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Trait verbal aggression, sports fan identification, and perceptions of appropriate sports fan communication
Abstract
This study attempted to further the preliminary research in the area of sports and communication. Specifically, communication constructs including verbal aggression and context appropriateness were applied to the sports setting. Participants (n ‐ 407) completed questionnaires based on a team sporting event that they had recently watched. It was found that fans who were high in trait verbal aggression were (a) more likely to see verbal communication directed at the players and coaches during sporting events as appropriate, and (b) less likely to see fan display of support for their teams as an appropriate form of communication at sporting events. Participants who were high in fan identification were more likely to see displaying the team's insignia and verbal communication toward players and coaches as appropriate. Limitations and future directions for the area of sports communication are discussed.
... loyalty: Funk and James, 2006;Kolbe and James, 2003) and negative (e.g. acceptance of aggression: Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Toder-Alon et al., 2019) consequences are common outcomes of the fan experience. The current study broadens the knowledge base of this research stream by introducing the notion that these outcomes are influenced by sport fans' identity salience. ...
... Furthermore, they demonstrated that fans' perceptions of rivals influenced fans' anonymous aggression and the likelihood of GORFing. Several studies have found that team identification is positively associated with perceptions of the appropriateness of verbal and physical aggression among fans (Donahue and Wann, 2009;Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Toder-Alon et al., 2019). ...
... We measured perception of the appropriateness of fan aggression by means of an adapted version of the Fan Behaviour Measure (Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999), which estimates sport Social and personal selfcategorizations spectators' perceptions of the appropriateness of verbal and physical aggression. The question was "Please rate from 1 to 5 how much you think the fan behaviour described in the following sentences is appropriate or inappropriate". ...
Purpose
The current study postulated that fans' social identities (derived from the team sport clubs of which they perceive themselves to be members) coexist with their personal identities (derived from views of themselves as unique, individual sport fans). The study examined the relationship between identity salience and both positive and negative aspects of fans' attitudes, emotions and behaviours.
Design/methodology/approach
Seven hundred and twelve (712) Israeli professional football fans participated in this study. The study employed a survey drawn from an Internet panel with more than fifty thousand members.
Findings
Utilizing structural equation modelling (SEM), the authors demonstrated that while social identity salience is related to positive aspects of being a sport fan (love of a favourite team and loyalty), it is also related to negative aspects of being a sport fan (hatred and perceptions of the appropriateness of fan aggression). Personal identity salience was found to be related to the decrease in negative outcomes of being a fan (hatred and perceptions of the appropriateness of fan aggression).
Research limitations/implications
Marketers and sport organizations will benefit from stimulating sport fans' personal identity salience to mitigate possible negative consequences of team affiliation.
Originality/value
The current study expands upon past sport management studies by demonstrating the existence of relationships between sport fans' identity salience and their emotions, attitudes and behaviours. The identity salience of fans is relevant from both academic and applicative perspectives.
... Although the sport literature has used several types of scales to measure fan aggression (e.g., the Appropriateness of Aggression among Sport Spectators Scale; Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999) and antisocial behaviour (e.g., the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport scale, ) that have furthered our understanding of sport-related aggression, none of them examined fans' perceptions of TSC aggression from a holistic perspective. Until now, a reliable and valid instrument that measures sport fans' perceptions of both fan base aggression and team aggression in TSCs has not existed. ...
... Different types of measures have been used in the sport management literature to examine levels of aggression in sport, including measures of trait aggression (e.g., Buss & Perry, 1992), attitudes towards spectator aggression (e.g., Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999), direct behavioural measures of sport aggression (e.g., Hennessy & Schwartz, 2007), and measures of moral behaviour in sport (e.g., ). These types of measures have been utilised to study both the aggression of fans/spectators towards other fans, referees, and coaches and the aggression of athletes toward teammates and opponents. ...
... The second type of scale measures respondents' attitudes towards fan aggression, i.e., respondents' perceptions of the appropriateness of aggression. For example, Rocca and Vogl-Bauer (1999) developed a measure that assesses participants' perceptions of the appropriateness of verbal and physical aggression among sport spectators. This scale consists of twelve Likert-scale items that comprise two subscalesappropriateness of verbal aggression (nine items) and appropriateness of physical aggression (three items). ...
Aggression and antisocial behaviour in sport are of significant concern for team sport clubs (TSCs) around the world. Although several types of fan aggression and antisocial behaviour scales that have furthered our understanding of TSC aggression have been used in sport literature, a reliable and valid instrument that measures sport fans’ perceptions of both fan base aggression and team aggression in TSCs from a holistic perspective has not previously existed. This study developed and tested a scale that examines TSC aggression through two different measures: fan aggression, which measures fans’ perceptions of the behaviour of their favourite team’s fan base, and team aggression, which measures fans’ perceptions of their favourite team’s (i.e., coach’s, players’, and management’s) aggression. The scale was calibrated and validated in three studies, one that used exploratory factor analysis, one that used confirmatory factor analysis, and one that used nomological network validity. Each study was distinct from the others and employed separate and independent samples. The data for all the studies were collected from an internet panel. The participants were Israeli Soccer fans. The findings show that the club aggression scale (CAS) has positive, direct, and significant relationships with self-reported aggression and perceptions of the appropriateness of aggression among sport fans. In addition, fans’ hatred of rival teams and depression as a result of their team’s performance significantly and positively mediate these relationships. From a managerial perspective, better understanding fans’ perception of TSC aggression can assist managers in their attempts to reduce violence.
... Specifically, the current study proposes that fan hatred serves as a mediator between age and fans' aggression as well as fans' perceptions of the appropriateness of physical and verbal acts of aggression (Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999). Our study proposes that older sport fans can play a key role in reducing the level of aggression during sport contests due to their lower levels of hatred. ...
... Aggressive behaviours include verbal behaviours that refer to harassing or impugning targets and threatening or humiliating them as well as physical behaviours that comprise using symbols to intimidate targets and attacking, beating, injuring, or even killing them. Related to fans' actual aggressive behaviour are their perceptions of appropriateness of aggressive messages as means of communication (Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999). ...
... When fans watch a sporting event, an array of communicative verbal and non-verbal messages, some aggressive, may arise. The degree to which fans perceive aggressive behaviours as legitimate may vary as a function of various factors such as team identification (Donahue and Wann, 2009;Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999). Nonetheless, little attention has been given to the antecedents of the perceptions of the appropriateness of aggression among fans. ...
Purpose
The growing proportion of older fans and their potential economic value have increased the need for an improved understanding of age differences in fan behaviour. Building on socioemotional selectivity theory, the current study examines the impact of age differences on fan hatred as well as on the extent to which fans actually engage in aggressive activities and fans' perceptions of the levels of appropriateness of certain physical and verbal acts of aggression.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used an online panel-based survey that offered access to a real-world population of sport fans. The participants were 742 fans of professional football (soccer).
Findings
Results from structural equation modelling indicated that older fans reported lower levels of fan hatred, lower self-reported aggression and lower acceptance of physical and verbal aggression. Moreover, fan hatred partially mediated the relationship between age and levels of aggression and between age and acceptance of verbal aggression. In addition, fan hatred fully mediated the relationship between age and acceptance of physical aggression.
Originality/value
The current study makes two important contributions. First, it demonstrates that sport clubs may particularly benefit from understanding the potential but often neglected importance of older sport fans in relation to the problematic phenomenon of fan aggression. Second, it offers a thorough theoretical account of the manner in which fan hatred plays a significant role in the relationships between age and fan aggressiveness.
