technologies that some members of the OBM culture recognize as useful for purposes of assessing what members of the OBM culture call Social Validity (SV). Given similarities among values of the two cultures, reflected in their mutual concern for assessing Organizational Responsibility and SV, the author proffers the following recommendation: Members of the OBM culture should not eschew the IOP culture's practices that might contribute to OBM practitioners' ability to effectively establish the SV of their interventions, particularly large-scale interventions.
The construct of prosocial organizational behavior is defined and 13 specific forms are described. They vary according to whether they are functional or dysfunctional for organizational effectiveness, prescribed or not prescribed as part of one's organizational role, and directed toward an individual or organizational target. Potential predictors and determinants drawn from the social psychological literature suggest an agenda for research in organizational settings.
Employee perceptions of the fairness and accuracy of a performance evaluation system were examined by means of a questionnaire administered to all exempt managerial and professional employees of a large manufacturing organization. Primary (N = 355) and hold-out (N = 356) samples were identified, and a forward stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed on the primary sample. Cross-validation indicated that a 5-variable linear composite accounted for 29% of the variance in the dependent variable. Frequency of evaluation, identification of goals to eliminate weaknesses, and supervisor knowledge of a subordinate's level of performance and job duties were significantly related to perceptions of fairness and accuracy of performance evaluation. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We describe why human resource management (HRM) decisions are likely to have an important and unique influence on organizational performance. Our hope is that this research forum will help advance research on the link between HRM and organizational performance. We identify key unresolved questions in need of future study and make several suggestions intended to help researchers studying these questions build a more cumulative body of knowledge that will have key implications for both theory and practice.
Proposed a model of work group performance based on the consequences of complex interdependence (CI), which is defined as the interactive effects of task, goal, and feedback combinations. The study consisted of a 4 (task interdependence: pooled, sequential, reciprocal, or team) × 2 (goal interdependence: individual or group) × 2 (feedback interdependence: individual or group) completely crossed factorial design using 118 3-person groups working in a laboratory setting on a performance appraisal task. The results of group-level analyses demonstrated the impact of CI on the perceived effectiveness of group task strategy. In turn, task strategy and intragroup conflict partially mediated the effects of CI on group performance quantity and quality. Design applications for group work are presented and discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assigned 60 managers in a large corporation to a workshop, a group discussion, or a control group. The workshop and group discussion involved training directed toward the elimination of rating errors that occur in performance appraisal and selection interviews (i.e., contrast effects, halo effect, similarity, and first impressions.) 6 mo after the training, Ss rated hypothetical candidates who were observed on videotape. Results show that (a) trainees in the control group committed similarity, contrast, and halo errors; (b) trainees in the group discussion committed impression errors; and (c) trainees in the workshop committed none of the errors. The importance of observer training for minimizing the "criterion problem" in industrial psychology is discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
217 middle managers from 3 industrial groups responded to an open-ended questionnaire in which they described the determinants of particularly fair or unfair performance appraisals. By Q-sort procedure, the responses were categorized and combined to yield 7 distinct determinants of fairness in performance evaluations. Ratings of the perceived importance of these determinants were factor analyzed, revealing 2 distinct factors—Procedural and Distributive determinants. The implications of the determinants are discussed with respect to existing research and theory on justice in organizations. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"When one selects a criterion to evaluate the effectiveness of some independent variable, the choice is frequently made… . [on the basis of] relevance, expedience, or precedence." Among the criterion dimensions which might be studied are: (a) Time. (When is the measurement taken?) (b) Type. (What performance measure is selected and why that one?) (c) Level. (What level of performance is considered success or failure?) "If we knew more about the functioning of criterional variables, we should be able to predict which criteria are relevant for assessing effects of independent variables and with this knowledge, be able to state more concerning the operations of the independent and the intervening variables." From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2AF28W. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A procedure was tested for the construction of evaluative rating scales anchored by examples of expected behavior. Expectations, based on having observed similar behavior, were used to permit rating in a variety of situations without sacrifice of specificity. Examples, submitted by head nurses as illustrations of nurses' behavior related to a given dimension were retained only if reallocated to that dimension by other head nurses, and then scaled as to desirability. Agreement for a number of examples was high, and scale reliabilities ranged above .97. Similar content validity should be obtained in other rating situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The situational interview is based on the critical-incident technique. The incidents are turned into interview questions in which job applicants are asked to indicate how they would behave in a given situation. Each answer is rated independently by 2 or more interviewers on a 5-point Likert-type scale. To facilitate objective scoring, job experts develop behavioral statements that are used as benchmarks of illustrations of 1, 3, and 5 answers. In Studies 1 and 2, the interobserver reliability coefficients for situational interviews of 49 hourly workers and 63 foremen were .76 and .79, respectively. Similarly, the internal consistencies of the interview questions for the hourly workers and foremen were .71 and .67, respectively. The respective concurrent validity coefficients were .46 and .30. In Study 3, predictive validity coefficients of .39 and .33 were obtained with 56 women and Blacks, respectively. All of these values were significant at the .05 level. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
