The effect of chalk on the finger–hold friction coefficient in rock climbing

Abstract

The main purpose of this study was to examine the effect of chalk on the friction coefficient between climber's fingers and two different rock types (sandstone and limestone). The secondary purpose was to investigate the effects of humidity and temperature on the friction coefficient and on the influence of chalk. Eleven experienced climbers took part in this study and 42 test sessions were performed. Participants hung from holds which were fixed on a specially designed hang board. The inclination of the hang board was progressively increased until the climber's hand slipped from the holds. The angle of the hang board was simultaneously recorded by using a gyroscopic sensor and the friction coefficient was calculated at the moment of slip. The results showed that there was a significant positive effect of chalk on the coefficient of friction (+18.7% on limestone and +21.6% on sandstone). Moreover sandstone had a higher coefficient of friction than limestone (+15.6% without chalk, +18.4% with chalk). These results confirmed climbers' belief that chalk enhances friction. However, no correlation with humidity/temperature and friction coefficient was noted which suggested that additional parameters should be considered in order to understand the effects of climate on finger friction in rock climbing.

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The effect of chalk on the finger–hold
friction coefficient in rock climbing
Arif Mithat Amca a , Laurent Vigouroux b , Serdar Aritan a & Eric
Berton b
a Biomechanics Research Group, School of Sport Sciences and
Technology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
b Institute of Movement Sciences, CNRS UMR 7287, Aix-Marseille
University, Marseille, France
Version of record first published: 03 Oct 2012.
To cite this article: Arif Mithat Amca, Laurent Vigouroux, Serdar Aritan & Eric Berton (): The
effect of chalk on the finger–hold friction coefficient in rock climbing, Sports Biomechanics,
DOI:10.1080/14763141.2012.724700
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The effect of chalk on the finger –hold friction coefficient
in rock climbing
ARIF MITHAT AMCA
1
, LAURENT VIGOUROUX
2
, SERDAR ARITAN
1
,&
ERIC BERTON
2
1
Biomechanics Research Group, School of Sport Sciences and Technology, Hacettepe University,
Ankara, Turkey, and
2
Institute of Movement Sciences, CNRS UMR 7287, Aix-Marseille University,
Marseille, France
(Received 30 November 2011;accepted 15 August 2012)
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was to examine the effect of chalk on the friction coefficient between
climber’s fingers and two different rock types (sandstone and limestone). The secondary purpose was
to investigate the effects of humidity and temperature on the friction coefficient and on the influence of
chalk. Eleven experienced climbers took part in this study and 42 test sessions were performed.
Participants hung from holds which were fixed on a specially designed hang board. The inclination of
the hang board was progressively increased until the climber’s hand slipped from the holds. The angle
of the hang board was simultaneously recorded by using a gyroscopic sensor and the friction coefficient
was calculated at the moment of slip. The results showed that there was a significant positive effect of
chalk on the coefficient of friction (þ18.7% on limestone and þ21.6% on sandstone). Moreover
sandstone had a higher coefficient of friction than limestone (þ15.6% without chalk, þ18.4% with
chalk). These results confirmed climbers’ belief that chalk enhances friction. However, no correlation
with humidity/temperature and friction coefficient was noted which suggested that additional
parameters should be considered in order to understand the effects of climate on finger friction in
rock climbing.
Keywords: Climber, hang board, humidity, temperature, magnesium carbonate
Introduction
During the last decade, the popularity of rock climbing has grown rapidly and this sport is
now pursued by many as a professional or recreational activity. In rock climbing, climbers
maintain body equilibrium and evolve on vertical supports by applying high-intensity forces
with the hands and fingers. The inability to maintain contact with the handholds is one of the
main reasons for failure in rock climbing (Watts et al., 2000). Consequently, the capacity to
exert high-intensity forces with the fingertips and the capability to resist finger muscle fatigue
are recognized as characteristics of highly skilled climbers (Grant et al., 1996; Quaine et al.,
2003). Moreover, the interaction between fingers and the hold surface is an important
ISSN 1476-3141 print/ISSN 1752-6116 online q2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2012.724700
Correspondence: Arif Mithat Amca, School of Sport Sciences and Technology, Hacettepe University, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara,
Turkey, E-mail: amithat@hacettepe.edu.tr
Sports Biomechanics
2012, iFirst article, 1–7
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determinant of performance, especially on small holds with limited area available for finger
placement (Bourne et al., 2011) and/or on sloper holds (i.e. holds with a flat inclined surface
relative to the horizontal axis). The rock climbing community has recognized that this
finger– hold interaction is highly influenced by transpiration, rock type, ambient
temperature, and humidity. To increase the finger – hold friction coefficient, climbers use
‘chalk’ (mainly, magnesium carbonate or MgCO
3
) to reduce moisture on the hands.