... Yet, on the negative side, intense feelings experienced by fans may lead to aggressive behavior (Opotow and McClelland, 2007). Specifically, increased levels of team identification have been found to be positively related to (Donahue and Wann, 2009;Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Toder-Alon et al., 2019). Therefore, we hypothesized that: ...
... Appropriateness of aggression was measured by the Appropriateness of Verbal and Physical Aggression among Sport Spectators Scale, developed by Rocca and Vogl-Bauer (1999). The scale consists of 13 items on a Likert scale that ranges from 1 (very inappropriate) to 5 (very appropriate) and consists of two subscalesappropriateness of verbal aggression (ten items) and appropriateness of physical aggression (three items). ...
... The scale consists of 13 items on a Likert scale that ranges from 1 (very inappropriate) to 5 (very appropriate) and consists of two subscalesappropriateness of verbal aggression (ten items) and appropriateness of physical aggression (three items). The reported internal consistency of alpha for the appropriateness of verbal aggression scale was 0.93, and for the appropriateness of physical aggression scale, 0.85 (Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999). The Cronbach's alpha for the verbal aggression scale was above 0.93, and for the physical aggression, it was above 0.94. ...
Purpose
This study, an empirical research, aims to construct and validate a new love-hate scale for sports fans and tested its antecedents and consequences.
Design/methodology/approach
The scale was designed and validated in three separate empirical survey studies in the context of Israeli professional basketball. In Phase 1, the authors verified the factorial validity of the proposed scale using exploratory factor analysis. In Phase 2, the authors conducted a confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling. In Phase 3, the authors tested the nomological network validity of the scale.
Findings
The findings show that fans' involvement, loyalty and fandom significantly predicted their love–hate, which in turn significantly predicted self-reported fan aggression, fans' acceptance of fan aggression, price premium and frequency of watching games.
Research limitations/implications
The model was tested on a relatively small sample of fans within a single country. This lack of generalizability should be addressed in future studies by examining the model in other sports contexts and countries.
Practical implications
This study suggests that understanding the properties of the love–hate measure may assist team sports clubs in identifying, preventing and controlling potential fan aggression.
Originality/value
The study provides three incremental contributions above and beyond existing research: it develops and validates a scale for measuring the phenomenon of sports fans' love and hate as mixed emotions; it makes it possible to capture the variations in the magnitude of fans' love–hate; and it relates fans' love–hate to important attitudinal and behavioral outcomes.
... One significant variable that affects both sport consumption behaviours and fans' aggressive behaviours is sport team identification (Kwon & Armstrong, 2006;Madrigal, 2000;Theodorakis, Koustelios, Robinson, & Barlas, 2009). In particular, numerous scholars have documented the positive relationships between team identification and fans' aggressive behaviours (Wann 2006a;Wann, Fagl, Erdmann, & Littleton, 1999;Wann, Haynes, McLean, & Pullen, 2003), as well as between team identification and fans' acceptance of aggressive communication (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999). Understandably, sports marketers and academics are often interested in determining the antecedents of team identification (Wann, 2006a). ...
... Related to fans' actual aggressive behaviour are their perceptions of appropriateness of aggressive messages as means of communication (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999). When watching a sporting event, an array of communicative verbal and nonverbal messages, some violent, may arise. ...
... When watching a sporting event, an array of communicative verbal and nonverbal messages, some violent, may arise. Similar to actual aggressive behaviour, the tendency to approve aggressive messages of other fans during a game may vary among fans according to their team identification level (Donahue & Wann, 2009;Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999). ...
In the current study, the explored the moderating role of ageing in the relationship between team identification/fandom and fan aggression. The authors used an online panel-based survey that offered access to a realworld population of sports fans. Participants were 740 fans of Israeli professional basketball. Results from structural equation modelling demonstrated that older fans reported higher levels of mere sports fandom and lower levels of self-reported aggression and acceptance of aggression. Moreover, age moderated the relationships between team identification (or fandom) and self-reported aggression, such that team identification (or fandom) was more strongly associated with selfreported fan aggression among younger fans than among older fans. The moderating role of age in the relationships between team identification (or fandom) and perceptions of appropriateness of aggression was not supported. The findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of the role of ageing in the relationship between fan identification and fan aggression. Based on these findings, the authors assert that managers might particularly benefit from leveraging the potential, but often neglected, segment of senior fans, since older fans can play a key role in reducing the level of aggression during competitive sports events. Suggestions for future research are also discussed. © 2018 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand
... Aggression in sports, has been described as "any intentional behavior, which is not recognized as legal within the official rules of conduct, directed towards an opponent, official, teammate, or spectator who is motivated to avoid that behavior" (Maxwell, 2004, p. 280). Aggression has been analyzed in many aspects in sports sciences, including types of aggression (hostile or instrumental, see Hilliard & Johnson, 2018), forms of aggression (verbal, physical, or property damage, see; Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Wann & Sherman, 2019;Wann, Haynes, McLean & Pullen, 2003), hooliganism (Baic, Ivanovic & Popovic, 2017), rioting (Lanter, 2011;Russell & Mustonen, 1998), collective narcissism (Larkin & Fink, 2018), dysfunctional spectator behavior (Pedersen et al., 2021) and Schadenfreude (Cikara & Fiske, 2013). These studies reveal that the higher the level of identification, the more fan aggressionboth hostile and instrumentaland the less control over aggressive behaviors. ...
... Last but not least, even though a number of previous studies have found there is not a significant relationship between levels of team identification and fans' aggression (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Wann & Sherman, 2019), both of the current studies confirmed the positive relationship between team identification and fan aggression found by several earlier works (Bryan & Horton, 1976;Guttman, 1981;Wann, 1993). ...
This study explores the effect of child images in advertisements on financial support provided by team fans
-including the intention to buy licensed club products- and reported aggression toward rival team fans. An online
experiment was conducted on Turkey’s three largest rival club fans (Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, and Bes¸iktas¸).
Used visual materials were derived from Football (Study 1) and Basketball (Study 2). Fans (N = 496) exposed to
the appeals with child images showed a higher intention to support their team financially and buy licensed club
products; however, the stated aggression toward rival club fans did not differ. A follow-up experimental study (N
= 132) was conducted on Fenerbahçe fans to retest this insignificant effect, in which fans’ state aggression is
increased through a motivation video. It is concluded that this approach was only effective on aggression for the
fans whose team identification was significantly higher. Findings are discussed within the kin selection theory
and kindchenschema cuteness concept.
... Other customers' dysfunctional behavior (α = .90) was assessed using six items (three items for each verbal and physical) adapted from Rocca and Vogl-Bauer (1999). Customer perceived value was adapted from Kunkel et al. (2017), such that two items for economic (α = .83), ...
... identification with golfers and perceived performance) were included in the analysis based on previous literature. Team identification is correlated with dysfunctional behavior (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999), passion Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012), perceived value (Kunkel et al., 2017), and behavioral intention (Kunkel et al., 2017;Robinson et al., 2004). In the current study, we controlled for identification with golfers. ...
