Pre-performance routines in sport: Current understanding and future directions

Abstract

The development of a pre-performance routine continues to be an intuitively appealing and widely accepted technique to enhance preparation for performance in sport. However, actual understanding falls somewhat short of that required to recommend with confidence the development of a pre-performance routine. At a fundamental level it is still not clear what function routines fulfil, what they should consist of or the most effective way to teach them. This review seeks to clarify current understanding and highlight areas requiring further attention. Greater understanding is required to understand the psychological components of routines as well as understanding the process through which a routine is developed/taught.

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Running Head: PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES IN SPORT
Pre-performance routines in sport: Current understanding and future directions
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Abstract
The Development of a pre-performance routine continues to be an intuitively appealing and
widely accepted technique to enhance preparation for performance in sport. However, actual
understanding falls somewhat short of that required to recommend with confidence the
development of a pre-performance routine. At a fundamental level it is still not clear what
function routines fulfil, what they should consist of or the most effective way to teach them. This
review seeks to clarify current understanding and highlight areas requiring further attention.
Greater understanding is required to understand the psychological components of routines as
well as understanding the process through which a routine is developed / taught.
Keywords: pre-performance routines, preparation, performance, strategies
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Pre-performance routines in sport: Current understanding and future directions
Introduction
Over the past 30 years the development and application of pre-performance routines in sport has been an
area of specific interest to sport psychologists, coaches, and performers alike. Developing,
understanding, and enhancing the preparation for performance has been seen as a very real way of
ultimately enhancing performance level and consistency. The use of this understanding to develop a
consistent approach in preparing for performance has been advocated as a tool through which these
higher levels of performance and consistency can be achieved. Authors such as Lidor and Tenenbaum
(1993), Boutcher (1990), and Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) have advocated the use of structured
routines prior to performance, which are believed to be an extremely important behavioural technique to
help performers to attain high levels of achievement in sport. A number of definitions have been offered
in the literature in an attempt to clarify what is meant by the term pre-performance routine. These range
from Crampton (1989, p.9) who referred to an “ordered collection of thoughts and behaviours” to Foster,
Weigand, and Baines (2006) who suggested that pre-performance routines involve “cognitive and
behavioural elements that intentionally help regulate arousal and concentration (p.167). However, the
definition suggested by Moran (1996) appears to have been adopted most readily by other studies
exploring the pre-performance routine phenomenon. Moran (1996) defined pre-performance routines as
“a sequence of task-relevant thoughts and actions which an athlete engages in systematically prior to his
or her performance of a specific sports skill” (p.177). This definition clearly highlights the importance of
both cognitive processes and behaviours in preparation to successfully execute performance
At this point it is important to clarify differences in the associated literature
regarding terminology. Authors have tended to refer to either pre-performance routines (Cotterill,
2008; Holder, 2003; Jackson, 2001, 2003; Lonsdale & Tam, 2007; Marlow, Bull, Heath &
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Shambrook, 1998; McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee 2001; Moran, 1996, 2004; Singer, 2002) or
pre-shot routines (Gayton, Cielinski, Francis-Keniston, & Hearns, 1989; Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd,
1990; Crews & Boutcher, 1986; Douglas & Fox, 2002; Harle & Vickers, 2001; Mack, 2001;
Moore & Stevenson, 1994; Shaw, 2002). All of the references to pre-shot routines occur in
studies where performance was described in terms of shots (either basketball or golf). As a
result, pre-shot routines could be classified as a more sport / activity specific description of a pre-
performance routine. In the literature there is also reference to a ‘mental preparation routine’.
However the definition of this routine as a “systematic, ritualized patterns of physical actions and
pre-planned sequences of thoughts and arousal related cues” (Gould & Udry, 1994, p.483) again
refers to the same phenomenon described by Moran (1996) whilst defining pre-performance
routines.
Although the use of pre-performance routines is more readily implemented with closed
skills (such as a golf shot, basketball free throw, long jump, hockey penalty flick, etc), they have
also been examined in some open skill sports. Pre-performance routine research in sport to date
has explored basketball (Czech, Ploszay, & Burke, 2004; Gayton, Cielinski, Francis-Keniston, &
Hearns, 1989; Hall & Erffemeyer, 1983; Harle & Vickers, 2001; Lamirandt & Rainey, 1994;
Lidor, Arnon, & Bronstein, 1999; Lidor & Tenenbaum, 1993; Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;
Lonsdale & Tam, 2007; Mack, 2001; Predebon & Docker, 1992; Southard & Miracle, 1993;
Wrisberg & Penn, 1992); Bowling (Kirschenbaum, Ordman, & Tomarken, 1982) dance (Vergeer
& Hanrahan, 1998); diving (Highlen & Bennett, 1983); football (Vealey, 1986); golf
(Beauchamp, Halliwell, Fournier, & Koestner (1996); Boutcher & Crews, 1987; Cohn, Rotella,
& Lloyd, 1990; Cotterill, 2008; Fairweather & Potgeiter, 1993; Kingston & Hardy, 2001;
Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1980; McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001; Rotella & Bunter, 1981;
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Shaw, 2002; Thomas & Over, 1994; Yancey, 1977); Gymnastics (Mahoney & Avener, 1977;
Schack, 1997); rugby union (Jackson, 2003; Jackson & Baker, 2001); skiing and skating (Orlick,
1986); tennis (Moore, 1986); Bowling (Kirschenbaum, 1987); volleyball (Lidor & Mayan,
2005); track and field athletics (Cotterill & Greenlees, 2003);water polo (Marlow, Bull, Heath, &
Shambrook, 1998); and wrestling (Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, 1981). This review will seek to
clarify the extent of current knowledge regarding pre-performance routines. Seeking to critically
review the suggested impact that routines have on performance. Clarification will also be sought
regarding current understanding of how the pre-performance routine actually impacts on
performance, and how we can seek to measure and understand this component of performance.
