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Communication between Grandparents and Grandchildren in Geographically Separated Relationships
Abstract
This study examined grandparents' reports of their use of three media—face-to-face, telephone, and email—in geographically separated relationships with grandchildren. Grandparents used telephone and email more frequently than face-to-face communication. There were no sex differences in frequency and satisfaction with the three media. Email use was examined in depth due to the dearth of research on its use. Grandparents who reported that they and their grandchildren were equally likely to initiate email were more satisfied with its frequency and quality than those who reported primary responsibility for email communication. Satisfaction with telephone communication predicted relational quality.
... The use of media by grandparents to connect with their grandchildren has also been the subject of some GP-GC studies [26], [27]. According to the media richness hypothesis [28], there are differences across the media regarding customization, number of channels, and ability to offer instant response. ...
... When other media were considered, telephone communication was the best predictor of the strength of the GP-GC relationship. In a related study, Holladay and Seipke [27] discovered that grandparents residing in retirement communities communicated with their grandchildren more often via phone and email than FtF interactions. Additionally, grandparents expressed greater satisfaction with email when they and their grandchildren started email exchanges. ...
... According to Fowler and Soliz [14], future studies should look at how grandparent PSDs compare to what grandkids anticipate from their grandparents' communication and how grandkids respond when these disclosure standards are broken. Future studies are urged by Holladay and Seipke [27] to examine how grandparents' expectations for communication vary depending on how far away their grandkids reside from them. ...
This paper systematically reviews research attending the main theoretical frameworks in the grandparent-grandchild (GP-GC) communication literature. The frameworks have been organized herein according to whether they are communicatively behavior-focused, affect-related, or intergroup-oriented. The specific theories under these umbrellas are then conceptualized in a two-dimensional space (i.e., high vs low interpersonal and intergroup dimensions), and their relative heuristic values are considered. Four directions for future GP-GC communication research are identified, including more longitudinal studies, increased attention to grandparents' perspectives, inclusion of additional theories, and increased attention to possible demographic differences in GP-GC communication. Highly heuristic GP-GC theories and these future research directions are then synthesized into a new integrative model that can be tested to continue advancing the study of this important social arena.
Keywords:Grandparent-grandchild communication, Theoretical review, Future research directions, Theoretical synthesis.
... As a result, grandchildren more and more often have the opportunity to develop long-lasting relationships with their grandparents which comes with benefits for the wellbeing of both sides [2]. Regular and rich communication plays an important role in maintaining a positive grandparent-grandchild (GP-GC) relationship [3]. However, factors such as geographical distance, limited mobility, or pandemic-related contact restrictions decrease face-to-face communication frequency, eventually putting older adults at risk of social isolation and loneliness [4,5]. ...
... GP-GC relationships tend to change in the course of life [24]. During adolescence and young adulthood, many grandchildren move away from their parents' home and start spending more time away from family, thus, contacts with grandparents become less frequent and emotional closeness decreases [3,25]. At the same time, during this transition the GP-GC relationship matures and becomes less dependent on other family members: Young adults become more likely to initiate contact with their grandparents and enjoy the intergenerational relationship [22,26]. ...
... In addition to face-to-face communication, non-digital established media such as letters/postcards and landline phones are used in GP-GC relationships. They have the advantage of wide distribution and ease of use [3,7,38]. Digital established media are also increasingly adopted by the older generation and can therefore be used in GP-GC relationships. ...
Communication technologies play an important role in maintaining the grandparent-grandchild (GP-GC) relationship. Based on Media Richness Theory, this study investigates the frequency of use (RQ1) and perceived quality (RQ2) of established media as well as the potential use of selected innovative media (RQ3) in GP-GC relationships with a particular focus on digital media. A cross-sectional online survey and vignette experiment were conducted in February 2021 among N = 286 university students in Germany (mean age 23 years, 57% female) who reported on the direct and mediated communication with their grandparents. In addition to face-to-face interactions, non-digital and digital established media (such as telephone, texting, video conferencing) and innovative digital media, namely augmented reality (AR)-based and social robot-based communication technologies, were covered. Face-to-face and phone communication occurred most frequently in GP-GC relationships: 85% of participants reported them taking place at least a few times per year (RQ1). Non-digital established media were associated with higher perceived communication quality than digital established media (RQ2). Innovative digital media received less favorable quality evaluations than established media. Participants expressed doubts regarding the technology competence of their grandparents, but still met innovative media with high expectations regarding improved communication quality (RQ3). Richer media, such as video conferencing or AR, do not automatically lead to better perceived communication quality, while leaner media, such as letters or text messages, can provide rich communication experiences. More research is needed to fully understand and systematically improve the utility, usability, and joy of use of different digital communication technologies employed in GP-GC relationships.
... During the COVID-19 pandemic, when travel is limited and older adults are specifically told to restrict in-person interaction, technology may play a more important role in supporting the grandparent-grandchild relationship. Earlier studies investigated the facilitatory role of email communication in supporting this relationship (Holladay & Seipke, 2007) and others reported that technology use may serve as a "turning point" in the development of the relationship (Bangerter & Waldron, 2014) by allowing geographically separated grandparents to connect with their grandchildren. In recent years, many researchers have emphasized that video chat allows for real-time interactions with both audio and visual cues, which reduce communication barriers and facilitate interpersonal connection (Ames et al., 2010;Ballagas et al., 2009;Kirk et al., 2010;McClure et al., 2015;. ...
... We built regression models to examine associations between our identified factors and the perceived closeness of the grandparent to the grandchild, and grandparents' and parents' enjoyment of video chats ( Figure 1). Based on prior research in which grandparents' ratings of closeness with their grandchild were correlated with ratings of enjoyment of or satisfaction with their communications (Harwood, 2000;Holladay & Seipke, 2007), we used the same predictors in the grandparent closeness and enjoyment regressions. For comparability, we entered parallel variables into the parent enjoyment regression but also added a block of predictors related to the parents' perceptions of the family relationships, as prior literature (Kirk et al., 2010) led us to expect that these perceptions may also predict parents' enjoyment of the chats. ...
... Negative predictors in both models included grandparent education and the number of social and emotional barriers experienced during video chats; positive predictors included the frequency of video chats and the variety of activities engaged in during them. We expected similarities in the closeness and enjoyment models because prior researchers have found that grandparentgrandchild closeness is related to enjoyment of and satisfaction with different modes of communication (Harwood, 2000;Holladay & Seipke, 2007), and closeness and enjoyment were correlated in our sample as well. Alongside prior work, our findings suggest this association is robust across type of interaction and communication between grandparents and grandchildren -in-person, telephone, or video chat. ...
Video chat may allow young children and grandparents to develop and maintain bonds when they are physically separated because it enables them to share experiences with each other in real time. We used an ecological model framework to examine factors associated with the development of the grandparent–grandchild relationship during the COVID‐19 pandemic, when many families were experiencing reduced opportunities for in‐person interaction. We analyzed survey data from grandparents (N = 855) and parents (N = 846) of children ages 0–5 years. Predictor variables included participant characteristics (age and education level), proximity variables (geographical distance and whether grandparents had met their grandchildren in person), as well as video chat‐specific factors (e.g., frequency of video chats, activities used during video chats). The frequency of video chat and the variety of behaviors engaged in during the video chats predicted grandparents' feelings of closeness to their grandchild as well as grandparents' and parents' enjoyment of family video chats. These predictors were statistically significant after controlling for participant characteristics and physical proximity, suggesting that when families are separated (e.g., due to pandemics, deployment, geographic distance, etc.) family video chats may help to build and maintain grandparent–grandchild connections in an enjoyable way. One future implication is that family video chat may introduce children to the connection between screen and world, a supportive first step in understanding and using technology.
... loss of a spouse; relocation to nursing home), and grandchildren (i.e. relocating for studies, job or establishing their own nuclear families (Bangerter & Waldron, 2014;Attar-Schwartz et al., 2010;Geurts et al., 2009;Harwood, 2000a;Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Mills, 1999;Mueller, Wilhelm, & Elder, 2002;Taylor, Robila, & Lee, 2005). These real-life events challenge the family dynamics and tend to have impact, both positively and negatively, on the relationships between grandparents and grandchildren. ...
... Although Holladay and Seipke (2007) state that communicating via email may be an attractive option for the geographically separated grandparent-grandchildren dyad because it provides the opportunity to reply at a chosen time and reduces the feelings of obligation for contact that accompanies face-to-face and telephone communication. However, this means of communication is not popular with Lithuanian nursing home residents. ...
... Those participants who continued to have meaningful and involved relationships with grandchildren after relocation were using various means of communication to overcome the distance. This finding is consistent with the results of Holladay and Seipke (2007) who suggest that grandparents remain relatively satisfied with long-distance relationships, in part, by substituting telephone conversations with the grandchild. The use of alternative technology as a positive turning point in long-distance grandparent-grandchild relationships is a more recent occurrence (Bangerter and Waldron (2014). ...
When elderly relocate to nursing homes, the relationship with grandchildren changes significantly. The purpose of this study was to explore these changes as well as grandparent role satisfaction after relocation. For purposes of studying these research questions, eight nursing home dwelling grandparents participated in semi-structured interviews. The results of the study provided an enhanced understanding of the factors related to long-distance relationships of residential care facility-dwelling grandparents and grandchildren, such as the evolution of the relationships, level of grandparent role satisfaction, and coping mechanisms related to the challenges of maintaining these long-distance relationships.