108 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental groups to rate videotaped performances of several managers talking with a problem subordinate. The research employed a single-factor experimental design in which rater error training (RET), rater accuracy training (RAT), rating error and accuracy training (RET/RAT), and no training were compared for 2 rating errors (halo and leniency) and accuracy of performance evaluations. Differences in program effectiveness for various performance dimensions were also assessed. Results show that RAT yielded the most accurate ratings and no-training the least accurate ratings. The presence of error training (RET or RET/RAT) was associated with reduced halo, but the presence of accuracy training (RAT or RET/RAT) was associated with less leniency. Dimensions × Training interactions revealed that training was not uniformly effective across the rating dimensions. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Construes performance appraisal as the outcome of a dual-process system of evaluation and decision making whereby attention, categorization, recall, and information integration are carried out through either an automatic or a controlled process. In the automatic process, an employee's behavior is categorized without conscious monitoring unless the decisions involved are problematic; a consciously monitored categorization process would then occur. Subsequent recall of the employee is viewed to be biased by the attributes of prototypes (abstract images) representing categories to which the employee has been assigned. Dispositional and contextual factors influence the availability of categories during both assignment and recall. Although automatic and controlled processes can create accurate employee evaluations, categorization interacting with task type tends to affect subsequent employee information with halo, lenient/stringent, racial, sexual, ethnic, and personality biases. Behavior taxonomies, individual differences in cognitive structure, validation of behavior-sampling techniques, and laboratory studies of appraisal processes are presented as potential topics for research. (93 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The literature on feedback to individuals has previously been reviewed with respect to its effect on the behavior of individuals in performance-oriented organizations. Although contemporary views of individual behavior in organizations stress that feedback is necessary for effective role performance, little attention is given to the psychological processes affected by it. This review focuses on the multidimensional nature of feedback as a stimulus and addresses the process by which feedback influences behavior. Emphasis is placed on those aspects of feedback that influence (a) the way it is perceived, (b) its acceptance by the recipient, and (c) the willingness of the recipient to respond to the feedback. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The most ubiquitous method of performance appraisal is rating. Ratings, however, have been shown to be prone to various types of systematic and random error. Studies relating to performance rating are reviewed under the following headings: roles, context, vehicle, process, and results. In general, cognitive characteristics of raters seem to hold the most promise for increased understanding of the rating process. A process model of performance rating is derived from the literature. Research in the areas of implicit personality theory and variance partitioning is combined with the process model to suggest a unified approach to understanding performance judgments in applied settings. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We examined methodological and theoretical issues related to accuracy measures used as criteria in performance-rating research. First, we argued that existing operational definitions of accuracy are not all based on a common accuracy definition; we report data that show generally weak relations among different accuracy operational definitions. Second, different methods of true score development are also examined, and both methodological and theoretical limitations are explored. Given the difficulty of obtaining true scores, criteria are discussed for examining the suitability of expert ratings as surrogate true score measures. Last, the usefulness of using accuracy measures in performance-rating research is examined to highlight situations in which accuracy measures might be desirable criterion measures in rating research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Productivity research has focused on simple jobs with the individual as the unit of analysis. Most jobs are more complex and, because of the interdependencies in the work, require group-level interventions and more complex measures of performance or productivity. This research presents a new method of measuring productivity, the Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System (ProMES), and uses measures from this approach as a foundation for group-based feedback, goal setting, and incentives. The experimental design consisted of a baseline period of 8 to 9 months, followed by a 5-month period of feedback based on the ProMES. Goal setting was then added to feedback for 5 months. Finally, incentives in the form of time off from work were added to feedback and goal setting for another 5 months. Results indicated that group-level feedback increased productivity an average of 50% over baseline, group goal setting increased productivity 75% over baseline, and group incentives increased productivity 76% over baseline. Control group data showed no or only a slight increase in productivity over the same period, and level of personnel either stayed the same or decreased. In addition, work attitudes such as job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and morale were as good or better following the interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the extent of leniency error, the extent of halo effect, and the accuracy of ratings on behavioral expectation scales across 72 undergraduates in 3 groups of raters. Group 1 raters underwent a training program on rating error, involving definitions, graphic illustrations, and numerical examples of leniency and halo. Group 2 heard lectures on the multidimensionality of teacher performance, generated and defined dimensions of performance, discussed behavioral examples of each dimension, and attempted to develop stereotypes of effective and ineffective performance. Group 3 received no training. Following the training, 2 hypothetical ratees were rated on 13 dimensions of performance. Ratings from Group 1 had significantly less leniency and halo error than ratings from Groups 2 and 3. When ratings were compared to previously developed true scores on the ratees, significantly less accuracy was found for Group 1 than for the other 2 groups. No significant differences were found between the Group 2 and Group 3 ratings. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Whether you're a manager, company psychologist, quality control specialist, or involved with motivating people to work harder in any capacity—Locke and Latham's guide will hand you the keen insight and practical advice you need to reach even your toughest cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Performance appraisal is used in organizations for a variety of purposes. However, little empirical research has been conducted to determine (a) the extent to which performance appraisal is used for each of several purposes in industry, (b) the extent to which appraisal data may be used for multiple and possibly conflicting uses within the same organization, and (c) organizational correlates of these uses. A survey questionnaire designed to answer these questions was mailed to 243 members of Division 14 of the American Psychological Association who were employed in industry. A factor analysis of the 106 completed questionnaires indicated four general uses of information from performance appraisals. The use of performance appraisal to simultaneously make distinctions between and within individuals is common. Canonical correlation analyses indicated that organizational characteristics were significantly related to uses of performance appraisal.
Since the beginning of the century, feedback interventions (FIs) produced negative--but largely ignored--effects on performance. A meta-analysis (607 effect sizes; 23,663 observations) suggests that FIs improved performance on average (
d = .41) but that over one-third of the FIs decreased performance. This finding cannot be explained by sampling error, feedback sign, or existing theories. The authors proposed a preliminary FI theory (FIT) and tested it with moderator analyses. The central assumption of FIT is that FIs change the locus of attention among 3 general and hierarchically organized levels of control: task learning, task motivation, and meta-tasks (including self-related) processes. The results suggest that FI effectiveness decreases as attention moves up the hierarchy closer to the self and away from the task. These findings are further moderated by task characteristics that are still poorly understood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The concept of the criterion in much applied research has implied the possibility of identifying a single, ultimate measure against which predictors should be correlated. It is argued that the criterion has been overemphasized with the result that complexities of predicting the many facets of job success have been ignored in favor of overly simplified studies designed to relate predictors to single measures of job success. Applied psychologists should give more emphasis to construct validation and make an effort to learn more about the meaning of test scores and other predictors in terms of multiple dimensions of behavior. Information available on the Engineering Research Key of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank is presented in order to illustrate the pattern of validation research recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Meta-analysis was used to determine the relationship between rater error measures and measures of rating accuracy. Data from 10 studies (
N = 1,096) were used to estimate correlations between measures of halo, leniency, and range restriction and L. J. Cronbach's (1955) four measures of accuracy. The average correlation between error and accuracy was .05. No moderators of the error–accuracy relationship were found. Furthermore, the data are not consistent with the hypothesis that error measures are sometimes valid indicators of accuracy. The average value of the 90th percentile of the distribution of correlations (corrected for attenuation and range restriction) was .11. The use of rater error measures as indirect indicators of accuracy is not recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper comprehensively examined the linkages between systems of High Performance Work Practices and firm performance. Results based on a national sample of nearly one thousand firms indicate that these practices have an economically and statistically significant impact on both intermediate outcomes (turnover and productivity) and short- and long-term measures of corporate financial performance. Support for the predictions that the impact of High Performance Work Practices is in part contingent on their interrelationships and links with competitive strategy was limited.
Interpersonal affect has been found, in prior laboratory research, to be related to ratings of job performance. Such findings have been taken to mean that affect creates bias in ratings. The present study was conducted to determine if this relationship would hold up in a field setting. The present study was also designed to examine how structured diary-keeping, and the nature of the appraisal instrument, might be related to affect-appraisal relationships. The results for 85 raters, and 404 ratees, suggested that affect was significantly related to all ratings, but more strongly related to trait-like ratings than task/outcome-like ratings, and that having raters keep performance diaries actually increased the strength of the relationship between affect and ratings. We concluded that affect may not be a biasing influence on ratings, but may be a result of better subordinate performance. Results from an analysis of the diary content supported this conclusion. Implications for the role of affect on ratings and the nature of the relationship between past performance and interpersonal affect in field settings are discussed.
