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Effect of Neurofeedback on Variables of Attention in a Large Multi-Center Trial
Abstract
Background: Neurofeedback studies have been criticized for including small numbers of subjects. The effect of SMR-beta neuro-feedback training on the Test of Variables of Attention was evaluated in more than 1,000 subjects from thirty-two clinics.Methods: 1089 subjects (726 children, 324 females, 186 with ADHD or ADD diagnoses) underwent twenty or more sessions of SMR-beta neurofeedback training for attentional and behavioral complaints at thirty-two clinical settings affiliated with EEG Spectrum, Inc. Subjects were evaluated prior to training and at training completion. One hundred and fifty-seven subjects who elected extensive training (forty sessions or more) were tested after both twenty and forty training sessions.Results: Neurofeedback training produced significant improvement in attentiveness, impulse control, and response variability. Significant clinical improvement in one or more measures was seen in eighty-five percent of those subjects with moderate pre-training deficits.Conclusions: Neurofeedback training is effective in remediating atten-tional dysfunction. Nevertheless, large-scale studies with greater control (e.g., wait-list designs) are sorely needed.
... In our early work with ADHD, we moved from Cz to C4 with SMR-band training in 1992, and reliably established that the two hemispheres needed to be trained differently. For many years, the standard protocol became the combination of C3-beta training (15-18 Hz) with C4-SMR (12-15 Hz) for thousands of clinicians (Kaiser & Othmer, 2000). The right-hemisphere placement had a calming influence, while the left-hemisphere training was more activating. ...
... The attempt to discriminate between SMR and beta training was published in two papers (Kaiser and Othmer, 1997;Barnea et al, 2004). Our multi-site retrospective appraisal of the protocol in application to ADHD was published in 2000 (Kaiser and Othmer, 2000). It was mainly families whose children did not do well with medication that were attracted to the training. ...
Clinical work conducted over the last seventeen years at the EEG Institute in Los Angeles and by other neurofeedback providers around the world has demonstrated the utility of extending frequency-based neurofeedback deep into the infra-low frequency (ILF) region, using the method of endogenous neuromodulation described herein. The method is characterized by the absence of any overt reinforcements, which makes it possible to extend the clinical reach to extremely low frequencies. As the training frequency is lowered, the signal becomes more difficult to discriminate, and ultimately it can only be discerned by the brain itself, in the process of endogenous neuromodulation. The method emulates how the brain does skill learning in general: It must observe itself performing the skill, with feedback on its performance. While the immediate target of ILF neurofeedback is enhanced self-regulatory competence--with symptomatic relief and functional recovery the secondary consequences, progressive lowering of the target frequencies has led to improved outcomes in application to challenging dysfunctions such as episodic suicidality, migraine, seizures, and bipolar mood swings. The work has also yielded insights into how the frequency domain is organized. The training proceeds best at frequencies that are specific to each individual, and these are referred to as optimal response frequencies (ORFs). These frequencies differ for various placements but stand in two fixed relationships to one another, one that holds over the EEG spectral range, and another that holds over the entire ILF range. Training in the ILF region engages the dynamics of the glial-neuronal networks, which govern tonic, resting state regulation. The collective clinical experience with ILF neuromodulation within a large practitioner network supports the case for making protocol-based, individualized ‘homeodynamic’ regulation a therapeutic priority, particularly for our most impacted clinical populations: addiction, trauma formations, traumatic brain injury, and the dementias. The case is made for further outcome studies and foundational research.
... The increased theta/beta ratio has been proposed as a characteristic biomarker for CNS underarousal (Mann et al., 1992), whereas the SMR has been classically described as reflecting motor inhibition (Sterman & Friar, 1972;Sterman et al., 1970). The vast majority of EBF studies has been inspired by a two-phase protocol of Lubar et al. (1984), in which participants where first trained to increase their SMR and later to inhibit theta activity while simultaneously increasing beta activity Carmody et al., 2000;Fuchs et al., 2003;Gevensleben et al., 2009;Heywood & Beale, 2003;Holtmann et al., 2009;Kaiser, 1997;Kaiser & Othmer, 2000;Kropotov et al., 2005;La Vaque et al., 2002;Leins et al., 2007;Levesque et al., 2006;Linden et al., 1996;J.F. Lubar et al., 1995;Monastra et al., 2002;Rossiter, 2004;Rossiter, 1998;Rossiter & La Vaque, 1995;Strehl et al., 2006;Thompson & Thompson, 1998). ...