... Long distance grandparenting is becoming more common as grandparents move for jobs or retirement, or as children and grandchildren move for spouses, jobs, or schools (Banks, 2009;Holladay & Seipke, 2007). Around 10% of grandparents have to travel over 200 miles to see their closest grandchild, while 40% of grandparents report having to travel over 200 miles to see their furthest grandchild (AARP Report, 2012). ...
... Long distance grandparents often worry about maintaining close relationships with their grandchildren (Bangerter &Waldron, 2014;Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Sigad & Eisikovits, 2013). Such worries may be lessened with the use of technology (Bangerter & Waldron, 2014). ...
... Such worries may be lessened with the use of technology (Bangerter & Waldron, 2014). Increasingly, grandparents are able to maintain communication with their grandchildren via texting, tweeting, social media, or Skype (Bangerter & Waldron, 2014;Holladay & Seipke, 2007). For example, Holladay and Seipke (2007) found that grandparents who use e-mail are more satisfied with their relationship with their grandchildren, particularly when the grandchildren also initiate e-mails. ...
Grandparenting varies enormously in the United States and here we discuss that growing diversity. Relying on exchange and reciprocity, feminist, and political economic theoretical perspectives, we begin by exploring the increasing need for grandchild care and assistance in the United States and the dearth of federal and employer supports for working families. Assessing the impact of sociodemographic trends, notably the rise in single parenting and the increase in employment among grandparents, we assess the intensification of grandparenting. Then we turn to issues related to proximity, examining the pleasures and challenges of coresidential, custodial, long distance, and transnational grandparenting. Finally, we turn to the impact of grandparenting on the emotional, physical, and financial wellbeing of grandparents.
... The choice of studying GP and GC as a target group is of specific empirical interest because they represent a unique dyad with distinct communication dynamics. The GP, often with more life experience and knowledge of communication conventions, may show different uses, preferred outcomes, and expectations about the role of communication technologies than their GC (Holladay and Seipke, 2007). Studying how these differing perspectives and abilities impact the establishment of contact, that might stimulate communion, over distance can provide valuable insight into intergenerational communication in the digital era. ...
... Therefore, it is possible, as our findings show, that GP and GC might connect emotionally more to one of the nonhumans. Such findings are relevant for media and communication studies that are concerned with differences in communication preferences and skills between GP and GC (Holladay and Seipke, 2007). ...
Physical items are often taken for granted in mediated communication between grandparents (GP) and young grandchildren (GC). This article puts “constitutive nonhumans” at the center of inquiry to understand the potential of physical items and communication technologies to communicate over distance. The notion of phaticity operationalizes the role of constitutive nonhumans to establish and maintain contact over distance, which might have pleasurable or unpleasurable outcomes. A relational view on agency supports the entanglement of humans and nonhumans when they cooperate to communicate over distance. The article reports on a two-phase qualitative study that was conducted in two European countries with 10 GP (aged 60–75 years) and 10 GC (aged 6–11 years). The results identify how the entanglement between constitutive nonhumans conflates emotional connection and contact. Furthermore, the results suggest that the condition of familiarity can direct contact to pleasant or unpleasant outcomes that might differ across mediated and co-located communication.
... This is particularly true in old age [2][3][4][5], including when living in a retirement home. Multiplayer video games can promote well-being and the maintenance of social relationships [6][7][8] because they can facilitate positive social interactions during play, even for players from different generations [9][10][11][12][13][14]. Imagine, for instance, a visiting grandchild playing a video game with their grandparent in a retirement home, or imagine care persons and residents playing together during activation therapy or recreation in a common room. ...
... Regardless of the game mode, players tended to stop playing and listen carefully when the other player told a story from the past. Overall, these study results are in line with previous research showing that game-mediated play paves the way for positive social interactions [13,14] and can facilitate communication among players belonging to different age groups or generations [9,10,12]. Thus, important practical goals of the study were met, as it was specifically designed as an intergenerational digital game for use in retirement homes. ...
Background:
Maintaining social relationships is a basic human need and particularly essential in old age, including when living in a retirement home. Multiplayer video games can promote positive social interactions among players from different generations while playing. Yet, such facilitation of positive social interactions depends on specific game design. To systematically investigate the effects of game design on social interaction between seniors and their coplayers, the game Myosotis FoodPlanet was developed in this study, and the impacts of 3 different game modes on social interaction were compared in a controlled field trial.
Objective:
This study aims to compare the effects of 3 different game modes (competitive, cooperative, and creative) on social interactions (verbal and nonverbal communication) between seniors and their younger coplayers.
Methods:
This study was conducted in a Swiss retirement home as a controlled field trial. Participants were residents of the retirement home (N=10; mean age 84.8 years, SD 5.9 years) and played in pairs with their caregivers. Each pair played 3 game modes in random order. This resulted in 30 game sequences of 20 minutes each. A within-subject design was applied with game mode as the within-factor and social interaction as the outcome variable. To assess the quality of social interaction, 30 video-recorded game sequences were analyzed based on an event sampling method.
Results:
Analysis of variance for repeated measurements revealed significant effects: there was significantly more verbal communication in the creative mode than in the cooperative mode (P=.04) with a strong effect size (Cohen f=0.611). An examination of verbal communication revealed more game-related communication in the creative mode than in the cooperative mode (P=.01) and the competitive mode (P=.09) with marginally significant effects and strong effect sizes (Cohen f=0.841). In addition, significantly more biography-related communication occurred in the creative mode than in the cooperative mode (P=.03), with a strong effect size (r=0.707). Regarding nonverbal communication (eg, laughing together), analysis of variance for repeated measurements showed significant differences among the game modes (P=.02) with a strong effect size (Cohen f=0.758). Results showed that there was significantly more laughing together in the competitive mode (competitive>cooperative>creative).
Conclusions:
The results show that game mode can be an important factor for shaping the social interactions of players playing together. Compared with other modes, creative game modes can increase verbal communication. In contrast, competitive modes may stimulate more laughing together. This has important implications for game design and the use of computer games to promote social interaction between seniors and their coplayers in practice.
... Such trends suggest that CMC is a medium in which individuals feel comfortable communicating serious issues. More specifically, a consistent line of research has examined the ways in which college students use mediated channels to maintain communication with geographically separated grandparents (Harwood, 2000; Holladay & Seipke, 2007) and parents (Trice, 2002). These findings are reviewed as follows. ...
... The intrinsic advantages that mediated channels provide for grandparentgrandchild communication were evident in research conducted by Holladay and Seipke (2007). Their findings showed that grandparents who were geographically farther than two-hour-driving distance away from their grandchildren relied on telephone and email more heavily than face-to-face visits to stay in touch with their grandchildren. ...
... Yet most studies conducted so far mainly examined the role of media technologies in connecting grandparents with their grandchildren when a geographical distance separates them. These studies have found that media technologies created an opportunity for grandparents to spend time with grandchildren and keep up with their lives by adopting new forms of communication such as e-mail, text messaging, video conferencing, and social media (Bangerter & Waldron, 2014;Busch, 2018;Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Sawchuk & Crow, 2012). Such media uses strengthen a sense of togetherness and closeness (Raffle et al., 2011). ...
Research on the mediation of children's media use tends to overlook the existence of several significant caregivers, who may apply different mediation practices. Based on a survey of 267 dyads of grandmothers and mothers of young children (aged 4-8 years old), the present study explored similarities and differences in grandparental and parental mediation. The findings indicated that grandmothers are generally less active mediators than mothers, especially when interactive media are used. Yet they pointed at significant variations among the dyads, because three clusters were identified: intensely mediating, slightly mediating, and generation gap dyads. These groups differed in education level, mastery of digital media, and family structure. The study adds to the mediation literature by proposing an intergenerational transmission of mediation attitudes and practices across the decades, independent of technological advances. It also points at possible obstacles to effective mediation, which may negatively affect the children's development.
... In this paper we explore factors that may predict dementia caregivers' adopting surveillance technologies. Factors impacting ICT adoption for and among the aging population can include age, 29,30 gender, 30 educational attainment, 31 ethnicity, 32 household income, 32 number of children, 33,34 rural/urban living status, 29 perceived norms, 34 perceived usefulness, 34 and online group membership. 35 Additionally, we specify two types of technology proficiency that may underpin technology adoption in this study: ICT use depth (smartphone use sophistication) and breadth (number of devices of different types). ...
The increasing incidence of dementia calls for effective and innovative approaches to alleviate societal and personal burdens. Aging in place is a sustainable paradigm which ensures the best utilization of societal resources, supports caregivers, secures normalcy, and optimizes care for persons with dementia (PwD). Home-based surveillance technology can support PwD in safely aging in place. This study examines factors associated with the adoption of home-based surveillance technologies among unpaid dementia caregivers. Through an online survey (N = 203), we apply ordinal logistic regression to identify five variables that predict the likelihood of caregivers’ surveillance technology adoption for dementia care. The predictors are caregivers’: (1) trouble concerns about PwD, (2) online support group membership, (3) perceived social norms regarding surveillance technology use, (4) perceived usefulness of surveillance devices, and (5) depth of information and communication technologies (ICT) use. Theoretical and practical implications for dementia healthcare are discussed.