Previous scholars have examined value co-creation and co-destruction processes that take place between customers and service organizations or employees. Despite most service consumption situations occurring in the presence of other customers, few studies have examined customer-to-customer value co-creation and co-destruction. This lack of attention is particularly prevalent in sport service research. The purpose of the current study is to examine how other customers’ value creation (i.e. passion) and destruction (i.e. dysfunctional behavior) factors influence focal customers’ perceived value (i.e. economic, social, emotional, and epistemic), which in turn leads to customer citizenship behaviors (i.e. helping behavior and word-of-mouth). By using a convenience sampling method, data were collected from 318 spectators of professional golf tournaments. The results of structural equation modeling indicated that other customers’ passion had a positive influence on focal customers’ economic, social, emotional, and epistemic values (i.e. customer-to-customer value co-creation). Other customers’ dysfunctional behavior was negatively associated with customers’ emotional value (i.e. customer-to-customer value co-destruction). Emotional and epistemic values positively predicted helping behavior. Social, emotional, and epistemic values had positive effects on word-of-mouth. Overall, the present study contributes to value co-creation and co-destruction literature by highlighting other customers as potential value integrators. Further, the current work indicates that customer behaviors can serve as a double-edged sword, and it offers golf event practitioners novel insights regarding the necessity of strategic management aimed at facilitating customers’ passionate behaviors while protecting against the deleterious effects of dysfunctional behaviors.
... For instance, team identification is positively correlated with expressions of both hostile and instrumental aggression (Wann, Carlson, & Schrader, 1999) and highly identified fans are particularly likely to aggress against rival fans (Cikara, Botvinivk, & Fiske, 2011). Highly identified fans are more likely to view verbal aggression as acceptable (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999), feel out-of-control at events (Dimmock & Grove, 2005), and believe that aggressive war-sport analogies are appropriate (End, Kretschmar, Campbell, Mueller, & Dietz-Uhler, 2003). Furthermore, team identification has been found to play a role in sport rioting (Lanter, 2011). ...
... It may be that identification has a greater influence on verbal aggression than physical aggression. Such a possibility is substantiated by work indicating that, although level of identification predicts perceptions of the appropriateness of verbal aggression among sport fans, no such relationship is found for physical aggression (Rocca, & Vogl-Bauer, 1999). Conversely, level of fan dysfunction (i.e., the extent to which a fan complains and is confrontational, see Wakefield & Wann, 2006) has been shown to be a significant positive predictor of perceptions of the appropriateness of physical aggression (Donahue & Wann, 2009). ...
The current investigation was designed to extend previous work on the aggressive actions of youth baseball spectators (Hennessy & Schwartz, 2007) by incorporating team identification into the research. Team identification, the extent to which a fan feels a psychological connection to a team, (Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001) has been found to be an important predictor of a wide variety of aggressive actions among sport consumers (Wann, 2006). Spectators (N = 80) at youth baseball games completed a questionnaire packet assessing demographics, team identification, vengeance, anger, hostility, and the likelihood of acting in a verbally or physically aggressive manner toward a number of potential targets (e.g., officials, opposing players). Consistent with expectations, team identification predicted a willingness to commit verbally aggressive acts. However, identification did not predict physical aggression.
... To clarify, the SSAS does not directly meas ure a person's aggressive behavior in real time but rather an attitude towards it. Notably, other researchers have used a similar approach to measure spectator aggression (Dimmock & Grove, 2005;Rocca & VoglBauer, 1999). In addition, a review of attitude and behavior studies by Schuhnan and Johnson (1976) found that a person's attitude can be a reason & Johnson, 1976). ...
... Referente às populações dos estudos, sete estudos tinham como foco específico torcedores esportivos, sendo cinco de futebol (Bensimon & Bodner, 2011;Hu & Cui, 2020;Shuv-Ami & Toder-Alon, 2021;Yalcin et al., 2021;Zeferino et al., 2021), um de hóquei (Harrell, 1981) e um de rugby (Moore et al., 2007). Seis focaram em estudantes universitários (Bernache-Assollant & Chantal, 2009;End & Foster, 2010;Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Wann, 1994;Wann, Carlson et al., 1999;Wann, Fahl et al., 1999). ...
The aim of the study was to identify instruments used to assess the aggressiveness of sports fans and describe their operational and psychometric characteristics. A systematic literature review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines, searching databases including BVS, PsycINFO, PubMed/MedLine, Science Direct, Scopus, and Web of Science, using the descriptors and Boolean operators: scale OR test OR inventory OR questionnaire AND aggression OR violence OR aggressiveness AND spectators OR fans. A total of 198 studies were found, and after exclusion criteria, 15 remained. Within these studies, 11 instruments were identified. These instruments showed differences in theoretical bases, number and content of dimensions, mode of administration, and response type. In order to assess the robustness of the instruments, psychometric evidence was evaluated. The findings of this review highlighted a lack of specific instruments for assessing aggression in sports fans and may assist researchers in developing measures for this purpose.
... Self-reported Aggressiveness Questionnaire (Toder Alon et al., 2019) consists of three-option items ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree). Perception of Appropriateness of Fans' Aggression was measured by an adaptation of the Fan Behaviour Measure (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999). The scale estimates the appropriateness of verbal and physical aggression among sports spectators. ...
Abstract
Team Identification and Sports Fandom are among the most important predictors of aggression in football fans that their impact varies with the age of the fans. The purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating role of age in relationship between Team Identification and Sports Fandom with aggression of football fans. The present study was descriptive and correlational that conducted in field method. The statistical population of study was Esteghlal Fans of which 211 persons were selected as the sample. The research instrument consisted of five standard questionnaires of Sport Fandom, Team Identification, Self-reported Aggressiveness, Physical Aggression and Verbal Aggression. In this study, the data were analyzed using variance-based structural equation modeling. The results showed that Team Identification and Sports Fandom have a positive and significant effect on self-report Aggressiveness, Verbal and Physical Aggression. Also Age has a significant effect on Team Identification, Sports Fandom, Self-report Aggression, Verbal and Physical Aggression, but these effects are negative and inverse. Also, the effect of Team Identification and sports fandom on self-report Aggressiveness, Verbal and Physical Aggression among the young fans was more than middle-aged and old fans, and the effect of Team Identification and Sports Fandom on self-report Aggressiveness, Verbal and Physical Aggression among the middle-aged Fans were more than old fans. According to the results organizers of the football matches in the country and the fan club of the teams can use the older fans to control the emotions of the younger fans and reduce the aggression of the fans.
Keywords: Team Identification Sports Fandom Aggression Football
... Cet effet a été observé dans le cas où les normes de groupe cautionnent les comportements antisociaux Dimmock & Grove, 2005 ;Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999), mais aussi à l'inverse, lorsqu'elles ne les cautionnent pas . ...