This paper presents a model of performance appraisal which focuses on the cognitive processes employed by a rater attempting to form an evaluation. The model describes the method by which a rater collects, encodes, stores, and later retrieves information from memory, and the method by which he or she weights and combines this information to form an evaluation which is converted to a rating on a scale. The model is based on diverse bodies of literature which share a social-cognitive orientation, and it forms the foundation for a number of testable research propositions.
No studies dealing with cognitive processes in performance appraisal have been conducted in field settings, raising questions about the usefulness of this research for practice. The field experiments described here, conducted in 2 organizations, were designed to evaluate interventions that laboratory research has suggested enable raters to better organize performance information in memory: structured diary keeping and structured recall. After these interventions, raters had more positive reactions to the appraisal process, were better able to recall performance information, and produced ratings that were less elevated and better able to discriminate between and within ratees. The implications of these results for practice and for cognitive research in performance appraisal are discussed, along with the limitations of these studies and the problems with criteria for evaluating ratings in the field.
Meta-analysis was used to determine the relationship between rater error measures and measures of rating accuracy. Data from 10 studies (N = 1,096) were used to estimate correlations between measures of halo, leniency, and range restriction and Cronbach's (1955) four measures of accuracy. The average correlation between error and accuracy was .05. No moderators of the error-accuracy relationship were found. Furthermore, the data are not consistent with the hypothesis that error measures are sometimes valid indicators of accuracy. The average value of the 90th percentile of the distribution of correlations (corrected for attenuation and range restriction) was .11. The use of rater error measures as indirect indicators of accuracy is not recommended.
Performance Management presents an end-to-end practical model of effective performance management that shows how to develop and implement performance management systems that yield bottom line results. Practical step by step guidance and examples. Realities associated with implementing best practices and avoiding common pitfalls. Jobs and circumstances where common practices will and will not work well. Proven approaches from leading organizations. Insights for everyone involved in performance management through senior leadership.
In management circles, performance appraisal is a highly interesting and provocative topic. And in business literature, too, knowledgeable people write emphatically, pro and con, on the performance appraisal question (Kindall and Gatza, 1963; Mayfield, 1960; McGregor, 1957). In fact, one might almost say that everybody talks and writes about it, but nobody has done any real scientific testing of it.
This article briefly introduces the criterion construct, citizenship performance, describes how this construct is different from task performance and presents a recently derived 3-dimension model of the domain. Evidence is then reviewed for links between personality constructs and citizenship performance. An update of the Organ and Ryan (1995) meta-analysis of personality-organizational citizenship behavior relationships suggests slightly higher correlations than those found in the meta-analysis and also indicates that personality, at least the conscientiousness and dependability constructs, correlates more highly with citizenship performance than with task performance. These results are discussed in the broader context of building models of job performance and studying linkages between individual differences and relatively specific criterion constructs.
Performance appraisal is used in organizations for a variety of purposes. However, little empirical research has been conducted to determine (a) the extent to which performance appraisal is used for each of several purposes in industry, (b) the extent to which appraisal data may be used for multiple and possibly conflicting uses within the same organization, and (c) organizational correlates of these uses. A survey questionnaire designed to answer these questions was mailed to 243 members of Division 14 of the American Psychological Association who were employed in industry. A factor analysis of the 106 completed questionnaires indicated four general uses of information from performance appraisals. The use of performance appraisal to simultaneously make distinctions between and within individuals is common. Canonical correlation analyses indicated that organizational characteristics were significantly related to uses of performance appraisal.
This field experiment extended research on procedural justice by examining effects of a due-process performance appraisal system on reactions of both employees and managers. Employee-manager pairs were randomly assigned to either a due-process appraisal system or the existing system. Even though due-process employees received lower evaluations, they displayed more favorable reactions: perceived system fairness, appraisal accuracy, attitudes toward the system, evaluations of managers, and intention to remain with the organization. Managers also responded positively, reporting greater ability to resolve work problems, satisfaction with the system, job satisfaction, and less distortion of appraisal results to further their own self-interests.