... Technology offers a tool that can potentially be leveraged to help 'fill the gap' that is left when grandparents are physically distanced and socially isolated from their grandchildren. Digital forms of interaction are an increasingly common way for remote grandparents to connect with their grandchildren [22][23][24][25], with recent work suggesting that video chat is becoming more prevalent with grandparents, even of those with younger grandchildren [4,[24][25][26][27]. ...
Many grandparents today are physically separated from their families. Given that maintaining close family relationships (with both adult children and grandchildren) is associated with increased physical, mental, and emotional health across generations, it is important to determine how families can maintain close relationships with grandparents when physically separated. Technology offers one potential support: the proliferation of video chat. Recent work suggests that the frequency of video chat and the variety of behaviors engaged in during video calls predicts family closeness and enjoyment of using this communication method, regardless of the physical distance between parties. However, the frequency of grandparent-grandchild video chat varies across families. Here, we explore how demographic, physical (e.g., distance), technological (e.g., number of devices and barriers), and social factors (e.g., children are distracted) predicted: (1) whether or not video chat was used by grandparent-grandchild dyads, and (2) the frequency of video chat in the families using the technology. This work suggests that geographical distance, having met in person, and the number of devices owned were positive predictors of grandparents and grandchildren having ever video chatted. However, the factors associated with the frequency of video chat were different in the parent and grandparent models and included grandparents’ comfort with technology and the type of device used by the parent and child. These findings not only have implications for supporting grandparent-grandchild relationships but also for all family members separated by distance, immigration, incarceration, health emergencies, and displacement.
... For example, several studies have examined the use of ICTs in long-distance grandparental relationships (Follmer et al., 2010) and recent research has examined the use of ICTs during the COVID-19 pandemic (McDarby et al., 2021;Nouwen & Duflos, 2022;Strouse et al., 2021). From this perspective, technology has been conceptualized as reinforcing relationships when face-to-face contacts are limited or impossible (Follmer et al., 2010;Holladay & Seipke, 2007). Recent authors have pointed out the importance of considering both face-to-face and mediated contact when exploring grandparent-grandchild relationships, even for grandparents who live near their grandchildren (Bates & Taylor, 2013;Davey et al., 2010). ...
Becoming a grandparent is a significant transition to an important life role. Yet little is known about the way grandparents interact with their grandchildren, and, in particular, how contact via new forms of communication might contribute to sustaining these relationships. The objective of this study was to contribute to our understanding of early grandparental relationships by exploring how contact via new communication technologies and face-to-face contact are linked to grandparent-grandchild relationship quality and grandparents’ well-being. Structural equation models were tested in a sample of 363 grandparents, living in Quebec, Canada. Results from this cross-sectional study suggest that new technologies could play a role in relationship quality, complementing face-to-face contact, even for grandparents who live relatively close to their grandchild.
... Evidence suggests digital media has many positive effects on older adults. Researchers have found that digital media expands the reach of older adults' social networks, allowing them to overcome the boundaries of distance and time (Mok et al., 2010;Ware et al., 2017;Wu et al., 2015) and reap many social benefits such as increased exchanges of social support, social connectedness, and facilitate intergenerational communication (Cotten et al., 2014;Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Khalaila & Vitman-Schorr, 2018;Neves et al., 2013;Quan-Haase et al., 2019). Social support is the sum of caring social ties that provide resources to an individual (Wellman & Wortley, 1990). ...
A large influx of refugees in several European countries has created challenges at all levels of society, starting with the actors in charge of their integration. During this crisis, social media platforms seem to have played a major role in the refugees’ journey and inclusion in their host countries. Based on in-depth interviews with 28 Syrian refugees who settled in Belgium after 2015, this chapter looks at the ways they use social media in the hope of integrating in the host country and overcoming cultural challenges. Social media use has helped them alleviate their social isolation, access information in their native language, and find out about the rights and responsibilities of citizenship in their new country.
... However, the average grandparent-grandchild relationship of students attending college live away from their grandparents and this (GP-GC) relationship is sustained as a long-distance relationship [19]. These long-distance GP-GC relationships are maintained by using a variety of communication channels such as face-to-face, telephone, and email [25]. ...
Background
Affection exchange theory (AET) explains the value of received affection for overall wellbeing in family relationships. However, this study extends prior work by investigating AET in grandmother-grandchild relationships and grandchildren’s individual well-being. This study seeks to understand the relationships between adult grandchildren’s received grandmother affection and health-related behaviors such as diet, exercise, substance abuse, and sleep.
Methods
This cross-sectional study included 229 university student participants. Multiple regression analyses were performed to analyze received grandmother affection and grandchildren’s health behaviors.
Results
Using cross-sectional survey methods, it was found that grandchildren’s reports of received memories and humor, and celebratory affection influenced grandchildren’s dietary behaviors. Received love and esteem, memories and humor, and celebratory affection was also associated with grandchildren’s exercise behaviors.
Conclusions
Grandchildren who receive grandmother affection may be likely to engage in the well-being process by engaging in health behaviors, while those who are not receiving affection might suffer the health consequences in adulthood. These findings support the assumption of affection exchange theory that received family affection, in this case, grandmother affection leads to positive health outcomes such as enhanced dietary and exercise behaviors among grandchildren.
... Long-distance communication through e-mail or phone is particularly helpful in sustaining relationships among older adults. For example, many older adults living geographically distant from their grandchildren have extensive phone and e-mail communication, with high levels of emotional satisfaction, compared with individuals communicating in-person only (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). However, some older adults perceive e-mail communication to be lacking the personal touch that they experience using phone calls or letters (Dickinson & Hill, 2007;Lindley, Harper, & Sellen, 2009). ...
This systematic review emphasizes the need for technology use in older adults to reduce social isolation. With the advancement of technology over the years, the effectiveness of interventions based on its use can be examined to see how these can address the problem of social isolation and enhance social wellbeing. We focus on identifying how older adults can most benefit from affordable and accessible technology use and how the training and implementation of such interventions can be tailored to maximize their beneficial effect. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to select relevant studies. We analyzed 25 articles, performed a narrative analysis to identify themes, and quality of life indicators connected to technology use and wellbeing. Engagement of older adults at the community-level, following best practices from the Community-Based Participatory Research can facilitate effective practices to deliver technology based social isolation interventions and increase digital use self-efficacy in older adults. Mobile technology-based applications not only help families to stay connected, but also link older adults to resources in healthcare and encourage physical and mental well-being. Use of technology devices address cognitive, visual, and hearing needs, and increase digital use self-efficacy in older adults, particularly helpful during necessary social distancing or self-quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Grandchildren also reported that their grandparents used all seven relationship maintenance behaviors to varying degrees and more use was associated with more positive relational characteristics (Mansson, 2020), although from the grandparent perspective, relational reciprocity is important. For instance, grandparents were significantly more satisfied with e-mail communication when both they and their grandchildren initiated contact (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). ...
Framed using Family Communication Patterns Theory, this study examined today’s grandparent experience by drawing connections among grandparental role expectations, family communication patterns, and relationship satisfaction with one’s grandchild and adult child. Grandparent role expectations operate as relational schemas that include general expectations about what individuals should do as grandparents and might color the choices an individual makes in communicating with family members. Based on survey responses from 380 grandparents in the United States, the results support both direct and indirect connections among role expectations for grandparents as friends, more open/less-controlling interactions, and more satisfying family relationships. Expectations for grandparents as guardians were positively associated with two components of conformity orientation. The findings offer theoretical and practical implications such as demonstrating that family communication patterns may serve as a mediating mechanism in some circumstances and the powerful influence that conversation orientation has in developing high-quality grandparent–grandchild relationships.
... As a result of the pandemic, social life has been governed by a set of externally imposed restrictions, which limit physical and emotional contact with others. The closer geographic proximity offers more frequent interaction opportunities (Holladay & Seipke, 2007), but the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way individuals communicate with those in direct geographic closeness (beyond their households) to be almost exclusively remote. Electronic technologies and apps have been useful to older people, helping them remain in contact with relatives, while limiting their need to leave their homes and risk exposure to COVID-19. ...
Social distancing has limited the spread of the coronavirus (COVID-19), but also changed communication patterns. However, studies of how mental health in older adults relates to the usage of different modes of interpersonal communication are sparse. The aim of this study was to analyze how COVID-19-related changes in the frequencies of using different modes of communication (digital or in-person) have influenced mental health in older adults from 27 countries. Our study was based on part of Wave 8 of the SHARE data set, which focused on the living situation of older adults during the pandemic. Findings suggest that in-person communication benefited mental health in people aged ≥60 years more than digital communication. The older the person, the less beneficial digital communication was for their mental health, especially during interactions with their children. Our findings are useful for researchers and practitioners interested in technologically meditated interventions.
... Notably, both emotional propinquity and identity work can be realized in the virtual sphere (Slany & Strzemecka, 2016). To date, research in this realm has concentrated mostly on the frequency of different media usage (Holladay & Seipke, 2007), and grandparents' involvement in cultural exchange as a basis for teaching migrant children about their heritage and ensuring continued use of the homecountry language (Forghani et al., 2013). ...