Ce travail doctoral s’intéresse aux comportements antisociaux des acteurs du sport. Ce phénomène est abordé au travers des théories liées à la catégorisation sociale, et plus précisément, l’approche de l’identité sociale et les partitions sociales. A la suite de ce développement théorique, deux études principales ont été menées. La seconde s’appuyant sur les conclusions de la première. Une troisième étude a ensuite été mise en place pour réinjecter les connaissances amassées dans le terrain.La première étude, s’articulant autour de cinq sous-études, avait pour objectif de déterminer le contenu, les causes perçues, ainsi que les conséquences perçues, des comportements antisociaux des acteurs du sport. Vis-à-vis du contenu des comportements antisociaux, les aspects de nuisance et de désavantage ressortent. En plus de ces deux aspects, d’autres semblent émerger : la relation entre les acteurs, ainsi que des états spécifiques. Par ailleurs, les causes perçues font référence à l’environnement sportif étouffant de compétitivité et de recherche de valorisation par ses acteurs, aux affects, et aux caractéristiques stables des individus. Enfin les conséquences perçues renvoient aux affects de colère pour les cibles ou observateurs, aux jugements de valeurs négatifs et d’incompréhension pour les observateurs, et à une envie de s’opposer pour les cibles et observateurs, en plus d'un désir de désengagement de l'activité pour la cible. S’appuyant sur l’aspect relationnel dégagé, la seconde étude propose, à l’aide de l’outil RepMut, une cartographie des relations intergroupes parents – entraîneurs et sportifs – entraîneurs, ainsi qu’une cartographie de cette dernière relation lorsque les catégories sociales sont identitairement menacées, ou soutenues. Les résultats révèlent une structure relationnelle solide, et ambigüe, où les normes des groupes sont porteuses de conflits identitaires, alors que les individus cherchent à se rapprocher de l’exogroupe. Lorsque les entraîneurs ou sportifs sont menacés ou soutenus, la structure est toujours visible, et les résultats indiquent que les relations normales sont très proches de la condition menaçante pour les catégories. Enfin, les relations sont teintées de forts affects agréables, et de faibles affects désagréables, dont les deux groupes sont responsables, soulignant l’ambiguïté des relations dans un contexte sportif. Finalement, la troisième étude évaluait l’efficacité d’une intervention sur les entraîneurs concernant les comportements antisociaux. Cette étude a été perturbée par les évènements liés à la COVID-19, mais nous la présentons tout de même, ainsi que les outils pensés pour ce protocole.En conclusion, ce travail montre que dans le cadre de la pratique sportive, l’aspect relationnel entre les acteurs du sport est important vis-à-vis du phénomène des comportements antisociaux. Dans ce contexte de pratique sportive, l’entraîneur semble posséder une place avantageuse.
... With the escalating growth of sports during the 1990's, psychology and sociology researchers showed greater interest in sports fan attachment to and identification with teams they love (i.e. Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, End, & Jacquemotte, 2000;Fisher, 1998;Kerstetter & Koovich, 1997;Reysen & Branscombe, 2010;Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Wann & Stephanie, 2003). Generally, individuals become sports fans for two reasons, either to escape under-stimulation and boredom or to get rid of over-stimulation and stress (Wann, Allen, & Rochelle, 2004). ...
Sports are a vital tool that could be used to promote better global awareness and to support better cross-cultural understanding. The literature of sports psychology provides a rich body of work that studied fans’ behaviour towards in-group teams and home team identification. Nonetheless, out-group sports favouritism receives little attention in the literature. Our study explores whether Arabs’ fanship of European soccer clubs influences their feelings of animosity towards those countries. We collected data from 154 Arab Jordanians who live in two major cities in the central and northern parts of Jordan and analysed data using descriptive statistics and linear regression. The results revealed that Jordanians who admire soccer clubs from England, Italy, and Spain have lower feelings of animosity towards these countries. Also, such feelings may potentially translate into Jordanians’ desire to purchase products from these countries. The research highlights the importance of European soccer as a tool to disseminate and promote peace and to curb hostility. The paper concludes with a discussion on the implications of findings and recommendations for future research.
... Individuals high in verbal aggression are likely to use aggressive tactics across a variety of different conversational contexts. For instance, Rocca and Vogl-Bauer (1999) found that verbal aggression was positively correlated with individuals feeling it was appropriate to yell, ridicule, and even taunt players and coaches at sporting events. Therefore, we posit that individuals who score high in verbal aggression will be more likely to show greater intention to flame. ...
Communication scholars have both lauded and questioned the Internet’s role in facilitating democracy. However, few studies have examined aggressive communication behavior in online political discussion spaces. Two studies were conducted to examine use of aggressive discussion behaviors online, otherwise known as flaming. Study one utilized a survey of 289 undergraduate students at a large public university. Study two utilized a survey of 305 individuals who frequent political blogs. Results from both studies suggest that individuals are more likely to engage in political flaming when their beliefs are directly challenged. In addition, results indicate that whether an individual’s identity is known or unknown did not influence their intention to flame within the student sample. In the blog-user sample, we found that direct challenges when identities were not known increased intention to flame. Finally, we examine the relationship between political flaming and several individual-level variables.
... Fischer, Haslam, and Smith (2010) found that when a collective threat to a salient social identity occurs, people respond aggressively and are more willing to support hostile action, an outcome that was certainly the case here. Sports fans have a history of engaging in aggressive behavior during athletic contests (Hughson, 2000;Palmer & Thompson, 2007;Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999), and it seems that this behavior conveniently translates to social media sites, where it is conveniently incited and enflamed by others. The vitriol expressed by group members and the validation of these statements created participative norms of verbal aggressiveness and physical retaliation. ...
This research explored how University of Cincinnati football fans used Facebook to manage a social identity threat arising from head football coach Brian Kelly leaving the school to become the head coach at the University of Notre Dame. A thematic analysis of 717 wall postings in the “Get Out of Our City Brian Kelly” Facebook group was conducted. Results revealed that fans responded to this social identity threat in the following ways: (a) rallying, (b) stigmatizing, (c) victimization, (d) intimidation, and (e) degradation. The results suggest that social media sites are prime vehicles for sports fans to collectively manage social identity crises. Social media enables fans to perpetuate messages that elevate group distinctiveness, minimize in-group issues, and derogate out-group members.
... Verbal aggression has been defined as the tendency to attack another person's self-concept rather than the topic of the conversation (Infante, 1987). Extant research has shown that individuals high in verbal aggression are more likely to use aggressive verbal tactics (Infante, 1987;Johnson, Becker, Wigley, Haigh, & Craig, 2007;Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Sutter & Martin, 1998). Infante (1987) found that individuals who scored high in verbal aggression tended to engage in character attacks, teasing, ridicule, or profanity to get their point across. ...
Communication scholars have examined the potential pitfalls and rewards associated with the ability to communicate in online spaces. We continue in that line of research by proposing a mediated moderated communication process model focused on what conditions lead people to engage in aggressive online communication behaviors, otherwise known as flaming. Specifically, we argue that online political discussion socializes individuals to see flaming as an acceptable behavior. This increase in perceived acceptability in turn increases intention to flame. Results demonstrate that this increase in intention to flame is greater among those with high levels of verbal aggression. To test our model, we conducted two surveys that asked students and blog users questions about their online media behaviors. Results replicate across both surveys.
... Research targeting the impact of identification as a causal (subject) variable indicates that it can have an impact on numerous fan responses (Dietz-Uhler & Lanter, 2008). For instance, sport fans with higher levels team identification tend to report higher levels of sport fan aggression (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Wann, Carlson, & Schrader, 1999). Further, highly identified fans are more likely to use cognitive distortions when evaluating their team's performance (Abrams, Rutland, & Cameron, 2003;Wann & Dolan, 1994;Wann, Grieve, Waddill, & Martin, 2008). ...