Finally, this article will look to review current understanding regarding the teaching and
development of pre-performance routines in sport.
Impact of pre-performance routines on performance
The area relating to pre-performance routine use in sport that has received the greatest
attention is the link with performance. Numerous authors have explored this link across a range
of sports. A summary of the various experimental studies exploring pre-performance routines is
presented in Table 1. The most popular approach has sought to test a control group’s
performance against that of an experimental group, which has been taught and practiced a pre-
performance routine. Hall and Erffemeyer (1983) in their study of 10 highly skilled female
basketball players reported that visuomotor behaviour rehearsal improved free throw accuracy.
This positive impact of routines in basketball was also reported by Lobmeyer and Wasserman
(1986) with 43 participants, and Gayton, Cielinski, Francis-Keniston, and Hearns (1989) with 25
high school basketball players, and Wrisberg and Pein (1992) exploring success rates with and
without pre-shot routines. Taking this one step further in golf, Crews and Boutcher (1987);
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Boutcher and Zinsser (1990) and, Douglas and Fox (2002) all highlighted that better performers
had more consistent routines in their behavioural composition and their temporal duration. The
positive impact of routine usage on performance has also been reported by Czech et al. (2004),
and Hill and Borden (1993). While the link between pre-performance routine usage has been
widely reported, what is less clear is the function that routines actually fulfil in enhancing
performance.
***Insert table 1. near here!***
The function(s) that pre-performance routines fulfil
The popularity of pre-performances routine use in sport stems largely from the belief that
they enable performers to concentrate more effectively. To this end, Boutcher (1992) suggested
five main benefits that pre-performance routines may provide to golfers. These included:
improving concentration by encouraging the golfer to focus their thoughts on the task-relevant
cues, helping the golfer overcome a natural tendency to dwell on negatives, allowing the golfer
to select the appropriate motor schema, preventing ‘warm-up’ decrements and the devotion of
excessive attention to the mechanics of their automatic skill.
Numerous hypotheses have been developed to explain the role that pre-performance
routines satisfy. In particular it has been suggested that they prescribe an attentional focus
(Boutcher, 1992; Czech, Ploszay, & Burke, 2004; Harle & Vickers, 2001); reduce the impact of
distractions (Boutcher & Crews, 1987; Moore & Stevenson, 1984; Weinberg, 1988); act as a
trigger for well learnt movement patterns (Boutcher & Crews, 1987; Moran, 1996); divert
attention from task irrelevant thoughts to task relevant thoughts (Gould & Udry, 1994; Maynard,
1998); improve concentration (Foster, Weigand, & Baines, 2006; Holder, 2003); enhance the
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recall of physiological and psychological states (Marlow et al., 1998); help performers achieve
behavioural and temporal consistency in their performance (Wrisberg & Penn, 1992); prevent
performers focusing on the mechanics of their skills and the resulting unravelling of automaticity
(Beilock & Carr, 2001; Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starks, 2002); or allow performers to
evaluate conditions and calibrate their responses (Schack, 2002). Singer (2002) more generally
suggested that the purpose of pre-performance routines is to “put oneself in an optimal
emotional, high self-expectant, confident, and focused state immediately prior to execution, and
to remain that way during the act” (p.6). Shaw (2002) also hypothesized that the value of pre-
performance routines may be in that they pre-sensitize the movement system to the appropriate
perception-action coupling (Williams, Davids & Shaw, 1999) between the environment and the
player. Each of these suggested functions have emerged as a result of other analyses and have not
themselves been the focus of investigation. For example, Boutcher (1992) suggested that pre-
performance routines help by providing an attentional focus, but did not test whether the routines
do actually provide an attentional focus.
Although intuitively appealing there is not sufficient depth of research explicitly
exploring and testing the function that pre-performance routines fulfil. Of the above mentioned
studies most are based upon suggestions made in prior related publications (Beilock & Carr,
2001; Boutcher & Crews, 1987; Czech, 2004; Foster et al., 2006; Gould & Udry, 1994; Harle &
Vickers, 2001; Holder, 2003; Shaw, 2002; Singer, 2002; Wrisberg & Penn, 1992) which in turn
can be traced back to authors including Keele (1973), Nideffer (1976), and Schmidt, (1981).