Transnational intergenerational communication between migrant children and their grandparents depends on family relationships and the specific migration context, but also shifts in response to emerging factors, such as the current COVID-19 crisis. The goal of this study is to offer an agile typology of communication between migrant children in Poland and their grandparents in other countries. It points to two types of family communication practices, namely direct (face-to-face) and technology-mediated communication (TMC). Drawing on data from a qualitative study of immigrant children (n = 19) and parents (n = 18) conducted during the lockdown and associated travel restrictions caused by the pandemic, the study offers a typology of emotional, symbolic, mediated, and discontinuous modes of intergenera-tional family communications. It also indicates that cessation of direct contact during an "immobility regime" reduces the scope of intergenerational communication in transnational families.
... More accurately digital technologies can when congruently configured improve communication between different age groups. To this end, surrounding research supportively suggests that related technologies can readily advance communicative channels between geographically dispersed families (see Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Marx, Cohen-Mansfield, Renaudat, Libin, & Thein, 2005), while forging a space for reciprocal learning (Kenner, Ruby, Jessel, Gregory, & Arju, 2007). At the same time, and importantly to the direction of this chapter, these benefits extend to the playing of video games . ...
Pokémon Go is a hugely popular hybrid reality game (HRG) that allows players to occupy a space that is both physical and digital. Since its release in late 2016, it has been downloaded over 750 million times to date, and it is still played by over 5 million players on a daily basis. This paper reports on two original research projects. The first was conducted between May 2017 and July 2017 and received 375 responses from general Pokémon Go players. The second was conducted between January 2019 and February 2019 and received 159 responses from parents who play Pokémon Go with their children. In the context of our second study, a number of these respondents did not begin playing Pokémon Go because they were interested in it themselves, but rather because of their children’s desire to play this game. Accordingly, for these parents, Pokémon Go facilitated a form of joint media engagement (JME) that enabled them to extend and develop their familial relationships Markedly, our research also found that the game mechanics of this HRG implicitly challenged family hierarchies, as parents were often required to continue playing Pokémon Go at times when their children were unable to join them. In these instances, children effectively outsourced their digital labour to parents who were willing to work in return for extended periods of sociability. This short talk will contextualise these issues through the findings from the first study, which focused on the social, spatial and physical effect of Pokémon Go on players.
... Hence, shared family identity may function as an important mechanism that enhances the transmission of conformity orientation from grandparents to grandchildren. Likewise, feelings of interpersonal solidarity that emerge from reciprocal self-disclosures, expressions of social support, caregiving intensions (Pusateri, Roache, & Kim, 2016), and relational maintenance behaviors (Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Mansson, Myers, & Turner, 2010) may enhance the modeling of similar attitudes, beliefs, and values among grandparents and grandchildren. Perceived identity gaps that are tied to membership in different age cohorts, however, may undermine such modeling given their associations with topic avoidance and relationship dissatisfaction (Kim & Hecht, 2009). ...
For 50 years, researchers have used family communication patterns theory (FCPT) to examine the associations among conversation and conformity orientations and a variety of family member outcomes. Despite the explanatory breadth of this general theory, however, researchers have yet to empirically test whether or not family communication patterns (FCPs) are transmitted from one generation to the next. In this study, we sought to advance FCPT by testing the intergenerational transmission of FCPs across two generations of family. Participants included 188 grandparent-parent-grandchild triads from the southern region of the United States. Results indicated that grandparent conversation and conformity orientations predict both parent and grandchild conversation and conformity orientations. Consistent with the intergenerational transmission of FCPs, indirect effects of grandparent FCPs emerged for the grandchild’s FCPs through the parent’s FCPs.
... Instead, they maintained the relationships by texting or calling their grandchildren on the phone, and/or enjoying virtual visits via Skype, at least twice a week. Previous research also demonstrated that communication between grandparent and grandchildren is occurring frequently through telephone instead of face-to-face contacts (Holladay & Seipke, 2007) and that this telephone communication predicted relationship quality (Harwood, 2000). ...
The present studies examined whether contacts with young people reduce the negative effects of stereotype threat (i.e., fear of confirming the negative stereotypes of one's own group) on the performance of the elderly in France and in Indonesia. The extent to which this is mediated by anxiety (performance anxiety and/or intergroup anxiety) and empathy (i.e., cognitive empathy, also called perspective taking, and/or affective empathy) as a function of cultural groups was also examined. Samples of elderly people in France and in Indonesia completed a task that was framed as a memory test (high-threat situation, given the stereotype of the elderly as forgetful in both countries) or a cognitive exercise (low-threat situation). Results showed that, in both countries, threat decreased the performance of the elderly, but only among those who had little positive contacts with young people outside the family. Among those who had more positive contacts, threat did not lower their performance. Contacts with you people within the family, such as grandchildren, also had similar buffering function among our French participants, but not among Indonesian participants. Results also revealed anxiety, but not empathy, as the mediating factor of the link between threat, contacts, and performance. Revealing the importance of culture, it was performance anxiety for the French vs. intergroup anxiety for the Indonesian elderly that mediated the effects of threat on performance. The discussion focuses on the differences in the nature of intergenerational contacts and in the self-perception of the elderly in the two countries.
... ICTs not only have facilitated communication among family members, they have also expanded their geographical reach. For example, a past study on older adults found that those who had more phone and email communication with their grandchildren living far away reported higher life satisfaction than those who only communicated in person (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). ...
This chapter examines the role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in family life from the perspective of older adults, and whether ICT use is helping to maintain and strengthen social ties within and across generations. Drawing on networked individualism as a conceptual and analytical model, it investigates social and network transitions affecting families and communities since the 1990s. In-depth interviews conducted in 2013–2014 with older adults from East York, Toronto, show that most of them rely more on email and less on social media and video chat. Most importantly, they still prefer spending time in person. The chapter also considers how the so-called Triple Revolution in how society operates has created opportunities for a transition to networked individualism that affects family interactions. Finally, it discusses three areas where ICTs have been integrated into family life: practices of connectivity, maintaining family ties near and far, and feelings of connectedness.
... Our study showed that the use of information and communication technology among grandparents is significantly contributed to a high relationship with their grandchildren. In line with our findings, some other studies have underlined the importance of technology to maintain the relationship between grandparents and grandchildren [30,31]. ...
Introduction
With the continuing growth of aged populations, it is imperative to find ways to maintain and improve the quality of life in old age. It has been documented that grandparents-grandchildren relationship is significantly contributed to quality of life of older adults. This study was conducted to identify the status and associated factors of grandparents-grandchildren relationship in a sample of Iran.
Methods
This cross-sectional study was conducted on 377 community dwelling older adults 60 years and over living in Kashan, Iran. A multistage proportional random sampling technique was applied to obtain the sample. The grandparent -grandchildren relationship was measured by a researcher-developed 16-item scale. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 23 and AMOS 23.
Results
The mean age of the respondents was 70.42(SD = 8.20) years. About 62% of the respondents were female and 60.7% were married. The average score of grandparents-grandchild relationship was 67.60(SD = 12.47). The multiple linear regression analysis revealed a significant model (F (11, 365) = 19.05, P < 0.001), where information communication technology of grandparents, geographical distance between grandparents and grandchildren, and the quality of relationship between grandparents and parents of grandchildren were the most important predictors of the grandparents-grandchildren relationship.
Conclusion
The findings from the current study showed that status of grandparents-grandchildren relationship is moderate to high and influenced by some factors. It is, therefore, suggested that policymakers pay more attention to strengthening grandparent-grandchild relationship by providing educational programs for families and encouraging the elderly to learn and use information communication technology.
... More of these games could be adapted to be enjoyable for both children and older adults. Opportunities for face-to-face contact within geographically separated grandparent-grandchild dyads are limited, but such contact is believed to be an important factor in relationship development (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). The current study suggests that it may be important to infuse play into the technology-based interactions between geographically separated grandparents and grandchildren. ...
Play is an important part of life, not only during childhood but also into adulthood and later life. While scholars have emphasized the physical, social, psychological, and cognitive benefits of play for children, few researchers have explored the role of play in later life. One context in which aging adults find opportunities to play is with their grandchildren. This qualitative study employed visual and text analyses to explore the experience of intergenerational play from the perspectives of grandchildren and grandparents. Findings indicated that both groups of participants were motivated to engage in play together, negotiated constraints to experience play, and received various benefits from playing with their grandparent or grandchild. Recommendations are provided to assist professionals in programming for intergenerational play and for further exploration of the motivations, benefits, and constraints associated with intergenerational play.
... Research has shown little, if any, difference between mediated and FTF interactions on the quality of outcomes (Gale, 1991;Nowak, Watt, & Walther, 2006;Rice, 1993;Tang & Isaacs, 1992). For instance, in grandparent-grandchild relationships, communication satisfaction does not differ significantly between FTF, e-mail, or telephone use (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). Further, perceived appropriateness of media varies over time and across populations as social norms change and as users gain experience with media (King & Xia, 1997;Shcmitz & Fulk, 1991). ...