This article describes the construct of citizenship performance and summarizes some of the industrial-organizational psychology research on organizational citizenship. Citizenship performance is defined as behaviors that go beyond task performance and technical proficiency, instead supporting the organizational, social, and psychological context that serves as the critical catalyst for tasks to be accomplished. The research reviewed addresses these topics: (a) the weights supervisors place on task and citizenship performance when making judgments about organization members ' overall performance; (b) whether personality predicts citizenship performance better than task performance; (c) links between citizenship performance and organizational effectiveness; and (d) relations between organizational characteristics such as justice in the workplace and citizenship performance. Citizenship on the part of organization members is important in contemporary organizations. Because of current trends, such as increased global competition, greater use of teams, continuing downsizing initiatives, and more emphasis on customer service, citizenship performance is likely to be important in the foreseeable future, as well.
There is no evidence to support the belief that training raters to change rating distributions will increase accuracy or validity. Such training may merely promote a temporary and situation-specific response set. We call for a new emphasis in rater training programs on: (1) diary-keeping procedures to increase observational skills; (2) the establishment of a common rater frame of reference to enhance agreement on what constitutes effective job performance; and (3) mastery-based training to increase rater self-efficacy regarding negative appraisal situations.
Aligning employees with the organization’s strategic goals has become increasingly important as organizations struggle to gain or sustain a competitive advantage. This article defines “line of sight” as employee understanding of organizational objectives and how to contribute to those objectives. There has been much discussion among academics and practitioners, yet we have limited knowledge about what line of sight is, how to measure it, how it can be enhanced, and what it makes happen. Human resource professionals from leading organizations completed surveys and participated in focus groups to begin to explore these critical issues. Fruitful directions for future research and innovative practice are discussed.
The performance appraisal process is construed as a function of 3 interacting systems: organizational context, the appraiser's information processing system, and the behavioral system of the appraisee. It is argued that aspects of each system constrain the ability of the appraisal process to produce accurate, unbiased, and reliable assessment of individual behavior and performance. The following characteristics of the appraisal process are discussed: (1) observation, reward opportunities, and systemic issues such as function and expectations within the context of the organization; (2) the appraiser's automatic attention processes, categorization and memory, and information search and recall; and (3) appraisees' automatic and controlled modes of behavior. Recommendations for improving the appraisal process are presented. (9 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Performance appraisal has been the focus of considerable research for almost a century. Yet, this research has resulted in very few specific recommendations about designing and implementing appraisal and performance management systems whose goal is performance improvement. We believe that a reason for this is that appraisal research became too interested in measurement issues and not interested enough in ways to improve performance, although some recent trends in the area have begun moving the field in the right direction. We review these trends and their genesis, and propose a motivational framework as a means of integrating what we have learned and generating proposals for future research that focus on employees performance improvement.
This article briefly introduces the criterion construct, citizenship performance, describes how this construct is different from task performance and presents a recently derived 3-dimension model of the domain. Evidence is then reviewed for links between personality constructs and citizenship performance. An update of the Organ and Ryan (1995) meta-analysis of personality-organizational citizenship behavior relationships suggests slightly higher correlations than those found in the meta-analysis and also indicates that personality, at least the conscientiousness and dependability constructs, correlates more highly with citizenship performance than with task performance. These results are discussed in the broader context of building models of job performance and studying linkages between individual differences and relatively specific criterion constructs.
Previous research indicates that the use of impression management is related to supervisor ratings of employee likeability and job performance. It has been argued, though, that employees might also use impression management so that their superiors will see them as ‘good soldiers’ who engage in high levels of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). This study investigates the ways in which three types of impression management—namely, job-focused, self-focused, and supervisor-focused tactics of impression management—influence supervisor ratings of OCB. Using a sample of 122 supervisor-subordinate dyads, the findings indicate that supervisor-focused tactics of impression management are positively related to OCB ratings, while job-focused tactics are negatively related to such evaluations. Additionally, citizenship behaviors are positively related to supervisor liking of the employee and overall ratings of job performance. Finally, the results suggest that OCB ratings mediate the relationship between supervisor-focused tactics of impression management and supervisor evaluations of employee likeability. Some implications of this study and directions for future research are also addressed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Past research on the role of appraisal purpose in the appraisal decision-making process has concentrated on the motivational role of purpose. Research has found that raters are less willing to give poor ratings when appraisals are to be used for some purposes rather than others. The present paper describes two experiments which explore how appraisal purpose might affect rater cognitive activities as well. The first experiment investigated how appraisal purpose and outcomes affect how raters differentially utilize information to make appraisal decisions. Few differences were found. The second experiment investigated how raters differentially search for performance information to make appraisal decisions for different purposes and outcomes. Raters were found to search for more comparative information when they had to select one of several ratees for some treatment. The results also indicated a discrepancy between how information is collected and how it is used. Implications for defining the role of purpose in the appraisal process, as well as for recent process approaches to performance appraisal, are discussed.