The skin friction coefficient has been investigated by several studies in both dynamic and
static cases (Comaish & Bottoms, 1971; El-Shimi, 1977; Highley et al., 1977; Nacht et al.,
1981; Adams et al., 2007; Derler et al., 2007, 2009a, 2009b; Savescu et al., 2008; Andre
´et al.,
2009). Friction coefficients from different parts of the body were examined parallel to the
effects of various probes (nylon, glass, teflon, steel, etc.) and/or conditions (hydration,
lubricants, moisturizers, etc). Surprisingly, only one study has been conducted to analyse the
effect of chalk on the friction coefficient of finger –rock contact (Li et al., 2001) in which three
types of rock (sandstone, slate, and granite) and four different hand conditions (dry, dry plus
chalk, wet, and wet plus chalk) were studied. Li et al. (2001) used a specially designed table
and followed the ‘beginning slip’ method to measure the friction coefficient between the finger
skin and rock samples. Thus different rock type surfaces were connected to a 3.5-kg load and
subjects were asked to apply vertical fingertip forces on these surfaces to prevent slippage
followed by reduction of normal force till slip. These authors repor ted that using chalk reduces
the static coefficient of friction, which is in total contradiction with the climbers’ belief.
However, the design they used was not specific to rock climbing and the resistant force (3.5 kg
hanging weight and 29 N tangential forces) was very small compared to real situations in
rock climbing where forces could be as large as the body weight. This point is of importance
since the skin and the pulp of human finger tips have viscoelastic material properties (Sivamani
et al., 2003; Derler et al., 2009a). Depending on the applied load, the fingertips change their
form and their characteristics, which directly influence the friction coefficient (Andre
´et al.,
2009; Derler et al., 2009a; Warman & Ennos, 2009). In spite of the importance of these
parameters, no design exists to investigate the finger friction in rock climbing and the precise
effects of magnesium carbonate and ambient climate are still unknown.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of chalk on the friction coefficient
between the climber’s fingers and climbing holds. As climbers practice in various climate
conditions and on various rock types, the effect of chalk was tested in a wide range of
temperature – humidity conditions and on two different rock characteristics. It was
hypothesized that, in line with most climbers’ perception, chalk would increase the
finger– hold friction coefficient.
Methods
Eleven (10 males and 1 female) experienced climbers participated in this study:
mass ¼73.9 ^6.3 kg, height ¼178.7 ^4.2 cm, and climbing experience ¼9.6 ^5.0
years. Prior to testing, they were informed about the testing procedure and signed a
voluntary participation form according to the University Guidelines. Tests were performed
on several different days and conducted outside in a wide range of weather conditions
(temperature range: 11.9– 28.08C; relative humidity range: 28.5 – 75.9%; Table I) in order to
incorporate the real weather conditions encountered during sport climbing. Temperature
and humidity values were measured at each session by using a digital thermo-hygrometer
(Temperature Station, Conrad Electronics, Barking, UK). A total of 42 sessions were
recorded (one session is defined as tests for all conditions of chalk and rock type for a
subject).
A.M. Amca et al.2
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Experimental protocol
A specially designed hang board, consisting of a wooden plate hinged on a fixed frame and a
fastened wooden step bar, was designed and used in this study (Figure 1). Two pairs of
handholds (5.5 cm depth and 10.5 cm width) with flat surfaces were fixed on the wooden
step bar about shoulder width apart. The holds were issue from the Mediterranean coast and
they were representative of sandstone and limestone rock types. The hang board was
articulated on its base in order to gradually change the angle of the holds using a pulley rope
system.
Participants hung from the same pair of holds with straight arms as their natural position.
They hung with only their four fingers (slope grip technique); the thumb was not used to
apply a counter force. The inclination of the hang board was then increased continuously
with a mean speed of 8.0 ^4.0 deg/s until the subjects slipped from the holds. During this
process participants were asked to hang on the holds as they do during rock climbing. They
were required to maintain arm and body positions. This was controlled visually and trials
were repeated if participants changed the test position. When they slipped from the hold, a
short rest was given before they continued with the next tests and conditions. When
participants released the hold voluntarily before the involuntary slip point the data were
ignored and the trial was repeated. Participants were allowed to practice several times until
they were accustomed with the task and the test design. Sandstone and limestone were tested
and three trials were done for each rock type and chalk conditions (with and without chalk).