An array of communication technology, such as text messaging, social networking sites, and mobile apps, have become the platforms through which many self-disclosures take place. This brings forth questions about which factors determine media selection for self-disclosure, such as media appropriateness and efficiency. Survey participants (N = 598) indicated modality preferences for disclosing hypothetical negative, positive, private, and public scenarios to a friend. For positive or public disclosures, modalities considered most convenient were more likely to be chosen; for negative or private disclosures, participants were more likely to select modalities that were considered most appropriate. Results also show a discrepancy between perceptions of appropriateness and motivations for media selection. These findings present implications for the balance between media appropriateness and efficiency in self-disclosure strategies.
... We refer to such communication as distance communication. While physical expressions of affect such as hugs and kisses are missing in distance communication, we hypothesize that distance communication has the potential to help maintain and nourish relationships between parents and their children as others have hypothesized regarding such communication between civilian adults (Walther, 2011) and between grandparents and grandchildren (Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Mansson, Myers, & Turner, 2010). We also hypothesize that keeping in touch while geographically apart can support the functioning of the children involved. ...
Using an online survey methodology, we examined individual differences in distance communication
between 75 adolescents and their deployed parents and found substantial individual
differences in both the quantity and quality of their communication. We also examined the
statistical associations between these features of distance communication and adolescents’
functioning, including emotional reactions following communication, health-related quality of life,
and externalizing and internalizing problems. The quantity of communication of deployed parents
with their adolescents was not associated with adolescents’ functioning, but more positive and less
controlling communication was statistically associated with adolescents’ higher functioning.
Implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed.
... We refer to such communication as distance communication. While physical expressions of affect such as hugs and kisses are missing in distance communication, we hypothesize that distance communication has the potential to help maintain and nourish relationships between parents and their children as others have hypothesized regarding such communication between civilian adults (Walther, 2011) and between grandparents and grandchildren (Holladay & Seipke, 2007;Mansson, Myers, & Turner, 2010). We also hypothesize that keeping in touch while geographically apart can support the functioning of the children involved. ...
Using an online survey methodology, we examined individual differences in distance communication
between 75 adolescents and their deployed parents and found substantial individual
differences in both the quantity and quality of their communication. We also examined the
statistical associations between these features of distance communication and adolescents’
functioning, including emotional reactions following communication, health-related quality of life,
and externalizing and internalizing problems. The quantity of communication of deployed parents
with their adolescents was not associated with adolescents’ functioning, but more positive and less
controlling communication was statistically associated with adolescents’ higher functioning.
Implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed.
... The last 2 decades have also seen a growing trend toward the inclusion of emerging technologies in domestic spaces (Bunz, 2012; De Schutter, Brown, & Vanden Abeele, 2014). In fact, emerging technologies can play a vital role in enabling not just intergenerational communication (Holladay & Seipke, 2007; Marx, Cohen-Mansfield, Renaudat, Libin, & Thein, 2005) but also intergenerational game-mediated interactions (Chen, Wen, & Xie, 2012; Khoo, Cheok, Nguyen, & Pan, 2008; Kooiman & Sheehan, 2014). These interactions between different generations (especially between grandparents and grandchildren) can be both mutually and individually beneficial; for example, these can be mutually beneficial by (a) breaking with some age stereotypes or ageist attitudes (Harwood, 2007); (b) developing civic engagement and contributing to an age inclusive society (Uhlenberg, 2000); and (c) linking the learning and leisure needs of both generations (Uhlenberg, 2000 ). ...
Recently, there has been growing interest in the way in which digital games can affect intergenerational interactions. Although the existing body of knowledge on intergenerational digital games is quite extensive, a systematic understanding of how digital games can enhance intergenerational interactions is still lacking. This paper reports on the state-of-the-art of current digital games and their utility in enhancing intergenerational interaction. Thirty-six papers published between 2006 and 2014 in English-language publications met inclusion criteria. The review presents sets of recommendations for designing game-mediated environments to enhance intergenerational interaction.
... Communication technology makes generations of family more accessible while diverse developmental and life tasks may geographically split up the family. Keeping in touch with generations of family members increases relational satisfaction (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). Extended family members, like grandparents, may want to use social media for social connectivity and relational closeness goals with grandchildren (Carstensen et al., 1999;Harwood, 2000). ...
How young adults communicate with multiple generations of family members today includes the use of Facebook to maintain family relationships. This study applies communication privacy management (CPM) theory to explore how young adults interact with and manage private information across different generations of their family through Facebook. Overall, 383 young adult participants completed an online survey about online and offline Facebook communication among siblings, parents, and grandparents. Participants interacted with siblings most often through Facebook, followed by parents, and grandparents. The interior family privacy orientation and Facebook privacy management practices significantly predicted variations of online and offline Facebook communication with siblings, parents, and grandparents about social media. The study also examined different types of Facebook socialization messages that young adults conveyed to family members about effective Facebook interactions and ways to preempt privacy breakdowns with their Facebook friends. Implications to CPM theory and future research recommendations are also identified.
... Long-distance communication through e-mail or phone has been found to be particularly helpful in sustaining relationship closeness for older adults. For instance, many older adults living geographically distant from their grandchildren had more phone and e-mail communication, with high levels of satisfaction, compared with individuals communicating in-person only (Holladay & Seipke, 2007). However, older adults also perceive e-mail communication to be lacking the personal touch they experience using phone calls or letters (Dickinson & Hill, 2007;Lindley, Harper, & Sellen, 2009). ...
With the development of information and communication technologies (ICTs), there are increasingly more Internet-based communication methods available for older adults besides traditional methods (e.g., in-person or landline phone). However, older adults’ preferred communication methods remains under-investigated. The purpose of this study is to explore the communication preferences and patterns of older adults in the United States, with emphasis on technologically mediated environments. In this study, 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants from a Midwestern state in the United States. The goal was to examine older adults’ communication patterns and preferences with family members and friends, as well as their views about the impacts of modern technology on communication. Three themes (communication preferences and reasons, communication barriers, and the impacts of technology) were generated from the interviews. The findings showed that although face-to-face communication is the most preferred method, telephone communication is the most commonly adopted method. Interviewees also shared different opinions regarding Internet-based communication. The current study illustrated the importance of understanding the preferences and patterns of older adults’ communication needs and desires.
... Some researchers also employed the Communication Predicament of Aging Model (Hummert et al., 1998), which summarizes communication problems facing old and young interactants and explains how stereotypes may lead to problematic speech and other detrimental consequences for older adults (learned helplessness, social and emotional decline). Researchers studying grandparent-grandchildren communication looked at such factors as group and age salience (Harwood et al., 2006), shared family identity (Soliz & Harwood, 2006), stereotypical perceptions of older adults (Pecchioni & Croghan, 2002), frequency of contact, effects of self-disclosure (Tam et al., 2006), types of accommodative behavior (Harwood, 2000), geographical separation between interlocutors (Holladay & Seipke, 2007), and others. ...
This study surveyed Russian university-aged grandchildren and their grandparents and investigated their reports of topics of conversation with each other. For grandchildren and grandparents, education and family were identified as the most frequently reported topics. Occupation, health, friends, current events, and historical events were also reported as common topics of conversation. For Russian grandparents, three reported conversational topics (education, family, and history) were significantly and positively associated with communication satisfaction, whereas one reported conversational topic (current events) was negatively associated with communication satisfaction. For Russian grandchildren, reported conversations with grandparents about family were positively associated with communication satisfaction, while reported discussions about health negatively correlated with communication satisfaction. The study was aimed at finding cultural differences between grandparent-grandchild communication in Russia and identified several of them.
This chapter offers an in-depth exploration of how the role of being a grandchild is actively shaped and continually redefined through everyday interactions. This chapter emphasizes that grandchildhood is not a static or predefined role but is dynamically influenced by the ongoing, day-to-day practices between grandchildren and their grandparents. It highlights that activities such as mutual support, shared experiences, and continuous communication are crucial in forming and maintaining these relationships. Key studies referenced in the chapter (Holladay et al. (Re)Constructing Relationships with Grandparents: A Turning Point Analysis of Granddaughters’ Relational Development with Maternal Grandmothers’. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development 46 (4): 287–303. https://doi.org/10.2190/00GV-5PWF-UDNH-EHDV, 1998; Kahana et al., Grandparents-grandchild Relationships: A Proposed Mutuality Model with a Focus on Young Children and Adolescents. In Grandparenting: Influences on the Dynamics of Family Relationships, ed. Bert Hayslip and Christine A. Fruhauf, 61–80. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2019; Eldén et al., Grandchildhood: Care and Relationality in Narratives of Three Generations in Sweden. Childhood 31(1), 120–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/09075682231216630, 2023; Nussbaum and Bettini, Shared Stories of the Grandparent-Grandchild Relationship. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development 39 (1): 67–80. https://doi.org/10.2190/7WPK-LM6C-QCA4-GQ4R, 1994; Lin et al., Conversation Topics and Communication Satisfaction in Grandparent-Grandchild Relationships. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 21 (3): 302–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X02021003005, 2002) underscore the importance of these daily interactions in reinforcing the bonds between grandchildren and grandparents. The chapter argues that for many grandchildren, regular contact with grandparents is perceived as a normal, integral aspect of their lives. This perspective challenges more traditional family structures, which often idealize the cohabitation of two generations as the most socially desirable arrangement (Easthope et al., Changing Perceptions of Family: A Study of Multigenerational Households in Australia. Journal of Sociology, 53 (1): 182–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783316635850, 2016). By focusing on the significance of these routine interactions, the chapter reveals how grandchildren and grandparents continuously shape and sustain their relationship in everyday contexts.