Neither of these three authors explicitly explored pre-performance routines. Of the other studies
that have actually explored the function of pre-performance routines, Hill and Borden (1995)
reported that attentional cueing scripts aided performance and therefore should be considered a
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component of pre-performance preparation. Most pre-performance experimental studies have
sought to explore the link between routine use and performance, but have not taken the next step
to explore the mechanism through which this occurs. As a result, further investigation is required
to explore the function of the pre-performance routine. Both the coaches’ and the athletes’
perception of pre-performance routine function should be explored in greater detail.
Experimental designs should also seek to test for evidence to support the proposed functions
highlighted in earlier publications.
Components of the pre-performance routine
Behavioural Characteristics
Early research exploring pre-performance routines focused heavily on the behaviours and
the timing of pre-performance routines. Authors such as Crews and Boutcher (1986), Boutcher
and Crews (1987), Wrisberg and Pein (1992) Southard and Miracle (1993), Southard and Amos
(1996), and Cotterill and Collins (2003) sought to describe the temporal and behavioural
characteristics of pre-performance routines. Initial research focused on comparing novice and
elite performers or comparing successful and unsuccessful performance to ascertain if
differences existed. These descriptions enhanced our understanding of the behavioural
components of the routines used and either the overall duration of the routines or the duration of
discrete behavioural components but the importance of this information is limited. Differences
were reported, but these differences were not explained. Is the fact that expert performers have
more consistent routines a contributory factor to the higher level of performance and consistency
they produce? Or is the consistency merely a function of longer time spent practicing?
Understanding the behavioural components of routines and their relationship with mental
processes is the next step (Cohn et al., 1990)
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Underlying Psychological Processes
Research exploring pre-performance routines in sport has not, to date, comprehensively
explored in depth the psychological processes that occur during the routine stage prior to the
execution of the required movement, even though the importance of a positive affective state
prior to competition has been identified (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). Indeed, it could be
argued that inappropriate mental states can lead to task-irrelevant thoughts, loss of attention, and
inappropriate physical states which can result in poor performance (Boutcher, 1990). The
majority of previous researchers in the area have suggested a number of potential psychological
processes, which include the utilization of imagery (Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990) and
distracting the attentional focus from irrelevant thoughts to task relevant thoughts (Maynard,
1998). It has also been suggested that the pre-performance routine specifically improves both
concentration and performance (Harle & Vickers, 2001), and enhances the recall of physiological
and psychological states (Marlow et al., 1998). But as previously highlighted, these suggestions
are not based upon empirical findings. Cohn, Rotella and Lloyd (1990) in their study exploring
the effect of a cognitive-behavioural intervention on a pre-shot routine concluded that future
research should explore the covert mental routine, but to date this does not appear to have been
explored. Shaw (2002), in his case study of a professional golfer, reported that the professional
golfer had experienced some attentional benefits arising from the use of a pre-performance
routine. Specifically, the golfer reported that “the new routine had made him more focused for
each shot and therefore, less distracted by irrelevancies” (p.117). However, although a number of
psychological processes have been suggested to accompany the pre-performance routine, to date
only Jackson and Baker (2001), and Cotterill, Sanders and Collins (In-press) have explored these
processes in detail despite the potential benefits that a greater understanding of these processes
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would have for the performer, coach and sport psychologist. Jackson and Baker (2001) in their
case study of an elite rugby kicker found that the player utilised a range of psychological
strategies including specific mental cues, thought stopping, inverse simulation, visualization and
relaxation techniques, but interestingly these differed from attempt to attempt. Indeed the
authors concluded that the most important determinant of kicking performance in the
competitive environment was the successful application of specific psychological strategies
rather than the temporal consistency of the pre-performance routine. Cotterill et al. (In-press) in
their phenomenological study of elite golfers interviewed six participants to explore the
psychological strategies and techniques used. They concluded that “the development of pre-
performance routines, and in particular the psychological skills employed within the routines, is
dependent on the personality, coping resources, and situational appraisals of each individual
performer”(p.19). To date, there is limited research exploring the psychological processes and
strategies adopted by performers. Do performers employ a consistent set of skills and strategies
with each performance or are they more transient? How do performers develop these
psychological strategies and skills? Are pre-performance routines taught or evolve independently
over time? Answers to these questions would allow the development of more effective routines.
Teaching and developing pre-performance routines
A number of approaches have been suggested in order to attempt to achieve consistent and highly
effective performance. These include Singer’s (1988) 5-step approach and Murphy’s (1994) 4-point
model. The 5 steps proposed by Singer (see figure 1.) were readying, imaging, focusing attention,
executing and evaluating. Lidor and Tenenbaum (1993) implemented this 5-step model with basketball
players and found the most important stage to be the readying stage, the preparation to perform. They
reported that the greater the preparation time the greater the success rate. Cotterill (2008) in a review of
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the practical guidelines to developing pre-performance routines in golf suggested that the first four steps
of Singer’s (1988) 5-step approach (readying, imaging, focusing attention, executing) could be used as a
global template for golf routines. It was suggested that this global template would allow the flexibility
for the routine to be modified regarding behaviours and timing, but still fulfil the requirements of the
individual golfer. Liu and Zhang (2003) used Singer’s approach for their ‘specific pre-performance
routine group’ when comparing the effects of a specific and a self-developed routine. Results
demonstrated significant differences with the Specific group performing better.