The sequence of hold types and chalk conditions was randomized for each experimental
session. Chalk was used by subjects as it is a common practice in climbing; by utilizing a
Figure 1. Side and front view of the designed hang board. A wooden bar screwed on the wooden plate and two pairs
of sandstone (S) and limestone (L) handholds with flat surfaces were fixed on this wooden bar about shoulder width
apart. Angle of the hang board was progressively increased until the climbers slipped from the holds.
Table I. Temperature and humidity data (N¼42).
Temperature (8C) % Humidity
Mean 18.7 47.9
Standard deviation 5.1 11.5
Minimum 11.9 28.5
Maximum 28.0 75.9
The effect of chalk in rock climbing 3
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chalk bag. Holds were cleaned with a brush after each session. Furthermore, the subjects’
hands were cleaned with water and dried with a towel followed by shaking hands in the air
before each test without chalk. A gyroscopic sensor (Animazoo IGS-190, Brighton, UK) was
fixed on the moving plate to measure the angle of the hang board. The gyroscopic sensor
was calibrated as zero for the starting vertical position, and angular displacement data were
recorded with Animaview software (Animazoo) at a sample rate of 60 Hz.
Data analysis
The slip angle was determined by processing the recorded angle data for each trial (Figure 2).
The coefficient of friction was defined as the ratio between tangential force and normal force
at the moment of slip (i.e. the tangent of slip angle; Sivamani et al., 2003). The results
of each trial were analyzed individually in order to determine the coefficient of friction.
All computation procedures were performed in MATLAB (The Math Works, Inc.,
Natick, MA, USA).
Statistics
The average value of the three trials of a subject in a condition was considered for
statistical analysis. All results were reported as means and standard deviations. Normality of
the collected data was verified. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyse
the effect of hold type and chalk condition on maximal slip angle. A Tukey post hoc test was
used to identify differences when ANOVA showed a significant effect ( p,0.05). A multiple
regression model was used to analyse the relationship between the temperature, humidity,
and the friction coefficient for each condition (hold type and chalk condition). Statistical
analyses were performed using Statistica (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA).
Results
In all the measurements, the coefficient of friction ranged from 0.47 to 1.14 (Figure 3).
The mean coefficients of friction value on limestone were 0.64 ^0.10 without chalk and
0.76 ^0.09 with chalk. The sandstone coefficients were 0.74 ^0.10 and 0.90 ^0.10,
respectively. There was a significant effect of chalk on the coefficient of friction (F
1,41
¼85.2;
p,0.001). The positive effect of chalk was 18.7% and 21.6% for limestone and sandstone,
respectively. The coefficient of friction also differed significantly according to the hold type
(F
1,41
¼447.5; p,0.001). The mean coefficient of friction increased by 15.6% without
Figure 2. Typical recording of the angle data for one representative test. Slip angle was determined as the maximum
angle of the trial.
A.M. Amca et al.4
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chalk and 18.4% with chalk between limestone and sandstone. Also a significant interaction
between hold type and chalk condition was found (F
1,41
¼20.6; p,0.001).
The multiple regression models showed no significant correlation between humidity,
temperature and friction coefficient ( p.0.05 and r
2
,0.3).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of chalk on the friction coefficient between
climber’s fingers and two commonly encountered rock types during rock climbing. In addition,
various temperature and humidity conditions were investigated to observe their combined
effects on the friction coefficient. In this study, a new experimental design was proposed to
measure the friction coefficient of the fingers as encountered during rock climbing. This design
was close to the real rock climbing conditions and it enabled us to measure the friction
coefficient of hold–fingers contact under loads resulting from full body weight.
The main result of our study indicated that there was a significant positive effect of chalk
on the friction coefficient for both rock types. This result was in contradiction with the
previous results of Li et al. (2001) which might have been caused by the used load intensity.