The current investigation examined the interrelationships among overall sport team identification, specific
dimensions of team identification, and behavioral intentions. Using an antecedents approach to guide predictions (Dabholkar, Shepherd, & Thorpe, 2000), a model was tested in which overall identification would
mediate the relationship between specific dimensions of team identification and behavioral intentions. To
test the hypothesized pattern of effects, participants completed a questionnaire packet assessing overall identification via the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (Wann & Branscombe, 1993), specific dimensions of
identification assessed via the Team Identification Scale (Dimmock & Grove, 2006; Theodorakis, Dimmock,
Wann, & Barlas, 2010), and four items assessing behavioral intentions. A series of regression analyses confirmed the predicted pattern of effects. Specifically, both overall identification and the specific dimensions
of identification predicted behavioral loyalty and the dimensions predicted overall identification. However,
when the dimensions and overall identification were simultaneously entered as predictors of behavioral loyalty, the results indicated that overall identification fully mediated the relationship between specific dimensions of identification and behavioral loyalty, as the beta scores of the dimensions were reduced to
non-significant levels.
... Some of this research has focused on the consequences of high levels of team identification (Dietz-Uhler and Lanter, 2008;Wann, 2006b). For instance, research has linked high levels of team identification with intense affective reactions to watching a team compete , an increased likelihood to respond aggressively (Rocca and Vogl-Bauer, 1999;Wann et al., 1999a), displays of ingroup bias (Dimmock et al., 2005), and levels of social psychological well-being (Wann, 2006c). Further, and of particular importance to sport marketing and management professionals, team identification plays a major role in direct and indirect sport consumption, such as event attendance and purchases of team products (Fisher, 1998;Kwon and Armstrong, 2006;Madrigal, 2000;Matsuoka et al., 2003;Theodorakis et al., 2009;Wakefield, 1995). ...
Because sport team identification plays an important role in facilitating higher levels of sport attendance and consumption (Wann et al., 2001), sport management and marketing professionals are often interested in
determining variables that serve as antecedents of identification. Some authors have suggested that the need to belong may be one such variable (Gwinner and Swanson, 2003; Wann et al., 2001). Thus, two studies were designed to examine the relationship between need to belong and identification. Study 1
involved 119 US college students completing measures of demographics, identification, fandom, and the need to belong. Consistent with expectations, the need to belong was positively correlated with level of identification with a local sport team, but not identification with a distant team or mere sport fandom. Study 2 contained a sample of 100 Greek university students and replicated the positive relationship between identification with a local team and the need to belong. Discussion centres on the causal relationships among the variables, implications for fans of distant teams, and suggestions for sport marketers and managers.
... Intuitively, people often feel compelled to return acts of aggression to save face and discourage future attacks (Felson, 1978Felson, , 1982). According to Rocca & Vogl-Bauer (1999), an individual's level of trait verbal aggression interacts with situational factors which may inhibit or disinhibit verbal aggression, ultimately impacting an individual's response or behavior (Infante, 1987). Apparently, an attack by one person instigates a response, thus perpetuating a pattern over time where the interactants share the roles of perpetrator and victim (Atkin et al., 2002). ...
Purpose
The primary purpose of this study is to examine how fan attendance at team special events and player appearances impact fan consumption (as measured by merchandise sales). Insights obtained could shed light on opportunities for professional soccer teams to expand revenues through enhanced fan consumption of goods and services.
Design/methodology/approach
A sample of 499 season ticket holders were used to assess fan consumption by measuring merchandise sales. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions were run for merchandise sales as the dependent variable of fan consumption. The control variables were age, gender (male = 1, 0 otherwise), and whether an individual has children.
Findings
The key independent variables of attending special events and fan–player bonding were both found to have a statistically significant impact on merchandise sales. Results show that each additional special event attended generates up to 23.00.
Social implications
The results of this study provide insights that can help fan consumption grow within the professional United States soccer industry and better allow team managers to make decisions about the possible benefits of holding more special events and fan–player bonding experiences. The findings also confirm the impact personal relationships with fans can have on the bottom line of sport franchises.
Originality/value
Though this study adds to the body of literature by expanding previous work on fan consumption, there are limited studies on the social aspects of consumption which are examined and analyzed within this study, particularly of note is the study of merchandise sales as proxy for fan consumption.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the perceived enjoyment that is derived from spectators observing other spectators’ dysfunctional behavior during a game.
Design/methodology/approach
Using four forms (i.e. fighting, verbal assault, disrupting play and throwing missiles) of spectators dysfunctional behavior (SDB), two experiments ( N = 252 for Study 1 and N = 92 for Study 2) were conducted in which video clips corresponding to the four types of SDB were used as experimental stimuli.
Findings
The findings indicate that participants enjoyed viewing spectators running onto the field of play significantly more than the other forms of SDB (i.e. fighting, verbal assaults and throwing missiles). The results also show no significant difference between how much spectators enjoyed the actions of fighting, verbal assault and throwing missiles.
Originality/value
The novelty of this study include the usage of a multidimensional approach to the concept of SDB and testing for a positive outcome pertaining to SDB that has largely, if not fully, been examined using negative inputs and outputs.
This paper employs panel data on Iranian soccer fan hooliganism (i.e., verbal
and physical aggression against rivals) to provide a longitudinal test of
Agnew’s general strain theory. Structural equation models reveal that the
experience of strain, a latent variable comprised of negative life events,
victimization, bullying, and economic pressures, is positively associated
with fan aggression. Moreover, the effects of these strains are both directly
and partially mediated through negative affect (state-based anger).
Evidence shows that the least successful clubs have the most committed fans – why? Here, we test the “shared-dysphoria-pathway-to-fusion” (SDPF) hypothesis that fans of the least successful clubs become irrevocably “fused” to their club and to each other, as a result of sharing self- and club-defining memories of past defeats.
To assess the SDPF hypothesis, we calculated the most and least successful clubs from the UK’s top league, the Premier League, over a 10-year period. We then invited fans of these clubs to complete a survey (N = 752), comprising qualitative recollections of football events, quantitative survey measures of identity fusion and psychological kinship, and a trolley dilemma measuring willingness to sacrifice one’s self to save fellow supporters.
Our mediation model supported the SDPF hypothesis. Fans of Crystal Palace, Hull, Norwich, Sunderland, and West Bromwich Albion were more bonded and more willing to sacrifice themselves for other fans of their club than were fans of Manchester United, Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool or Manchester City. Across clubs, memories of past football defeats formed an essential part of fans’ self-concepts, thus fusing them to their club. Identity fusion in turn predicted a readiness to lay down one’s life to save fellow fans, and this relationship was statistically mediated by psychological kinship.
Understanding that shared suffering can lead to extreme bonding may help sports clubs and policy makers manage crowd behaviour. Clubs will benefit from tailoring brand management and fan retainment strategies to the SDPF hypothesis. In addition, these findings provide insight into the motivations of oppressed or persecuted groups, and such others fused through shared sufferings, helping us better understand and manage the psychological processes that can lead to extreme self-sacrifice.
This is the first study to show mediational support for the SDPF hypothesis in relation to football fandom. The psychological mechanism that may have once bonded embattled foraging groups in our ancestral past, now works in the modern world to unite soccer fans, among other kinds of groups, in their millions.
Rivalries and social media influence the way individuals consume, produce, and experience sport. Thus, the purpose of the study was to understand the effects of sport rivalries on fan engagement within Twitter for segments of the Manchester United Football Club's business ecosystem (i.e., team brand, news-based fan club, unofficial fan club, and firm). First, the authors examined how specific Twitter content affected fan engagement during rivalry matches. Second, the authors compared fan engagement and virtual maltreatment within the segments of the Manchester United ecosystem. An analysis of 2,750 tweets from Manchester United's ecosystem during the 2015-2016 season was conducted. Results demonstrated a significant rivalry effect on fan engagement across all segments of Manchester United's ecosystem, and a significant virtual maltreatment effect on fan engagement during rivalry matches for the news-based fan club, unofficial fan club, and firm. Findings from the study provide practical and theoretical implications for marketing competitive relationships.