***Insert figure 1. near here!***
Murphy‘s (1994) (see figure 2.) model was dubbed the ‘performance management model’. The
steps he advocated were: practice, preparation, performance and analysis to create the ‘flow state’.
Murphy (1994) suggested this approach lead to optimal performance as performers have control over the
internal environment in which the game is played, but not the external environment. There is currently
limited publications that have explored the application of this particular approach.
***Insert figure 2. near here!***
A significant portion of research exploring pre-performance routines in sport has focused
on the behavioural and temporal characteristics of the routines. As a result, recommendations
have in the main focused on developing consistency in both. Crews and Boutcher’s (1986) study
of elite golfers highlighted that consistency of the timing and behavioural characteristics were
key to the eventual impact of the routine itself. Indeed Crews and Boutcher (1986) advocated
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that the timing of the routines was essential with expert players taking longer to execute their
routine at both putting and full swing shots. Extending this contention, Boutcher (1990)
recommended that performers should assess the consistency of their pre-performance routines by
time analysis. Douglas and Fox (2002) further argued that professional golfers drill themselves to
perform a pre-shot routine regardless of the situation, contending that this factor may actually
distinguish the very best and highly competent professional golfers. This very prescriptive
approach has been questioned by a number of authors including Cotterill (2008), Holder (2003),
and Jackson and Baker (2001). Jackson and Baker suggested that although consistency in the
sequence of behaviours is important, other factors such as task difficulty significantly influenced
the duration of the routine. Holder (2003) emphasized that the most critical feature of the
application of pre-performance routines is their individualization, highlighting that what
performers do, as opposed to how long it takes them, is key. Cotterill (2008) further endorsed
this ‘individualized’ approach advocating that each routine should be modelled around the needs
of the individual performer. Going one step further Cotterill (2008) suggested that a generic
template for the routine, based upon the psychological demands, was crucial. This suggestion
was made specifically with golf in mind where research had indicated that golfers utilised
different behavioural and temporal routines for different shot types. This solution offers the
opportunity to develop one routine which could be applied differently depending on the task
demands.
Pre-performance routines for learners and novices
Lidor and Singer (2000) suggested that in order to effectively use pre-performance
routines in sport one should acquire the technique(s) as early as possible in the process of
learning the relevant skills. However, they also highlighted that at the time the current literature
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did not provide any recommendations regarding (1) how to teach them to learners, (2)
incorporating the routine with successful performance, or (3) integrating routines into
competitive situations. Lidor and Singer (2000) sought to rectify this by suggesting their
guidelines for pre-performance phases. These phases, outlined in table 2. Include: readying,
focusing attention, and evaluating. Lidor and Mayan (2005) suggested that another benefit of
developing pre-performance routines early in the learning process assisted in developing a plan
of action and activating appropriate physical and cognitive processes. This suggests that learners
“would then know more about how to manage their own cognitive processes and how to analyze
themselves and situational demands” (p.360). Further detailed exploration of individual cases of
a longitudinal nature here would provide a greater insight into the teaching and development of
routines from novice through to expert. Regarding the learning and development of pre-
performance routines, the views, perceptions and understanding of the coach / instructor have
been widely overlooked. Coaches influence and mould the development of pre-performance
routines but where does their knowledge and understanding originate? How do coaches teach
and develop routines? Future research should look to answer these questions and explore the
impact that the coach has on the routines’ development and the performers understanding of
routine importance and function.
***Insert table 2. near here***
Approaches to measuring, quantifying, and understanding routines
There are a number of research approaches that have been utilised to explore pre-performance
behaviours, techniques and strategies in sport. Specifically, research has focused on recording the
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duration, order and instances of certain categories of behaviours, measured attention-related events using
psychophysiology, and explored the psychological techniques and strategies utilised by players through
direct interviews.
Behavioural / temporal description
Wrisberg and Pein (1992) suggested that in order to study pre-performance routines
meaningfully the researcher must decide how to quantify them. Previous measures exploring pre-
performance behaviour in sport have focused on measuring the frequency, duration and
consistency of the participants’ behaviours prior to, and during the execution of performance. For
example, Boutcher and Zinsser (1990) in their study exploring cardiac deceleration in elite and
beginning golfers during putting, specifically looked at the number of practice swings and the
number of glances at the hole of participants. A similar approach was adopted also by Cotterill
and Collins (2003), Crews and Boutcher (1986), and, Douglas and Fox (2002), who used a
modified version of events recording (Siedentop, 1983), including a number of discrete
behavioural actions (practice swings, waggles and glances at the target or hole) occurring pre and
post shot; the number of actions; their order; and certain time aspects. Jackson (2001), and
Jackson and Baker (2003) followed similar guidelines in recording the glances at the posts and
number of steps in rugby penalty kicking. This approach involves the recording of the type and
sequence of behaviours and actions that a performer demonstrates whilst executing their pre-
performance routine. Categorizing all observed behaviours is important to reduce the overall
number of variables. The sequence and duration of these behaviours are important to understand
whether performers are doing the same things in the same order prior to performance. This can
then be explored in relation to good Vs poor performance or elite Vs novice performers.