This study explored how grandparents influence their late adolescent grandchildren’s psychological adjustment. Late adolescent participants ( N = 474, 60% female, 63% Caucasian) reported their current relationship quality and degree of contact during elementary school for each living grandparent. Hierarchical linear regressions, controlling for demographic characteristics and parental acceptance, found that grandparent relationship quality, but not grandparent contact, was linked to multiple late adolescent outcomes (e.g., depressive symptoms, self-worth, perceived competence in close friendships, and romantic relationships). Significant associations examining both maternal grandmother and paternal grandfather relationship quality were supported, but fewer associations were found for maternal grandfathers and paternal grandmothers. Moderation analyses found more contact during childhood strengthened some of the positive associations between grandparent relationship quality and grandchildren’s self-worth and perceived competence in close friendships. The need for more research examining how specific grandparent factors are linked to grandchildren’s outcomes across developmental periods and contexts is discussed.
Digital media is essential for sustaining communication with various types of social ties. However, older adults (aged 65+) are reported to be the least likely to use digital media. While statistics show that older adults are increasingly using more digital media, evidence shows this is predominantly aging long-term users of digital media rather than older adults adopting new digital media. To investigate this “grey divide” and adoption of digital media by older adults, this study qualitatively analyses semi-structured interviews of 41 individuals aged 65 and older from the East York region of Toronto, Canada. Our findings suggest that satisfaction with personal digital skill levels and attitudes toward digital media influence the adoption of new digital technology in older adults. Additionally, we discuss the benefits and challenges older adults face when deciding to adopt new digital technologies. Finally, we discuss key implications of this research and provide insights for training and policy development.
Cette étude se propose d’examiner les caractéristiques des liens entre grands-parents et petits-enfants rendus possibles par les technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC). Une enquête par questionnaire en ligne a permis de recueillir le point de vue de 169 grands-mères et grands-pères concernant d’une part leur équipement et leur maîtrise des TIC de façon générique et concernant leurs relations familiales ; d’autre part leur relation avec un de leurs petits-enfants selon les TIC utilisées et selon les fonctions relationnelles assurées en particulier en fonction de l’âge du petit-enfant choisi. Les grands-parents ayant répondu à notre enquête sont très bien équipés et maîtrisent les TIC. Ils y recourent fréquemment tant pour leur usage personnel que familial. Ils communiquent avec leur petit-enfant selon des modalités adaptées à l’âge du petit-enfant et à son autonomie, plus intenses avec les plus jeunes et favorisant une reprise des échanges dans l’adolescence avancée. Si le choix des modalités de communication dépend en partie de l’âge du petit-enfant, les fonctions relationnelles assurées semblent davantage structurées par l’étape développementale du petit-enfant que par les caractéristiques techniques des TIC. Nos données confirment également que si les TIC permettent de maintenir un lien avec les petits-enfants éloignés géographiquement, ils viennent surtout en enrichissement d’une relation par ailleurs existante.
Background and objectives:
Grandparent-adult grandchild relationships may not be captured in existing grandparenting typologies, which focus on early stages of these relationships. Our study develops a typology for later stages, estimates the prevalence of grandparents in each category, and examines associations between category membership and grandparent and grandchild characteristics.
Research design and methods:
Using a sample of 289 grandparents from the latest wave of the Longitudinal Study of Generations (2005), we employed latent class analysis models to examine underlying categories of grandparent-adult grandchild relationships, based on four dimensions - frequency of contact, relationship quality, grandparents' receipt of support, and geographic distance.
Results:
Three latent classes emerged: Geographically Distant/Low Contact (45 percent), Geographically Close/High Contact (42 percent), and Geographically Close/Low Contact (13 percent). While geographic distance and frequency of contact were dimensions distinguishing grandparent-adult grandchild relationships, receipt of support and relationship quality were not. Most grandparents reported close relationships but infrequent support.
Discussion and implications:
By identifying categories of grandparent-adult grandchild relationships and factors influencing membership in them, our study may aid in efforts to strengthen those characterized by weak bonds - namely, those with grandparents who are older, frailer, and poorer.
Background
Intergenerational relationships are beneficial for both grandparents and grandchildren. A positive grandparent-grandchild relationship can improve the psychological well-being of older adults and be a source of social support, family history, and identity development. Maintaining meaningful interactions can be, however, a challenging endeavor, especially as life events lead to relocating geographically. Grandparents and grandchildren can have different preferences in terms of communication mediums and different assumptions about the real conversational needs of the other.
Objective
In this study, we will investigate the feasibility and effect of sharing memories of older adults with their grandchildren in social media. This intervention focuses on bringing snippets of the lives of the grandparents into the grandchildren’s social media feed and analyzing the potential effect on relational quality, relational investment, and conversational resources from the perspective of the grandchildren.
Methods
A randomized controlled trial will be used to measure the effectiveness of sharing family memories through social media on intergenerational relationships from the perspective of the grandchildren. The study will be implemented in Mongolia among 60 grandparent-grandchild pairs who will be assigned to either a control or intervention group. Pictures and stories will be collected during reminiscence sessions between the researchers and the grandparents before the intervention. During an intervention period of 2 months, grandchildren in the intervention group will receive pictures and stories of their grandparents on their social media account. Pre- and postintervention questionnaires will measure relationship quality, relationship investment, and conversational resources and will be used to assess the effectiveness of the intervention.
Results
We conducted a pretest pilot from January to April 2018 among 6 pairs of participants (6 grandparents and 6 grandchildren). The validation of the protocol was focused on the process, instruments, and technological setup. We continued the study after the validation, and 59 pairs of participants (59 grandparents and 59 grandchildren) have been recruited. The data collection was completed in November 2019.
Conclusions
The results of this study will contribute to strategies to stimulate social interactions in intergenerational pairs. A validation of the study process is also presented to provide further operational recommendations. The lessons learned during the validation of the protocol are discussed with recommendations and implications for the recruitment, reminiscence sessions, technological setup, and administration of instruments.
International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)
DERR1-10.2196/16315
This article proposes an integrative model of how attitudes about online communication are associated with relational closeness, extending the work of Ledbetter and colleagues. The model stipulates the attitudes about online communication encouraging misunderstandings between relational partners, and causing apprehension in users, negatively predicting attitudes about the ease of online communication. In turn, attitudes about online communication’s ease positively predict attitudes toward online social connection and attitudes toward online self-disclosure. Attitudes toward online social connection and self-disclosure then predict the frequency of offline and online communication, with the type of communicative goal, type of relationship, and culture moderating these associations. Offline and online communication, in turn, influences relational closeness, and that relationship is moderated by in-group identity. The model presents a unified framework with eight propositions, and generates opportunities for future research.
Purpose
The current research was a pilot study of the #GoldenTweets social media training program. Specifically, the research sought to explore (a) how the program in general was perceived by 2 groups of participants, namely, normally aging adults and graduate clinicians, and (b) how both groups perceived the use of Twitter, the platform incorporated into the program, as a social media.
Method
Participants included normally aging adults and graduate student clinicians working with these individuals to implement the training program. The 13-week program was structured into 4 phases: (a) pre-assessment, (b) social media training, (c) social media engagement, and (d) postassessment. Participation outcomes were measured through qualitative data obtained from postprogram discussions and postprogram clinician surveys.
Results
Analyses of participants' responses revealed changes across older adult and graduate student clinician skills in technology and communication applications, as well as perceptions of social media use. Both groups of participants indicated the intergenerational aspects of the program were the greatest strength of the program and their learning.
Conclusion
Our findings support the use of a cognitive social media training tool to promote intergenerational learning, communication, and stimulation.
The purposes of this study were to examine (a) grandchildren’s perceptions of the extent to which their grandparents’ use relational maintenance behaviors; (b) grandchildren’s perceived differences in grandparents’ use of relational maintenance behaviors as functions of grandparent sex, grandchild sex, and grandparent–grandchild (GP-GC) family lineage; and (c) the relationships between grandchildren’s perceptions of their grandparents’ use of relational maintenance behaviors and the grandchildren’s self-reported GP-GC relational characteristics. Young adult grandchildren (N = 209) completed a questionnaire in reference to a specific GP-GC relationship. Descriptive statistics indicated that grandparents use the seven relational maintenance behaviors (i.e., advice, assurances, conflict management, networks, openness, positivity, and tasks) to different degrees. However, the multivariate analyses of variance did not indicate any significant effects for grandparent and grandchild sex or GP-GC family lineage on perceived grandparental use of relational maintenance behaviors. Conversely, Pearson correlations provided support for the hypothesized positive relationships between grandchildren’s perceptions of their grandparents’ use of relational maintenance behaviors and the grandchildren’s self-reported GP-GC relational characteristics.