... F. Lubar & Shouse, 1976) reported improved attention and normalized levels of arousal, together with improved grades and achievement scores for the (eight) children under treatment. Subsequent studies have reported similarly positive results, showing improvements of behaviour, attention and impulsivity (Alhambra et al., 1995;Carmody et al., 2000;Drechsler et al., 2007;Gevensleben et al., 2010;Gevensleben et al., 2009;Heinrich et al., 2004;Kaiser & Othmer, 2000;Kropotov et al., 2005;Leins et al., 2007;Linden et al., 1996;J.F. Lubar et al., 1995;J. ...
... On the other hand, there is a vast amount of research regarding the possibility of improving several aspects of cognitive performance through EEG biofeedback training, also known as neurofeedback (Dessy et al. 2018;Naas et al. 2019;Norris and Currieri 1999;Vernon et al. 2003;Yamashita et al. 2017). It is reported that SMR-Beta1 (in the range of 12-18 Hz frequency bands) neurofeedback (NFB) training improves attentional processes in ADHD (Arns et al. 2015;Kaiser and Othmer 2000;Nazari et al. 2011), traumatic brain injury (Keller 2001), autistic (Holtmann et al. 2011) and healthy populations (Gruzelier 2014). Furthermore, it has been suggested that arousal levels might also be increased after SMR-Beta1 neurofeedback training (Faller et al. 2019; Communicated by Francesca Frassinetti. ...
... Over the past four decades research has indicated that NFB training of SMR-Beta1 (12-18 Hz) activity has beneficial effects on the attentional processing and arousal levels of healthy and clinical participants (Kaiser and Othmer 2000;Keller 2001). The feasibility of learned self-regulation via NFB has been reported for EEG frequency components Kamiya 1968;Vernon et al. 2003). ...
The timing ability plays an important role in everyday activities and is influenced by several factors such as the attention and arousal levels of the individuals. The effects of these factors on time perception have been interpreted through psychological models of time, including Attentional Gate Model (AGM). On the other hand, research has indicated that neurofeedback (NFB) training improves attention and increases arousal levels in the clinical and healthy population. Regarding the link between attentional processing and arousal levels and NFB and their relation to time perception, this study is a pilot demonstration of the influence of SMR–Beta1 (12–18 Hz) NFB training on time production and reproduction performance in healthy adults. To this end, 12 (9 female and 3 males; M = 26.3, SD = 3.8) and 12 participants (7 female and 5 males; M = 26.9, SD = 3.1) were randomly assigned into the experimental (with SMR–Beta1 NFB) and control groups (without any NFB training), respectively. The experimental group underwent intensive 10 sessions (3 days a week) of the 12–18 Hz up-training. Time production and reproduction performance were assessed pre and post NFB training for all participants. Three-way mixed ANOVA was carried out on T-corrected scores of reproduction and production tasks. Correlation analysis was also performed between SMR–Beta1 and time perception. While NFB training significantly influenced time production (P < 0.01), no such effect was observed for the time reproduction task. The results of the study are finally discussed within the frameworks of AGM, dual-process and cognitive aspects of time perception. Overall, our results contribute to disentangling the underlying mechanisms of temporal performance in healthy individuals.
... Kaiser and Othmer [55] Hirearical reductionism The concept of reducing phenomena to very basic levels of analysis. OCN provides an additional level of analysis for management studies, i.e., the neural level. ...
p>This paper discusses the dawn of cognitive neuroscience in management and organizational research. The study does that in two tiers: first, it reviews the interdisciplinary field of organizational cognitive neuroscience and second, it analyzes the role organizational cognitive neuroscience (OCN) could play in reducing counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWB). Theoretically the literature has established the benefits of a neuro-scientific approach towards understanding various organizational behaviors but no research has been done on using organizational neuroscience techniques to study counterproductive work behaviors. This paper however has taken the first step towards this research avenue. The study will shed light on this interdisciplinary field of organizational cognitive neuroscience (OCN) and the benefits that organizations can reap from it with respect to understanding employee behavior. A research agenda for future studies is provided to scholars who are interested in advancing the investigation of cognition in counterproductive work behaviors, also by using neuroscience techniques. The study concludes by providing evidences drawn from the literature in favor of adopting an OCN approach in organizations. </p
... An Indian study found significant improvement on sustained attention with neurofeedback than the treatment as usual group (Shereena et al., 2018). Other studies (Bakhshayesh et al., 2011;Chen et al., 2017;Kaiser and Othmer, 2000;Pahlevanian et al., 2017) also showed improvement in inattention symptoms with neurofeedback compared to controls. ...