Recording behaviours also allows the clear identification of the beginning and end of a routine.
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As a result overall durations of the routines can be compared. Taking this a step further, the
relative durations of the discrete behavioural routines can also be compared, in particular
checking for the impact of other variables such as task difficulty on the overall and relative
durations.
Understanding through the participant
A small number of researchers have adopted an interview-based approach to exploring performer
thoughts and perceptions. Vergeer and Hanrahan (1998, p.52) interviewed 16 dancers, asking “what
methods, strategies, and techniques other than physical preparation do you use to train yourself mentally
and emotionally to improve your dancing?” Cohn et al. (1990) used interviews with their 3 male golfers
to discover whether the participants used routines, and how frequent this use was. Lidor and Mayan
(2005) used brief interviews when exploring whether beginners can benefit from pre-performance
routines. However, the focus of this prior research has failed to explore the performer’s views on the
function that their pre-performance fulfilled or the psychological strategies they employed, and more
importantly why they employed them. Jackson and Baker (2001) asked similar questions in their case
study of an elite rugby goal kicker while Cotterill et al. (in-press) conducted a phenomenological
analysis exploring both the function of the routines utilised and the psychological skills employed by
their six elite golfers. Both of these studies have focused on small sample sizes, and as a result, their
generalisability can be questioned. Cotterill et al. (In-press) adopted a ‘think aloud protocol’ similar to
that used by Ericsson and Simon (1993) and further developed by Ram and McCullagh (2003), where
participants were asked to verbalize the underlying cognitive processes relating to specific observed
behaviours. This was achieved using video footage of the pre-performance routines as a prompt.
Direct methods for measuring underlying psychological processes and strategies
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An alternative to the use of self-report measures for studying psychological processes
during preparation for performance can be provided by psychophysiological methods (Hassmen
& Kolvula, 2001). Psychophysiology can be defined as “the scientific study of cognitive,
emotional and behavioural phenomena as related to and revealed through physiological
principles and events” (Cassioppo & Tassinary, 1990, p.ix). This research approach was
supported by Lawton, Hung, Saarela, and Hatfield (1998) who advocated the use of
psychophysiological measures as an effective way of observing, and measuring mental processes
during real-time performance. Lawton et al. (1998) further suggested that this measure could
then be related to the underlying nervous system processes being utilised by the performer during
the pre-performance period.
This particular approach to measuring psychological processes is particularly useful as it
can “provide an objective and relatively non-invasive method of examining the complex
processes involved in sports performance as they take place” (Collins, 2002, p.17). This
approach can provide an unobtrusive, objective and real-time measurement of mental processes
associated with sports performance (Hung, 2002). The psychophysiological methods most suited
to the study of mental processes during ‘real-time’ performance and preparation are the use of
heart rate changes and electroencephalography. Singer (2002) suggested that on the basis of the
psychophysiological evidence to date, which has been obtained primarily in aiming sports,
outstanding athletes and performances could be distinguished from other athletes and
performances in the pre-performance state.
Cardiac deceleration
Cardiac deceleration is a measure of the duration of time between a specific, reoccurring point of
the cardiac cycle and the next corresponding point. Lacey and Lacey (1966) proposed that
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decreases in cardiac activity prior to performance facilitate attentional processes. This was due to
decreased feedback to the brain associated with a decrease in cardiac activity. Janelle, Singer, and
Williams (1999) suggested that when the act requires an internal attentional focus, heart rate
acceleration results in greater cortical activity. Landers, Petruzzello, Slazar, Crews, Kubitz,
Gannon, and Han. (1991) reported that there tends to be a decrease in heart rate during the
preparation and concentration phase related to performing a motor skill.
Boutcher and Zinsser’s’ (1990) study of university golfers measured the inter-beat
intervals (IBI’s) between heartbeats immediately prior to, during and post completing a putting
task. Their results showed that this IBI increased significantly in length prior to performance
indicating a decrease in heart rate. Boutcher and Zinsser’s overall conclusions indicated that there
was a greater cardiac deceleration associated with superior putting performance. Radlo,
Steinberg, Singer, Barba, and Melnikov (2002) also reported that when each performer’s four
best and worst throws were analyzed in conjunction with heart rate, the results showed that a
significant HRD was associated with the best shots. Additionally, the worst shots were associated
with a significant increase in heart rate.
Electrodermal Activity
A small number of studies have used electrodermal indicators to explore cognitive
function. Tremayne & Barry (2001) took electrodermal measurements to cater for the degree of
activation as a potential confounding variable whilst also recording heart-rate data. Guillot,
Collet, Molinaro, and Dittmar (2004) also recorded electrodermal activity, specifically recording
skin resistance and potential blood flow, skin temperature, and heart rate.. Guillot et al. (2004)
reported that a major negative skin potential response was found in concentration and shooting
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phases for best shots. Suggesting that there could be a link between the autonomic nervous
system and good performance.