Li et al. (2001) used a constant tangential force around 29 N and participants applied normal
forces around 12 N at the moment of slip, while in the present study the contact forces
corresponded to the participants’ body weights (725.3 ^62.2 N). The influence of the
normal force on the friction coefficient of skin has been studied by several authors (Comaish
& Bottoms, 1971; Savescu et al., 2008; Warman & Ennos, 2009). These studies have shown
that the friction coefficient is not constant for fingertips and is modified according to the
applied normal force. This result has also been confirmed for different body parts by several
subsequent studies (El-Shimi, 1977; Derler et al., 2007; Andre
´et al., 2009). Derler et al.
(2009b) concluded that the friction coefficient of bare foot skin systematically decreased
with the normal load applied onto the foot (in the range from 50 to 700 N). This behavior of
skin results from its viscoelastic nature and that the actual contact area changes as a function
of normal load (Derler et al., 2009a; Warman & Ennos, 2009). All these results confirm the
importance of studying the friction coefficient of fingers under force intensities equivalent to
those encountered during rock climbing and explain the differences between conclusions of
the present study and Li et al. (2001). Moreover, the granular layer effect hypothesized by
Figure 3. Mean coefficient of friction values and standard deviations for both rock and chalk conditions.
The effect of chalk in rock climbing 5
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Li et al. (2001) is probably cancelled out by the force intensities encountered during rock
climbing.
While it was shown that the hold– finger contact was improved by chalk, the present study
did not aim to investigate the actual factors which led to these results. Better performance
observed with chalk can be explained by several possible reasons: modifications of the skin
roughness, modification of skin elasticity which enables the fingers to best adapt to the hold
shape and changes in water/sudation elimination behavior. Climbers indeed recognize that
chalk eliminates perspiration and keeps the hands dry. Thus this effect is fundamental to
explaining our results. However, in the literature, it was shown that highly wet or highly dry
skin showed relatively low friction (Highley et al., 1977; Dawson, 1997; Derler et al., 2007;
Andre
´et al., 2009). Therefore an optimal use of the chalk is important in order to keep the
hand in the ideal moisture range.
The rock type effect was also shown in the present study. In accordance with the climbers’
testimonies, it was found that sandstone displayed a higher friction coefficient than
limestone. Also, no cross interaction between rock types and chalk usage was observed; chalk
had a positive effect for both rock types. It appeared that the higher friction coefficient on
sandstone was due to the rougher contact surface compared with limestone. This result was
in accordance with Li et al. (2001) who concluded that sandstone produced a higher
coefficient of friction than granite and slate. They found that the normalized performance of
granite and slate was 0.77 and 0.76, respectively, compared with the performance of
sandstone. Granite and slate were not studied in the current study, but the normalized
limestone performance (0.86) indicated that limestone might have a higher coefficient of
friction than slate and granite. Further studies are required to clarify this result and
investigate the coefficient of friction on other rock types.
The positive effect of chalk and the influence of rock type were verified for a wide range of
outdoor climate conditions. While the correlation among air temperature, humidity, and
friction was investigated, no evidence of linear relationships was found. Absence of
significant correlation could be due to the fact that extremely low or high temperature and
humidity values were not assessed. Moreover, these parameters could not be controlled
independently since the tests were conducted outdoors. The effects of these parameters
could be further investigated by controlling them independently in a climate-controlled
room. In addition, the temperature and humidity of rock and/or skin also need to be
controlled in future studies. As mentioned by Tang and Bhushan (2010), temperature and
humidity conditions affect the water in the skin, which leads to changes of the tribological
and mechanical properties of the skin surface. Thus, the effects of temperature and humidity
on the friction properties of finger skin need to be studied in detail to determine optimum
performance conditions.
In summary, this study is the first to demonstrate the positive effect of chalk for rock
climbing, but some limitations need to be considered: the most important of which concerns
the angular speed of the hang board which varied between trials. Since a large number of
trials were tested randomly it was expected that the different velocities were homogenously
distributed across the conditions and this limit did not affect the conclusions of the study.
The angular speed, however, needs to be controlled in further studies. Another limitation
concerns psychological bias: the participants knew when magnesium chalk was used.
Magnesium chalk has a specific color (white) and a specific consistency which makes a blind
test difficult to perform. Another important point concerns the mechanical characteristics
(rough, polished) and elasticity (compliance) of the climbers’ skin which were shown to be
modified with practice and expertise. These characteristics could change over time and vary
from one individual to another, no attempt was made to control them. It is important to
A.M. Amca et al.6
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further investigate the influence of skin characteristics and to determine how the climbers
should prepare their skin to obtain optimal characteristics.
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