Background
Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders of childhood. Treatment of ADHD includes medications and Behavioural interventions. Neurofeedback, a type of biofeedback, has been found to be useful in ADHD. It helps patients to control their brain waves consciously. However, it is not yet conclusive if it is efficacious in comparison to behavioural management training and medication.
Aim
To compare the efficacy of neurofeedback training, behaviour management including attention enhancement training and medication in children with ADHD.
Method
Ninety children between 6-12 years with ADHD were taken and randomly divided into 3 treatment groups equally- neurofeedback, behaviour management and medication (methylphenidate). Conners 3-P Short Scale was applied for baseline assessment. The respective interventions were given and follow up was done at the end of 3 months by using Conners 3-P Short scale to assess the improvement in the symptoms. There were 6 dropouts, the final sample size was 84.
Results
The medication group showed the greatest reduction of symptoms in inattention, hyperactivity, executive functioning domain (core symptoms of ADHD). No statistically significant difference was observed between Neurofeedback and Behaviour Management in these domains. Learning problems improved in all three groups, neurofeedback being the most effective followed by medication. Both Neurofeedback and Medication groups showed similar effect which was higher than the Behavioural Management group in Peer Relation.
Conclusion
Improvement in core ADHD symptoms have been observed with all 3 interventions with medication showing the greatest improvement Neurofeedback has been superior for learning problems. Thus, Neurofeedback can be an independent or combined intervention tool for children with ADHD in outpatient department of Psychiatry.
... Differences are distributed in the frontal/central parts and appear to reflect activation of the frontal cortical areas. The use of NFB as an operative conditioning paradigm by the SMR protocol in a study by Kaiser and Othmer 26 showed a significant clinical improvement in attention and impulsivity control in 85% of subjects after NFB training 26 . In the Lubar and Lubar 27 study in children after SMR and beta wave training, all children increased SMR or beta values and decreased slow EEG activity, which was also evident in their spectral strengths regarding increased beta and decreased slow activity and improved school success. ...
Background/Aim. This study aimed to investigate the effect of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) (12-15 Hz) neurofeedback (NFB) training on auditory cognition measured by achievement on the QuickSIN test, changes in the amplitudes and latencies of evoked potentials in auditory oddball discrimination task and changes in the spectral power of the sensorimotor rhythm. Methods. Each of 16 healthy participants aged 25-40 years (8 male) had 20 daily sessions of SMR neurofeedback training. Auditory cognitive functions and electrophysiological correlates of cognitive processing were recorded 5 times: before NFB, after 5, 10, and 20 sessions, and one month after the last session. Results. The results showed a statistically significant decrease in N200 and P300 latencies at Fz, Cz, and Pz regions, improvement on the QuickSIN test and increase in EEG SMR rhythm spectral power in Cz region as a result of NFB SMR training. No significant effect of NFB training on the amplitude of N100, N200 and P300 on Fz, Cz and Pz was found. Conclusion.The obtained results suggest that sensorimotor rhythm training (SMR) neurofeedback (NFB) affects auditory perception in terms of shorter latencies of evoked potentials and better performance on QuickSIN test.
Background/Aim. Sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) neurofeedback training contributes to improving cognitive performance, increasing attention. SMR power is increased when a person is focused and task-oriented. The shorter reaction time of the P300 evoked potentials (AEPs) are associated with better attention. Hence, the increase in SMR power after NFB SMR training should decrease the reaction time in a cognitive task. This study aimed to examine the ability of healthy individuals to modulate the sensorimotor (SM) rhythm of electroencephalographic activity between 12 and 15 Hz during 20-day neurofeedback (NFB) training sessions. In addition, the effect of NFB sensorimotor rhythm training on reaction time (RT) was investigated. Methods. Participants were divided into control and experimental groups, with 24 subjects (12 males) aged between 25 and 40 years. Participants in the experimental group were trained with authentic SM rhythm NFB training, while in the control group false (placebo) training was applied. Auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) were registered on 5 occasions: before NFB training, after 5, 10, and 20 training sessions, and one month after the last training. Results. The results showed that a series of 20 SM rhythm NFB training increases the amplitudes of the SM rhythm. RT in the experimental group was significantly shortened, while in the control group it was not observed. Also, the increase in the power of the EEG signal of the SM rhythm showed a negative correlation with RT, but only in a subgroup of male subjects. Conclusion. The obtained results indicate the effects of NFB training on the improvement of the attention process expressed by reaction time.