Rivalries and social media influence the way individuals consume, produce, and experience sport. Thus, the purpose of the study was to understand the effects of sport rivalries on fan engagement within Twitter for segments of the Manchester United Football Club's business ecosystem (i.e., team brand, news-based fan club, unofficial fan club, and firm). First, the authors examined how specific Twitter content affected fan engagement during rivalry matches. Second, the authors compared fan engagement and virtual maltreatment within the segments of the Manchester United ecosystem. An analysis of 2,750 tweets from Manchester United's ecosystem during the 2015-2016 season was conducted. Results demonstrated a significant rivalry effect on fan engagement across all segments of Manchester United's ecosystem, and a significant virtual maltreatment effect on fan engagement during rivalry matches for the news-based fan club, unofficial fan club, and firm. Findings from the study provide practical and theoretical implications for marketing competitive relationships.
Fan aggression (verbal and physical) at sporting events is seemingly becoming increasingly more prevalent, so much so that that one form has been coined as “soccer hooliganism.” Although an emergent area of social and criminological inquiry, few studies have attempted to predict or explain this behavior through a theoretical lens. The present study applies Agnew’s general strain theory to self-reported data on Iranian soccer fans’ verbal and physically aggressive behaviors. The results of both hierarchical multiple regression analyses and structural equation modeling reveal solid support for Agnew’s theory. As expected, strains are both directly and indirectly (via negative affect) associated with fan aggression. Moreover, the effects of strain on fan aggression are also conditioned by both self-control and social support, but less so by criminal peer associations. Finally, although the data support Agnew’s theory with regard to deviant fan aggression, they do not support his theory with regard to conventional coping strategies; conventional coping is inversely associated with strain.
Hostile and instrumental aggression are very popular among soccer fans, The goal of hostile aggression is just to cause harm to the target like rival fans while instrumental aggression refers to actions intended to harm another person with the goal of achieving a result, such as assisting their favourite team to win the match. The body of research on sport fans' violence shows that this aggression emerges through various social, psychological and situational factors. Thus, a few factors such as team identification, sport identity and team's performance are crucial but hardly considered in Iranian research. However, the purpose of this current research is to examine the impact of aforementioned factors on instrumental and hostile aggression in football stadiums. The paper uses the social identity theory and survey method for data collection. The results of Mann-Whitney U test among 356 male spectators from the Padideh football club, demonstrate that fans that have high sport and team identification, also have more willingness to commit hostile and instrumental aggression compared with those with low sport and team identification. The study also found that the fans with high sport and team identification show more hostile aggressive actions against their opponents and officials than the fans with low sport and team identification. The fans with high sport and team identification showed a greater trend to commit instrumental aggression against their opponents compared with fans who have low sport and team identification. There are no differences between high and low sport and team identification in instrumental aggressive actions toward officials. Further, the rate of hostile and instrumental aggression in losing a game is higher than winning one. Considering the hostile and instrumental aggression, the fans with low sport and team identification don't report any significant differences in winning/losing games. However, the fans with high sport and team identification indicate significant differences in winning or losing games with respect to hostile and instrumental aggression.
Argumentative and Aggressive Communication: Theory, Research, and Application is the first text to describe the development, history, research, and application efforts on the communication traits of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness. Authors Andrew S. Rancer and Theodore A. Avtgis include a collection of nine widely used reliable and valid instruments which the reader, the researcher, and the practitioner can use for diagnostic and research purposes.
Previous research has indicated that some sport spectators display high levels of fan dysfunction. That is, they tend to complain often and be confrontational in sport settings. In the current study, the relationship between childhood bullying behaviors and adult fan dysfunction was investigated. It was hypothesized that having been a bully as a child would predict level of fan dysfunction as an adult. A sample of 197 college students completed measures assessing bullying (both as a bully and as a victim) and fan dysfunction. Regression analyses revealed the hypothesized pattern of effects.
Research indicates that sport team identification is a significant predictor of the perceptions of the appropriateness of aggression (Rocca & Vogl-Bauer, 1999). However, recent research by Wakefield and Wann (2006) on dysfunctional fans suggests that this variable may also be an important predictor. Participants (N = 158 undergraduates) completed a packet of questionnaires assessing team identification, fan dysfunction, and perceptions of the appropriateness of fan aggression. Results indicated that fan dysfunction was related positively to perceptions of the appropriateness of verbal aggression and physical aggression. Team identification was unrelated to perceptions of the appropriateness of verbal aggression but related negatively to perceptions of the appropriateness of physical aggression.
The purpose of this investigation was to explore the relationship between respondents' trait verbal aggressiveness, conflict management strategies and conflict interaction goals. Data were collected from 105 undergraduate students at a small private affluent southeastern university. Participants were asked to recall a dispute that they had had with a close friend. They completed the OCCI, verbal aggressiveness, and conflict goals measures. Results indicated that verbal aggressiveness was associated in predictable ways with participants' conflict strategies. There also was a substantial and significant negative relationship between verbal aggressiveness and concerns about relational goals during conflicts. These results establish a foundation for future lines of research regarding conflict goals and extend previous investigations regarding verbal aggressiveness.
The present study examined the role of social psychological and developmental processes in predicting children’s sport team identification. Although there is previous research on the factors that predict adults’ sport team identification and research on children’s social (mainly ethnic) identification, there is no research on examining children’s team identification. One hundred and fifty pupils first reported their favorite sport team, the degree of their team identification and their need to belong to a social group. Multiple regression analyses using bootstrapping approach showed that both need of belongingness and age significantly predicted team identification. Practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Because argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness are associated with positive and negative relational outcomes, respectively (Infante & Rancer, 1996), we were interested in whether perceived instructor argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness are related to college student perceptions of classroom climate, classroom apprehension, and state motivation. Participants were 236 undergraduate students enrolled in a variety of communication courses at a mid‐Atlantic university. Results indicate that (a) perceived instructor argumentativeness was not related to perceived classroom climate whereas perceived instructor verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to perceived classroom climate, (b) neither perceived instructor argumentativeness nor verbal aggressiveness was related to perceived student classroom apprehension, and (c) perceived instructor argumentativeness was positively related to perceived student state motivation whereas perceived instructor verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to perceived student state motivation.
According to the Team Identification-Social Psychological Health Model (Wann, 2006b), team identification and social psychological health should be positively correlated because identification leads to important social connections which, in turn, facilitate well-being. Although past research substantiates the hypothesized positive relationship between team identification and well-being, earlier studies focused solely on college student populations. The current study extended past work in this area by investigating the team identification/well-being relationship among older sport fans. A sample of older adults (N = 96; M age = 70.82) completed scales assessing demographics, identification with a local college basketball team, and measures of social psychological well-being. As hypothesized, team identification accounted for a significant proportion of unique variance in two measures of social psychological health (collective self-esteem and loneliness).
Consistent with previous research, 110 spectators' rated team identification of a successful team was not different from the mean of 139 fans' rating in 1992 of an unsuccessful team.