Electroencephalography
Electroencephalography (EEG) uses electrodes attached to the scalp to record the changes
in electrical potential, which accompany peripheral nerve activity in the brain. This measure is
then used as an indicator of neural function. Lawton et al. (1998) concluded that there is a fairly
widespread decrease in cerebral activity when preparing immediately to perform motor tasks.
Specific cortex areas of interest are the occipital, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain.
Salazar, Landers, Petruzzello, Han, Crews, and Kubitz (1990) reported that when four best and
worst archery shots were compared, increases in alpha activity in the left hemisphere were
related to poorer performance.
Crews, Lutz, Nilsson and Marriott (1998) in their study exploring psychophysiological
indicators during golf putting suggested that EEG measures of automatic, successful
performance confirm that low levels of activity exist in various areas of the brain immediately
prior to initiating the stroke during the golf putt. These results appeared to reinforce previous
findings (Crews & Landers, 1993; Hatfield, Landers, & Ray, 1984) that suggested that increased
alpha activity was related to reduced error, and a quieting of the left hemisphere appears
important for successful performance. Understanding EEG data in relation to the pre-
performance period would offer a greater understanding of the psychological strategies employed
by performers.
Various recent studies have explored the alpha power characteristics exhibited by sports
performers in various environments. Janelle, Hillman, Apparies, Murray, Meili, Fallon, and
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Hatfield (2000) reported that expert marksmen exhibited a significant increase in left hemisphere
alpha power (a more relaxed state) compared with the right hemisphere, as well as asymmetrical
patterns of alpha and beta activity in both hemispheres. Landers, Han, Salazar, Petruzzello,
Kubitz, and Gannon (1994) reported that the amounts of alpha activity across both hemispheres
at the beginning of learning were relatively low. However, as the participants become more
skilled, an increase in alpha activity was evident in the left hemisphere while activity in the right
hemisphere remained constant. All of these studies suggest a link between alpha power,
particularly in the left hemisphere, and the pre-performance state.
While attention concerns the selection of input to the organism, intention refers to the
selection of output (O’Connor, 1981). The perception of objects requires attention to external
space with the consequent peripheral feedback, control of action depends on the implementation
of internal plans and can be a feed forward process (Hoff & Arbib, 1992). This implies the
organism is looking ahead towards a new state, the representation of which steers the
transformation until its completion (Jeannerod, 1994). The intention mode of behaviour probably
uses feed-forward control, based on centrally stored instructions, to monitor the relationship
between the actual and predicted trajectories (Loze, Collins, & Shaw, 1999). When a task being
performed is well known to the individual and is performed in a predictable environment there is
a change from attentional control to intentional control. Prior to performance there is a shift from
the external environment to the internal environment. In essence there is a shift from attention to
external sensory stimulus to an intentional state. This intentional state refers to the selection of
motor output prior to skill execution based on an internal representation of the skill and the
appropriate action(s) necessary for a successful performance (Jeannerod, 1994).
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The shift to intention is reflected in EEG. Alpha power has been shown to reflect the level
of visual attention to external stimuli. Due to the decrease in processing of external sensory
information there is an increase in alpha frequency and power in the occipital and parietal cortex.
In target sports this shift from attention to intention is generally acknowledged as occurring 2.5
seconds prior to trigger release. This shift however, is individualistic and dependent on task
difficulty. Loze, Collins and Holmes (2001) in a study with elite shooters examined the pre-shot
occipital EEG alpha-power activity of elite air-pistol shooters. Specifically they selected the best
and worst 5 shots for each shooter based on four indicators of shot quality, which were either
outcome based or rated by experts. Loze et al. (2001) found that pre-shot alpha power increased
through epochs 1 to 3 prior to best shots, but decreased prior to worst shots. They also found that
alpha power was also significantly greater during the final pre-shot epochs of the best shots. This
implies that prior to best performance in closed skill tasks there is an increase in occipital alpha
power immediately prior to performance. This indicates that achieving this state is essential to
achieving optimal performance levels. Comparing the preparatory stages of good and poor
performance in golf could offer an insight into exactly what the optimal cognitive state prior to
performance is and possibly how the performer can achieve the required psychological state prior
to performance. A logical next step, in the use of hear rate and EEG methods, is to explore the
potential coupling between psychophysiological indicators and specific routine behaviours and
thought patterns.
Gaps in current knowledge and directions for future research
Pre-performance routines have been well observed and described. Future research needs
to go beyond this point. The first step is to develop a clear understanding of what function
routines actually fulfil. One approach here will be the adoption of qualitative methodologies to
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explore the thoughts feelings and understanding of the performers who so readily use pre-
performance routines as a core component of their performance. More mixed study designs are
also required to test some of the hypothesized functions of the routine such as enhancing the
recall of psychological and physiological states (Marlow et al., 1998) and acting as a trigger for
well-learnt movement patterns (Crews & Boutcher, 1987; Moran, 1996).
There has been extensive description of the behaviours that constitute the routines used
by performers, specifically focusing on behaviour frequency, consistency and temporal
components. The associated mental skills or processes underpinning these behaviours have
received much less attention. Are these mental skills as consistent as these physical behaviours?