This article reviews theoretically informed research on grandparent-grandchild (GP-GC) communication. Research has been organized herein according to whether it is guided by an intergroup theory, an affect theory, or another type of theory. After reviewing research under these three broad categories, a heuristic value and degree of support for each theory are proposed for helping future researchers in their theoretical selections. Each theory is then positioned in a two-dimensional space consisting of interpersonal and intergroup dimensions to visually demonstrate theoretical lacunae that future researchers can address. We end by discussing how researchers can utilize theory as a basis for probing the role of demographic characteristics in influencing GP-GC communication.
This chapter presents a review of contemporary scholarship on relational communication, particularly as it relates to interpersonal relationship development and maintenance. Throughout the chapter, special attention is given to the role new technologies play in the communication process. This chapter draws together a wide array of communication research findings ranging from attraction and initial interactions to relational routines and social support. Consideration is also given to some of the methodological and conceptual issues that face contemporary communication researchers. Fundamentally, the function of this multifaceted chapter is to provide an accessible and informed introduction to relational communication and computer-mediated scholarship for both an academic and general audience. A list of recommended readings on communication scholarship concludes this chapter.
The geographic separation of the generations due to globalisation decreases opportunities to maintain communication and connectedness between grandparents and adolescent grandchildren. Many studies consider the importance of social presence in relationships, ignoring how to make such relationships meaningful. Most studies in HCI that discuss technology-supported communication in fostering intergenerational relationships examine relations between grandparents and child or adult grandchildren. This paper investigates the emotions expressed by grandparents and adolescent grandchildren in online and offline interaction by examining the expression of emotions in their actual interactions. This approach provides insight into which emotions are commonly expressed and how they are expressed using Computer Mediated Communication (CMC). Such insights can inform the design of new, affective tools to foster communication and connectedness in these specific intergenerational dyads. Our method covers focus group, cultural probe and interview. In particular, we discuss the use of a Show & Tell game as an instrument to investigate emotions in actual interaction. Our findings show that care, happiness and also negative perceptions were commonly communicated within the participating dyads and that CMC can assist in the transmission of feelings that were unspoken in face-to-face interaction, fostering connectedness between dyads.
Grandparents across the world have experienced two demographic shifts: longer life spans and reduced completed family size. Some areas such as Africa are less affected by these two trends, but have other complex demographic changes. Overall the opportunity for grandparents to relate to grandchildren is expanding. This review of the interdisciplinary literature on grandparenting reports on options and changes in grandparent-grandchild relationships in many countries and notes some of the normative and structural changes occurring. Grandparents’ responses suggest that the relationships with their own children are critical to their maintaining close grandchild relationships. Commonly they report that their role involves being available, but not interfering. Several situations where grandparents are doing more comprehensive caregiving and/or heading the households with grandchildren in them are described. Intergenerational transfers appear to be happening earlier and grandchildren are often included. Some interesting research on the processes of using technology together and interacting around memory development in children and caregiver’s roles are discussed with implications for further research.
It is often asserted that older people's quality of life (QOL) is improved when they adopt information and communication technology (ICT) such as the Internet, mobile phones and computers. Similar assumptions are made about older people's use of ICT-based care such as telecare and telehealth. To examine the evidence around these claims, we conducted a scoping review of the academic and grey literature, coving the period between January 2007 and August 2014. A framework analysis approach, based on six domains of QOL derived from the ASCOT and WHOQOL models, was adopted to deductively code and analyse relevant literature. The review revealed mixed results. Older people's use of ICT in both mainstream and care contexts has been shown to have both positive and negative impacts on several aspects of QOL. Studies which have rigorously assessed the impact of older people's use of ICT on their QOL mostly demonstrate little effect. A number of qualitative studies have reported on the positive effects for older people who use ICT such as email or Skype to keep in touch with family and friends. Overall, the review unearthed several inconsistencies around the effects of older people's ICT use on their QOL, suggesting that implicit agreement is needed on the best research methods and instrumentation to adequately describe older people's experiences in today's digital age. Moreover, the available evidence does not consider the large number of older people who do not use ICT and how non-use affects QOL.
Previous work has begun to incorporate psychological constructs into our understanding of media multiplexity (i.e., use of multiple media in a single interpersonal relationship). Following this approach, this investigation examined how a user's enjoyment of a communication medium might both predict medium use frequency and alter the extent to which closeness is an outcome of such use. Results supported this model across six popular interpersonal communication media (voice telephone, text messaging, e-mail, instant messaging, video chat, and social networking sites) in relationships with extended family members. Specifically, at low levels of medium enjoyment, use of a medium was not associated with relational closeness. Practically, these results suggest that communicating via an unsatisfying medium may not foster relational closeness; theoretically, these results argue for including psychological processes to strengthen MMT as a theory of interpersonal media choice.
Despite the importance of grandparents in their grandchildren's lives, little is known about grandparent–grandchild contact after parental divorce. In this study, the authors investigated differences in grandparent–grandchild contact across 3 postdivorce residence arrangements (mother residence, father residence, and shared residence) using recent survey data from the Netherlands (N = 3,842). The results indicated that contact with maternal grandparents after divorce was highest in mother-residence arrangements, followed by shared residence and then father residence. Contact with paternal grandparents was highest for children in father-residence and shared-residence arrangements, followed by mother residence. Parental conflict had little influence on children's contact with maternal grandparents, but it decreased contact with paternal grandparents. Moreover, the results partly support the assumption that conflict moderates the relationship between residence arrangements and grandparental contact, with differences between residence arrangements being more pronounced in the case of high-conflict divorced families than in low-conflict ones.
This study explored the household use of electronic mail. In a telephone probability sample of 881 adults, 112 adults reported they used electronic mail. This sample provided four superordinate reasons for home e‐mail use: interpersonal relationships; personal gain; business; and gratification opportunities. Overwhelmingly, home e‐mail was reported to be used for interpersonal relationship reasons regardless of user demographics. The findings suggest that e‐mail is used for the maintenance of interpersonal relationships and that gratification opportunities play an important role in home e‐mail use.
This research examined college students' and their grand-parents' (N= 135 dyads) self-reports of communication behaviors in the grandparent-grandchild (GP-GC) relationship. The research aimed to understand predictors of communication satisfaction, liking, and emotional closeness in the relation-ship from a basis in communication accommodation theory. For grandchildren, predictors included their perceptions of their grandparents' levels of accommodation and overaccommodation to them in interactions, as well as their own levels of accommodative involvement with their grandparents. For grandparents, perceptions of their grandchildren's accommodation to them best predicted solidarity. Neither perceived grandchild overaccommodation nor perceived grandparent underaccommodation were significant predictors in regression analyses, although both were significantly correlated with the criterion measures. Implications of the results for the study of the GP-GC relationship are discussed, and future applications of accommodation theory and intergroup contact theory are suggested.
This article investigates a new communication medium—public computer conferencing—by separately and jointly analyzing two basic aspects of human communication: (1) content, the extent to which such systems can support socioemotional communication, and (2) connectivity, communication patterns among system users. Results indicate that (1) computer-mediated communication systems can facilitate a moderate exchange of socioemotional content and (2) basic network roles did not generally differ in percentage of socioemotional content. Some fundamental issues in analyzing content and networks in computer-mediated systems, such as structural equivalence versus cohesion network approaches, are discussed in light of these results.
The explosion of new communication technologies has generated widespread controversy over their potential effects on the workplace. Accurate claims of effects must be rooted in valid assumptions about just how the technologies are used. Consequently, media-use behavior has resurfaced as a vibrant area of inquiry. In this chapter, we take a close look at current media-use theories. http://sk.sagepub.com/books/organizations-and-communication-technology/n6.xml
This study surveyed college-aged grandchildren as to the frequency of their communication with a grandparent using various media. Face-to-face (FtF) and telephone communication were used more frequently than written media, but all were used fairly frequently. Communication using all media was more frequent when the grandparent or grandchild initiated interaction as opposed to the parent. Relationships in which the grandparent initiated contact featured more use of written media (letters, e-mail, cards). Frequency of communication using all media was positively associated with relational quality. Telephone communication best predicted relational quality when use of other media was controlled. In this paper, I discuss implications for media richness theory, the communication predicament of aging model, and future research on grandparent-grandchild relationships.
This paper answers the question, "Why do organizations process information?" Uncertainty and equivocality are defined as two forces that influence information processing in organizations. Organization structure and internal systems determine both the amount and richness of information provided to managers. Models are proposed that show how organizations can be designed to meet the information needs of technology, interdepartmental relations, and the environment. One implication for managers is that a major problem is lack of clarity, not lack of data. The models indicate how organizations can be designed to provide information mechanisms to both reduce uncertainty and resolve equivocality.
This paper examines electronic mail in organizational communication. Based on ideas about how social context cues within a communication setting affect information exchange, it argues that electronic mail does not simply speed up the exchange of information but leads to the exchange of new information as well. In a field study in a Fortune 500 company, we used questionnaire data and actual messages to examine electronic mail communication at all levels of the organization. Based on hypotheses from research on social communication, we explored effects of electronic communication related to self-absorption, status equalization, and uninhibited behavior. Consistent with experimental studies, we found that decreasing social context cues has substantial deregulating effects on communication. And we found that much of the information conveyed through electronic mail was information that would not have been conveyed through another medium.