This study focused on verbal aggression in sibling relationships. The study examined the relationship between (a) verbal aggressiveness with satisfaction and interpersonal trust, (b) the relationship between teasing and verbal aggressiveness, (c) whether people more satisfied with their siblings report that receiving verbal aggression is more personally hurtful, and (d) whether sibling sex influenced verbal aggression in the relationship. Results support the destructiveness of verbal aggression in that verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to satisfaction and trust. Teasing was found to be positively related to being verbally aggressive. Sibling satisfaction was positively related to being hurt from receiving verbally aggressive messages. Results involving sex show that women are more satisfied and report using less verbal aggression and teasing than the other sibling dyads. Conclusions, future directions, and limitations are discussed.
As a step in learning more about aggressive communication in families, this study investigated the similarities between three aggressive communication traits (argumentativeness, assertiveness, and verbal aggressiveness) of young adults and their parents. College students (N = 160) and their parents (N = 320) completed measures of their aggressive traits. Results showed that similarities existed between mothers and their daughters and sons for all three traits; however, no significant relationships between fathers and their daughters and sons for the traits were found.
This study involved players’ perceptions of their coaches’ nonverbal immediacy, assertiveness, and responsiveness. Previously in the classroom setting, Thomas, Richmond, and McCroskey (1994) found that in the classroom setting nonverbal immediacy was positively, moderately correlated to both assertiveness and responsiveness. College students (N = 192) were asked to fill out a questionnaire based on a coach that they had in high school. Players who perceived their coaches as being nonverbally immediate, also perceived their coaches as being responsive, and to a lesser extent, assertive. Future research directions include considering the relationships between a coach's nonverbal immediacy with player motivation and satisfaction.
Constructed and tested a measure of sports team identification in 2 studies with a total of 546 undergraduates. Several behavioral, affective, and cognitive reactions among sports spectators were used to validate the team identification measure. Ss who strongly identified with a specific sports team, relative to those spectators moderate or low in identification, reported more involvement with the team, displayed a more ego-enhancing pattern of attributions for the team's successes, had more positive expectations concerning future team performances, exhibited greater willingness to invest larger amounts of time and money to watch the team play, and were more likely to believe that fans of the team they are identified with possess special qualities. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
While previous work had focused on the manner in which identification with a sports team influences the reactions of spectators, research had yet to identify those factors with the greatest amount of influence on identification. This article reports on an exploratory study designed to fill this void by identifying the factors involved in the origination, continuation, and cessation of sports-team identification. Responses indicated that a wide variety of factors were perceived by fans to be important in their identification. Specifically, the success of the team, geographical reasons, the players, and affiliative reasons were all quite important in the fans' identification.
This article reports on two studies investigating seasonal changes in sport spectator identification, involvement, and evaluations. Two sports (basketball and football) and two team histories (successful and unsuccessful) were reviewed. Four variables were examined for their possible influence: season-long (trial) changes, varying degrees of identification, outcome of the previous contest, and location of the previous contest The results indicated that there were significant changes in spectator identification, involvement, and evaluations throughout the season. Outcome of the previous game had an especially powerful impact on evaluations of the team's performance and impacted the identification of supporters of the historically successful team but not supporters of the unsuccessful team. Fans with differential levels of identification did not differ in their changes in identification.
The Dark Side of Interpersonal Communication examines the multifunctional ways in which seemingly productive communication can be destructive-and vice versa-and explores the many ways in which dysfunctional interpersonal communication operates across a variety of personal relationship contexts. This second edition of Brian Spitzberg and William Cupach's classic volume presents new chapters and topics, along with updates of several chapters in the earlier edition, all in the context of surveying the scholarly landscape for new and important avenues of investigation. Offering much new content, this volume features internationally renowned scholars addressing such compelling topics as uncertainty and secrecy in relationships; the role of negotiating self in cyberspace; criticism and complaints; teasing and bullying; infidelity and relational transgressions; revenge; and adolescent physical aggression toward parents. The chapters are organized thematically and offer a range of perspectives from both junior scholars and seasoned academics. By posing questions at the micro and macro levels, The Dark Side of Interpersonal Communication draws closer to a perspective in which the darker sides and brighter sides of human experience are better integrated in theory and research. Appropriate for scholars, practitioners, and students in communication, social psychology, sociology, counseling, conflict, personal relationships, and related areas, this book is also useful as a text in graduate courses on interpersonal communication, ethics, and other special topics. © 2007 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
Previous research demonstrated that fathers' trait verbal aggressiveness was predictive of their adult sons' perceptions of the sarcasm, criticism, and overall aggressiveness contained in fathers' messages. The present study was undertaken to extend these findings by examining the empirical relationship between fathers' trait verbal aggressiveness and the appropriateness and effectiveness of their plans for interacting with oppositional sons. This was accomplished by soliciting trait verbal aggressiveness scores from fathers who subsequently generated plans in response to a five‐phase scenario. Fathers' plans were rated independently by separate participants for appropriateness and effectiveness at each phase of the interaction. Results indicated that fathers' verbal aggressiveness was inversely related to both plan appropriateness and effectiveness. In light of the moderate to large relationships detected, implications for theory and research in father‐son relationships are discussed.
Extending previous theory and research, a causal mode! was tested in which adult males’ perceptions of criticism and sarcasm from their fathers were exogenous variables and males’ perceived confirmation and relational partners’ reports of male partners’ disconfirming behavior were endogenous variables. Consistent with expectations based on the men's literature, confirmation theory, and previous research, perceptions of both criticism and sarcasm contributed significantly, explaining 44.8 percent of the variance, to the prediction of adult sons’ perceived confirmation scores. Furthermore, 75.87 percent of the variance in females’ assessment of relational partners’ disconfirming communication was explained by the model. Perceived criticism and sarcasm demonstrated direct in addition to indirect effects mediated by perceived confirmation.
Verbal agressiveness is conceptualized as a personality trait that predisposes persons to attack the self‐concepts of other people instead of, or in addition to, their positions on topics of communication. This conception is positioned with respect to the trait structure of personality and also in relation to other aggressive personality traits: hostility, assertiveness, and argumentativeness. An interpersonal model is developed that specifies the types of verbally aggressive messages in interpersonal relations, their effects, and their causes. A rationale is developed for studying verbal aggression apart from other types of aggression, and several studies developing a Verbal Aggressiveness Scale are reported. Results indicate that the Scale is valid and reliable. Implications are discussed, especially in terms of understanding and controlling physical aggression.
A model of interpersonal physical violence is derived from the aggression literature and then is utilized to investigate interspousal violence. The model posits that verbal aggression is a catalyst to violence when societal, personal, and situational factors are strong enough to produce a hostile predisposition. Unless aroused by verbal aggression, a hostile disposition remains latent in the form of unexpressed anger. The framework suggests that persons in violent, marriages are more verbally aggressive than other people, and also produces the counterintuitive prediction that violent spouses are less argumentative than people in nonviolent marriages. A study is reported which compared clinical cases of abused wives and abusive husbands to a nonclinical population of husbands and wives. Strong support for the hypothesis was observed. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of understanding communication in violent marriages.
Previous attempts to account for the occurrence of spectator aggression have employed one of the long-standing theories of aggression (i.e., instinctual theories, drive reduction models, and the social learning perspective). While support for some aspects of these theories has been documented, a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon might direct research to more fruitful avenues. Such an analysis is proposed in this review. In addition to incorporating well-documented concepts such as physiological arousal and modeling, this new viewpoint includes the motivational aspects of team or group identification, the cognitive component of categorization, and the esteem-enhancing consequences of aggressive behavior. A model of the variables leading to spectator aggression is presented, and it is contrasted with prior theoretical viewpoints. Public policy implications for aggression reduction among sports spectators are discussed.