Do they link / couple with the behaviours or are they separate? How does the use of these skills
and strategies evolve over time, are they taught or do they develop independently? On this last
point, study designs that are more longitudinal in nature would be welcome. Specifically, a
greater insight into the teaching and development of routines from novice through to expert is
needed. Regarding the learning and development of pre-performance routines the views,
perceptions and understanding of the coach / instructor have been widely overlooked. However,
the coach is often cited as a key influence on the performers skill development and consistency.
How do coaches teach and develop routines? Future research should look to answer these
questions and explore the impact that the coach has on the development of routines and
performers’ understanding of their importance and function. Finally, researchers should seek to
explore potential relationships between psychophysiological indicators, behaviour components,
and reported mental components of pre- performance routines.
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Focusing
Imaging Executing
Readying Evaluating
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 4
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PRACTICE PREPARATION PERFORMANCE ANAYSIS
goal setting imagery attentional control self-talk
relaxation automaticity emotional
control
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Table 1. Summary of experimental studies exploring pre-performance routines in sport.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Study Participants Routine Conditions / task Results
Hall & Erffemeyer (1983) 10 female inter Use of visuomotor behaviour rehearsal Use of Visuomotor behaviour rehearsal
collegiate basketball relaxation phase, visualization of a stressful enhanced free-throw performance.
players. event, and performance in a simulated stressful
situation.
Crews & Boutcher (1986) 30 Undergraduates Routines included two practice swings, visualization Trained males had higher post training scores
(17 male, 13 female) Of a line from target to the ball, setting the club next to than the control group, but this was not
in a beginners golf class. the ball, one glance to the target, setting grip, setting feet, replicated for females.
one more glance at the target, then executing the swing.
Lobmeyer & Wasserman University basketball 2 conditions: i) normal responses and routines before each shot Free-throw accuracy was higher for the normal
(1986) players (12 male,15 ii) without preparatory routine. condition compared to the without condition.
female), High School
basketball players
(10 male, 6 female).
Crews & Boutcher (1987) 12 Lady Pro tour 2 routines used: i) Full-swing routine (stand behind the ball, move All golfers very consistent in their behaviours.
Players. beside the ball, setting the club behind the ball and glance at target, The more successful players had longer
Setting stance, three waggles and two glances at the target, execute pre-shot routines.
The swing. ii) putting routine (stand behind ball, move beside ball, two
Practice swings, setting the club behind ball with a glance at the target
Setting stance, two glances at the target, execute the shot.
Boutcher & Crews (1987) 12 collegiate golfers 2 conditions: routine & control. Routines involved focusing on specific Both male and female routine groups
(6 male, 6 female). cues and actions, such as practice swings. significantly increased time but decreased
variability.
Southard, Miracle & 10 University 2 conditions: i) ritual (unlimited time and freedom of movement prior to Results suggested that the duration of
Landwer (1989) basketball players. free-throw attempt. Ii) Non-ritual (shooting without any movements behaviours was most important to free throw
Other than performing the action under a restricted time period. shooting success.
Wrisberg & Anshel (1989) 40 junior athletes Participants used either i) mental imagery, ii) an arousal adjustment Mental imagery combined with arousal
Male (10.2-12.4yrs). strategy, iii) a combined imagery and arousal adjustment strategy. Adjustment enhanced free-throw performance.
Gayton, Cielinski, 25 male high school 2 conditions: i) pre-shot routine (players used their normal routines) A greater number of baskets were scored in the
Francis-Keniston & basketball players. ii) no routine (shot with no preparation). routine condition when compared to the no
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Hearns (1989) routine condition.
Boutcher & Zinsser 30 golfers (15 elite, Total duration of pre-shot behaviours, duration of time club was Elite golfers had longer more complicated
(1990) 15 beginner). stationary behind the ball, number of practice swings and glances pre-shot behaviours, but were more
at the hole were recorded. consistent when compared to the beginners.
Cohn, Rotella & Lloyd 3 elite collegiate golfers. Behavioural routine: alignment with target, posture, consistent ball No immediate improvements were recorded,
(1990) positions. Cognitive routine: decision on, and commitment to club however, participants did feel the intervention
selection, type of shot to be played, position of the target. had a positive effect on performance.
Wrisberg & Penn (1992) 224 intermural and The length of the pre-shot interval scores and free throw percentages Higher percentage shooters maintained a higher
Collegiate basketball were recorded. level of temporal constancy in executing their
players. PPRs than lower percentage shooters.
Predebon & Docker 30 baskeball players 3 conditions: i) No routine (asked just to shoot with no preparation The imagery group performed the best, followed
(1992) minimum 5 years ii) routine (asked to sight the basket, bounce the ball three times by the routine group, and the no-routine group.
experience. and shoot). iii) Imagery / physical condition (asked to imagine the shot
sequence first without the ball, then with the ball.
Southard & Miracle (1993) 8 female University 4 conditions: i) standard free-throw ritual, ii) maintaining the relative Relative timing of behaviours (rhythmicity) is
basketball players. timing of ritual but reducing overall duration by half, iii) maintaining more important to performance than the
timing but doubling overall duration, iv) Same behaviour and overall absolute timing of pre-performance rituals.
duration but relative durations were altered.