Each member of 70 pairs of middle-class grandparents was interviewed at length regarding relations to grandchildren, and the data were analyzed for degree of comfort in the grandparent role, significance of the role, and style with which the role is enacted. The Fun Seeker emerged as a frequent pattern, one in which the grandparent-child relationship is characterized by "fun morality." This pattern and the Distant Figure pattern, characterized by discomfort and psychological distance from the child, were more frequent in grandparents who were under 65 than in those over 65. Grandparenthood merits further study as a phenomenon of middle age and from the perspective of adult socialization.
Grandparent Research: Past, Present, and Future by Maximiliane E. Szinovacz Variations in Grandparenting Experiences Grandparenthood Over Time: Historical and Demographic Trends by Peter Uhlenberg and James B. Kirby Grandparenthood in Cross-Cultural Perspective by Charlotte Ikels Grandparenting in Family Systems: An Ecological Perspective by Valarie King, Stephen T. Russell, and Glen H. Elder, Jr. Grandparenthood in African American Families by Andrea G. Hunter and Robert J. Taylor Grandparenthood Among Hispanics by Norma Williams and Diana J. Torrez Asian Grandparents by Yoshinori Kamo Gender Variations by Glenna Spitze and Russell A. Ward Grandparenting--Dynamics and Contingencies Transitions in Grandparents' Lives: Effects on the Grandparent Role by Vira R. Kivett Intergenerational Solidarity and the Grandparent Role by Merril Silverstein, Roseann Giarrusso, and Vern L. Bengtson Grandparents' Influences on Grandchildren by Angela M. Tomlin Grandparents and Older Grandchildren by Lynne Gershenson Hodgson Effects of Adult Children's Divorce on Grandparenthood by Colleen L. Johnson Grandparents as Caregivers by Barbara A. Hirshorn Interventions in Grandparenting Clinical Interventions in Intergenerational Relations by Richard B. Miller and Jonathan G. Sandberg Public Policy and Grandparents: Contrasting Perspectives by Joan Aldous Programs for Grandparents by Maximiliane E. Szinovacz and Angela Roberts Research on Grandparenting: Needed Refinements in Concepts, Theories, and Methods by Maximiliane E. Szinovacz Bibliography Index
The book is organized to touch on issues from several different perspectives and levels of analysis. We begin in Part I with a chapter which lays out the basic rationale for this endeavor. The work centers on the role of theory for advancing our knowledge of communication technology in organizations. Part II presents two views on the nature of technology, task, and organization. Parts III, IV, and V deal with micro, group, and macro level conceptualizations. These distinctions in our sectional map are in part artificial, since each paper beneficially incorporates multi-level issues. Furthermore, the conceptual maps our explorers have created are linked at some points by shared concepts. http://sk.sagepub.com/books/organizations-and-communication-technology
The media richness model and the symbolic interactionist perspective are the basis for hypotheses about managerial communication patterns. The hypothesized relationships are tested with data from 94 managers. The results indicate that managers tend to select the face-to-face medium for highly equivocal communications and written media for clear, objective communications. This relationship is stronger for managers with higher level positions and higher performance evaluations, and is not significantly affected by managerial educational level, organizational tenure, sender/receiver orientation, or introversion/extraversion. The implications of the findings for organization design, communications, and manager performance are discussed.
From the Publisher:Using SPSS for Windows: Analyzing and Understanding Data offers both the beginning and advanced student and researcher a complete introduction to SPSS. In two parts, coverage proceeds from an introduction to how to use the program to advanced information on the specific SPSS techniques that are available. Special features of the book include a Student Disk including all the files students will need to work through the various lessons and topics, high level of readability and a class tested text, examples using screen shots and step-by-step procedures for successful completion of data analysis, tips which help the user in both learning SPSS and making it even easier to use, sidebars featuring material that is particularly interesting and important to understanding the analytical technique under discussion, and guidance in the selection and application of statistical techniques and interpretation, and the writing of results sections.
generations: family and history / emerging grandparenthood: reflections in the popular press / the changing demography of intergenerational relations / the lack of grandparent roles / grandparenthood and family continuity / grandparents and interconnected lives / toward a family systems view / grandparents as family stabilizers/ the challenge of modern grandparenthood (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
While researchers have documented the possible effects of divorce on children's interpersonal relationships with significant others (e.g., parents, siblings, peers), research efforts examining the role of grandparents within these children's social networks are limited. For the present study, 588 late adolescent college students (266 males, 322 females) completed the Network of Relationships Inventory (W. Furman and D. Buhrmester [1985] Children's Perceptions of the Personal Relationships in Their Social Network, Developmental Psychology, Vol. 21, pp. 1016–1024) and frequency of contact estimates on each available biological grandparent. One hundred sixty-eight students were from families in which their biological parents had been divorced for more than two years. The remaining late adolescents were from intact families (i.e., biological parents still married). As hypothesized, late adolescent grandchildren from divorced families indicated less satisfactory relationships with paternal grandparents. In addition, granddaughters from divorced families indicated poorer relationships with parental grandparents when contrasted to grand-daughters in intact families and grandsons from divorced families. However, visible and phone contact with grandparents played a major role in sustaining relationships with grandparents for grandchildren from divorced families. Granddaughters, in general, also reported stronger relations with maternal grandmothers, regardless of group status. Explanations are offered for these results, as well as suggestions for future research.
Some of the major aspects of the relationship between young adult grandchildren and their grandparents were examined. A sample of 269 undergraduate females, each with at least one living grandparent, responded to a survey instrument that assessed their current frequency of interaction and perceived emotional closeness with respect to each living grandparent. Results suggested that the grandparent's kin position relative to the grandchild was a critical variable, more so than the grandparent's sex, in influencing the intensity of the bond, Adult grandchildren tended to be significantly closer to maternal than paternal grandparents, and were significantly closer emotionally to the maternal grandmother than to each of the other grandparents. Also found was a wide variability among young adult grandchildren in their current involvement and emotional attachment to grandparents.
Five elements identified from the literature as expressive of quality in grandparent/grandchild relationships were used in this study. Three hundred ninety-one young adults at a midwest university responded to questions concerning the quality of their relationships with their "most close" grandparent. Responses of the students validated the following five elements of quality as being associated with successful grandparent/grandchild relationships: 1) a fairly high degree of closeness, 2) a strong sense of being known by the grandparent, 3) a strong sense of the young adult's knowing the grandparent, 4) a sense of the grandparent being a fairly strong influence in the life of the grandchild, 5) a sense of an authentic or independent grandparent/grandchild relationship not dominated by, but supported by, the middle generation. Analysis of variance identified the impact of seven independent variables on the quality of grandparent/grandchild relationships.
This article presents findings from a national survey of 208 adult grandchildren concerning relationships with their "closest" grandparent. Levels of contact and perceptions of closeness are two indices used to evaluate the strength of the bonds between the cross-generations. The evidence suggests that along these two dimensions, grandchild/grandparent relationships are significant and meaningful. Although there is diversity among the respondents, interaction levels are high for the majority of the sample. Additionally, most respondents report that their relationships with their grandparents are close and enduring. A comparison of ranked means suggests that several factors are related to the strength of the grandchild/grandparent bonds: age, lineage, geographical proximity, the child/parent relationship, and the parent/grandparent relationship. This research provides a new understanding of a significant family role, that of adult grandchild.
Survey responses of 704 college students revealed that the majority of college students have at least one grandparent, and some have eight or more. Students identified degree of closeness with most close grandmother and grandfather. Students' perceptions of grandparent and grandchild roles were generally positive, indicating affection and respect for grandparents. This study is compared with Robertson's study of student attitudes from 12 years ago. Analyses of variance with gender, race, and family form as independent variables reveal differences on role attitudes among students from various backgrounds.
While studies have considered the importance of the grandparent and grandchild relationship from the perspective of the former, the present study explores the perspective of young adult grandchildren concerning this relationship. Four relationship variables are examined: 1) the amount of contact; b) the assessed adequacy of contact; 3) the importance of the relationship; and 4) the role conception. The results of this study support the position that grandparents remain a significant factor in the lives of young adults.
This study explores how granddaughters account for the development of their relationships with their maternal grandmothers. The retrospective interviewing technique was used to elicit turning points in their relational histories. Analysis of the turning point content revealed several different types of turning points that reflected both normative and idiosyncratic events. Increases in relational closeness resulted from decreases in geographic separation, engaging in shared activities, deaths or serious illnesses in the family, and family disruptions. Decreases in closeness were associated with negative experiences with the grandmother, increases in geographic separation, and the transition to college. Granddaughters reported that turning points related to death or serious illness and participation in shared activities were the most significant ones in their relationships with maternal grandmothers.
This study explored the role that relationship strength, generally, and emotional closeness, more specifically, may play in delimiting the bounds of grandparental influence in young adults' lives. One-hundred and seventy-one college-aged young adults completed a questionnaire evaluating their relationship with the living grandparent to whom they felt most emotionally close or, if they felt close to none of their living grandparents, the grandparent with whom they had the most contact. Participants' perceptions of the strength of this relationship were significantly and positively related to their responses on measures of the extent to which their closest grandparent influenced various aspects of their lives (e.g., their beliefs and values, how much their lives would be missing had they never known the grandparent). In addition, participants whose grandparent-grandchild relationships were emotionally close endorsed a broader range of alternatives on checklist measures of perceived relationship impact than did those whose relationships were more emotionally distant.
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