This research used Infante's (1987) conceptualization of trait verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness to analyze adult males’ perceptions of their fathers’ messages. In the present study, fathers’ self‐reports of verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness were used to predict their adult sons’ reports of fathers’ sarcasm, criticism, and global verbal aggressiveness. Results of multivariate regression analyses indicated that (1) fathers’ argumentativeness accounted for a significant percentage of variance in the dependent variable set but did not contribute significantly to the univariate equations and (2) fathers’ verbal aggressiveness explained a significant percentage of the multivariance and contributed significantly to each univariate equation. Overall, the predictor set explained 39.32% of the variance in the dependent variable set. As predicted, the preponderance of the effect (30.05%) was due to fathers’ verbal aggressiveness. Implications are discussed.
The present study was designed to explore the empirical relationship between adult sons' communication apprehension regarding their fathers and satisfaction with those relationships. Results indicated that (1) apprehension and satisfaction were negatively correlated, (2) a descending nonlinear function best described the relationship, (3) both frequency and intensity of apprehension experiences contributed to the prediction of satisfaction, and (4) father communication apprehension was empirically distinct from general dyadic communication apprehension. These results were initially derived from the responses of a screening sample and were subsequently cross‐validated. Theoretical implications are discussed.
While previous research has focused on the communication characteristics of superiors which predict their subordinates’ satisfaction, this study investigated subordinates’ communication and satisfaction with the subordinate from the perspective of the superior. Superiors from a variety of organizations rated the communicator style and argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness of a subordinate with whom they were either satisfied, dissatisfied, or undecided regarding the subordinate's job performance. The results supported a hypothesis about affirming communicator style and satisfactory subordinate job performance, and also a counterintuitive prediction about how argumentativeness relates to appraisal of subordinates.
Research on trait verbal aggressiveness and verbal argumentativeness was extended by examining these constructs in relationship to patterns of self‐reported parental behavior. Subjects were parents of school‐age children (grades Kindergarten to 6). As expected, persons scoring positively on argumentativeness and negatively on aggressiveness reported behaviors consistent with the Authoritative parenting style. Negative argumentativeness and positive aggressiveness was associated with the Authoritarian prototype.
A model of supervisors’ communicative behavior from the subordinate’s perspective is explored in this study. The model is derived from previous research that suggests freedom of expression and self-concept affirmation are important needs which employees want satisfied in the organizational situation. The communication traits of supervisors posited as instrumental to these needs being satisfied are argumentativeness and affirming style (composed of relaxed, friendly, attentive, and low verbal aggressiveness). A study of 216 subordinates is reported that tests a hypothesis about which perceived supervisory styles are associated with the least and the most subordinates’ satisfaction and organizational commitment. The results generally supported the model. Verbal aggressiveness was found to be especially potent in explaining variability in satisfaction with superiors. An emphasis on verbal aggressiveness in future organizational communication research is suggested, along with continued attention to the role of dialectic in the communication between superiors and subordinates.
In recent years, communication scholars have begun to examine the role of trait verbal aggressiveness in shaping relationships between parents and children. The present study examined the interactive effects of parents’ trait verbal aggressiveness and frustration induced by interaction with children on parents’ subjective experience of anger. Specifically, we hypothesized that parent anger in response to children's noncompliance is a function of an ordinal interaction between parents’ trait verbal aggressiveness and situational frustration. A multiple regression equation employing (1) parents’ trait verbal aggressiveness scores, situational frustration scores, and a multiplicative function as predictor variables, and (2) parent anger scores as the dependant variable, accounted for 33.93 percent of the variance in anger scores with only the trait verbal aggressiveness X frustration interaction contributing significantly to the equation. These results confirm the interactionist perspective upon which the hypothesis was founded.
Previous research demonstrated that fathers’ trait verbal aggressiveness was (1) predictive of their adult sons’ perceptions of the sarcasm, criticism, and overall aggressiveness contained in fathers’ messages, and (2) inversely related to the appropriateness and effectiveness of fathers’ plans for dealing with an oppositional son. The present study extended this research by examining the relationship between fathers’ verbal aggressiveness and their perceptions of the appropriateness and effectiveness of selected tactics for interacting with oppositional sons. Overall, results indicated that fathers’ perceptions of the appropriateness and effectiveness of tactics was in large part a function of their level of trait verbal aggressiveness. Specifically, fathers’ trait verbal aggressiveness was (1) negatively related to perceptions of appropriateness and effectiveness of supportive tactics and (2) positively related to perceptions of the appropriateness and effectiveness of coercive tactics. Implications for research and theory development are discussed.
Recent research suggests that verbal aggression may function as a catalyst to violence between spouses in marital disputes. Communication skills deficiencies may predispose spouses to rely upon verbal aggression in family conflict situations instead of more constructive forms of communication such as argumentation. This suggests a need to understand better the role of verbal aggression in interspousal violence. A study is presented which compared a sample of nonabused wives to a clinical sample of abused wives in terms of self‐reports of the use of verbal aggression by the husband and wife in their most recent dispute. While there were several differences between the two groups, of the ten types of verbally aggressive messages examined, character attacks most clearly differentiated violent from nonviolent marital disputes. Two hypotheses which predicted the degree of verbal aggression in violent and nonviolent disputes and the relationship between husband and wife usage were supported. Implications are discussed especially in terms of studying interspousal violence from a communication orientation.
This research used a confirmation/disconfirmation framework to analyze adult males’ perceptions of their relationships with their fathers. In the present study, the degree to which men felt confirmed by their fathers was used to predict relational partners’ reluctance to engage in relational interaction and discomfort during such interactions. The effect of dyadic communication apprehension, the anxiety associated with one‐to‐one communication, was statistically controlled. Results of multivariate regression analyses indicated that (1) females’ dyadic communication apprehension accounted for a small but statistically significant percentage of variance in their discomfort scores, (2) males’ perceived confirmation from father explained a statistically significant percent of variance in “reluctance,” and (3) a statistically significant nonlinear effect was observed for perceived confirmation on reluctance. Overall, the predictor set explained 26.62% of the variance in the dependent variable set. Implications are discussed.
Hypothesized that there would be a significant positive relationship between level of identification for a sports team and perceptions of the ability to influence athletic competitions within that sport. In Study 1, with 104 undergraduates, high levels of identification were related to greater perceptions of influence. In Study 2, with 156 undergraduates, high-identification fans reported an increase in pre- to postgame positive emotions following a win and an increase in negative emotions following a loss. Study 3, with 267 spectators, was used to examine possible changes in team identification as a result of competition outcome for historically successful and marginally successful teams. The results indicate that although past team success was an important predictor of identification level, levels were not affected by game outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explored the extent to which argumentative and verbally aggressive behavior is perceived in family and organizational disagreement situations that are either constructive or destructive. 137 college students (participants) described in writing an experienced family or organizational disagreement that was either constructive or destructive. Later, another 137 college students (observers) read the descriptions. Both participants and observers rated the communication in terms of argumentative and verbally aggressive conduct. More argument and less verbal aggression were observed in constructive as compared to destructive disagreements. More verbal aggression was reported in family as compared to organizational disagreements. Finally, participants, when compared to observers, perceived the most argument and verbal aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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