Hill & Borden (1995) 31 male league bowlers. Pre-test – post test design 2 conditions, i) control, ii) experimental who Attentional cueing group scored significantly
were exposed to a generic attentional cueing script, which was to be higher than the control group.
used whilst delivering the ball.
Southard & Amos (1996) 7 male varsity sportsmen. All participants participated in golf, basketball, and tennis rituals and Significant correlations were determined to
performances. exist between relative timing and success.
Beauchamp, Halliwell, 65 junior college 3 conditions: i) Cognitive-behavioural group (sport analysis phase, Cognitive-behavioural group demonstrated
Fourier & Koestner students on an intro individual assessment phase, motivation phase, integration of mental improved performance, motivation, and routine
(1996) golf class. skills and evaluation. ii) Physical Skill group (emphasized the physical usage.
skill and mechanics of putting.
Marlow, Bull, Heath & 3 male water polo Each player developed a PPR including a concentration cue, a Results suggested a positive change
Shambrook (1998) players. relaxation cue, imagery cue and cue word. immediately following PPR introduction.
Jackson & Baker (2001) 1 elite rugby kicker. Physical preparation time and concentration time measured. Physical Both concentration time and physical prep time
prep time from when ball left the kickers hand to the end of physical increased with task difficulty. A number of
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prep period, concentration time then the time from the end of physical different psychological skills were also used to
prep time to initiation of the kick. prepare.
Calmels & Fournier 12 elite female 2 conditions: i) execution of gymnastic floor routine, ii) rehearsal of the Mental movement time was longer than physical
(2001) gymnasts. routine mentally only. movement time as task difficulty increased.
Mack (2001) 17 male intercollegiate 4 conditions: i) normal routine and duration, ii) normal routine and Altering the movements had a significant effect
basketball players. altered duration, iii) altered routine and normal duration, on performance, but duration did not.
iv) altered routine and altered time.
McCann, Lavallee, & 28 male golfers & 28 6 experimental groups both golfers and non golfers allocated to: Only significant improvements in performance
Lavallee (2001) male non-golfers. i) no practice, ii) physical practice, iii) physical practice and a for non-golfer group (iii).
Cognitive-behavioural routine.
Radlo, Steinberg, Singer, 20 male novice dart Participants split into 2 groups: i) internal attentional focus (thinking Results indicated that an external attentional
Barba & Melnikov (2002) throwers. about the feel of the dart, drawing the dart back, the bend in the elbow, strategy is associated with more ideal
The feel of the dart leaving the fingers), ii) External attentional focus psychophysiological responses than an
(focus on the dart board, and throw the dart at the focus). internal focus.
Jackson (2003) 20 elite rugby kickers. Physical preparation time and concentration time measured. Physical Players had longer concentration times and
prep time from when ball left the kickers hand to the end of physical shorter physical prep times when scores were
prep period, concentration time then the time from the end of physical close, no difference between best and worse
prep time to initiation of the kick. kickers on routine time, consistency or
rhythmicity.
Lidor & Mayan (2005) 60 novice female Participants taught 2 variations of PPRs when learning to serve in Motor-emphasized learners were more
volleyball players volleyball: i) motor-emphasized, ii) cognitive emphasized. accurate than cognitive-emphasized learners
in retention trials.
Foster, Weigand, & 22 male basketball 2 conditions: i) control (superstitious behaviour), ii) experimental very little difference reported between the
Baines (2008) players. (developed PPR consisting of a concentration cue, a relaxation cue, superstitious behaviour and PPR groups.
imagery, and a cue word.
Lonsdale & Tam (2007) 15 pro basketball Total routine duration was recorded for each free-throw. Recorded No difference based on the duration of the
players. from when the player received the ball from the referee until release. routine, but differences were observed
depending on behavioural consistency.
Haddad & Tremayne 5 talented junior 2 conditions: baseline and experimental. Experimental group Results suggested the use of centering may
(2009) basketball players. received training in centering. be beneficial as part of the PPR.
PPR – pre-performance routine
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Table 2. Guidelines for pre-performance phases (Lidor & Mayan, 2005).
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Psychological
foundation
Readying (mechanical ,
mental, and emotional)
Focusing attention Evaluating
Emphasis Directing thoughts and
emotions to create an optimal
state for learning and/or
performing
Selecting a relevant external
cue and focusing intently on it
Using self-feedback for
analysis and subsequent
improvement
Guidelines • Establishing a consistent
basic position
• Feeling comfortable
• Generating +ve thoughts and
emotions about performance
expectations
• Developing confidence
Developing awareness
• Visualising best
performance
• Feeling the movements
• Developing awareness of
body parts.
• Focusing attention on one
situational cue or thought
• Maintaining this focus
• Blocking out internal
distractions
• Blocking out external
distractions
• Executing with a quiet mind.
• Judging the outcome of
the performance
• Assessing the processes
and strategies that produced
the movement
• Determining better ways
to perform in the future
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