This study examined the effects of combined neurofeedback (NF) and visual training (VT) on children with developmental dyslexia (DD). Although NF is the first noninvasive approach to support neurological disorders, the mechanisms of its effects on the brain functional connectivity are still unclear. A key question is whether the functional connectivities of the EEG frequency networks change after the combined NF–VT training of DD children (postD). NF sessions of voluntary α/θ rhythm control were applied in a low-spatial-frequency (LSF) illusion contrast discrimination, which provides feedback with visual cues to improve the brain signals and cognitive abilities in DD children. The measures of connectivity, which are defined by small-world propensity, were sensitive to the properties of the brain electrical oscillations in the quantitative EEG-NF training. In the high-contrast LSF illusion, the z-NF reduced the α/θ scores in the frontal areas, and in the right ventral temporal, occipital–temporal, and middle occipital areas in the postD (vs. the preD) because of their suppression in the local hub θ-network and the altered global characteristics of the functional θ-frequency network. In the low-contrast condition, the z-NF stimulated increases in the α/θ scores, which induced hubs in the left-side α-frequency network of the postD, and changes in the global characteristics of the functional α-frequency network. Because of the anterior, superior, and middle temporal deficits affecting the ventral and occipital–temporal pathways, the z-NF–VT compensated for the more ventral brain regions, mainly in the left hemispheres of the postD group in the low-contrast LSF illusion. Compared to pretraining, the NF–VT increased the segregation of the α, β (low-contrast), and θ networks (high-contrast), as well as the γ2-network integration (both contrasts) after the termination of the training of the children with developmental dyslexia. The remediation compensated more for the dorsal (prefrontal, premotor, occipital–parietal connectivities) dysfunction of the θ network in the developmental dyslexia in the high-contrast LSF illusion. Our findings provide neurobehavioral evidence for the exquisite brain functional plasticity and direct effect of NF–VT on cognitive disabilities in DD children.
A study with three component parts was performed to assess the effectiveness of neurofeedback treatment for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The subject pool consisted of 23 children and adolescents ranging in age from 8 to 19 years with a mean of 11.4 years who participated in a 2-to 3-month summer program of intensive neurofeedback training. Feedback was contingent on the production of 16–20 hertz (beta) activity in the absence of 4–8 hertz (theta) activity. Posttraining changes in EEG activity, T.O.V.A. performance, (ADDES) behavior ratings, and WISC-R performance were assessed. Part I indicated that subjects who successfully decreased theta activity showed significant improvement in T.O.V.A. performance; Part II revealed significant improvement in parent ratings following neurofeedback training; and Part III indicated significant increases in WISC-R scores following neurofeedback training. This study is significant in that it examines the effects of neurofeedback training on both objective and subjective measures under relatively controlled conditions. Our findings corroborate and extend previous research, indicating that neurofeedback training can be an appropriate and efficacious treatment for children with ADHD.
Reviews the literature on the neurotransmitter substrates controlling motor readiness, showing that these substrates produce qualitative changes in the flow of information in the brain: Dopaminergic activation increases informational redundancy, whereas noradrenergic arousal facilitates orienting to novelty. Evidence that these neurotransmitter pathways are lateralized in the human brain is consistent with the left hemisphere's specialization for complex motor operations and the right hemisphere's integration of bilateral perceptual input. Principles of attentional control are suggested by the operational characteristics of neural control systems. The affective features of the activation and arousal systems are integral to their adaptive roles and may suggest how specific emotional processes dynamically regulate cognitive function. (4½ p ref)
This paper presents Wechsler (WISC-R) profiles and changes following the application of an EEG biofeedback treatment regimen for brain-based learning disabilities. EEG biofeedback trained increases in activation (increased amplitude of 14 Hz brainwave energy) of the central and sensorimotor cortex's neural activation network resulted in increases in bihemispheric skills (complementary verbal-expressive and visual-motor abilities) Prerequisite to a successful learning posture, the acquisition of reading, and integration of higher-order learning. Enhanced/normalized academic, physical, and psychophysiological abilities were reflected in changes in brainwave energy signature and WISC-R data. Brainwave signatures and WISC-R profiles “normalised” as a result of training with significant remediation of learning disorders. There was significant growth in WISC-R Full Scale (FS), Verbal, and Performance IQ scores, reflecting improved brain function end resultant test performance, with a “normalisation” of Verbal-Performance IQ anomalies. An inverse relationship was observed between energy levels at 5 Hz and 7 Hz ad pretreatment FSIQ levels. Classic Bannatyne patterns were found to be representative of the learning disabled with pretreatment FSIQ scores within the low-average to high-average intellectual ranges.
Six children were provided with long-term biofeedback and academic treatment for attention deficit disorders. Their symptoms were primarily specific learning disabilities, and, in some cases, there were varying degrees of hyperkinesis. The training consisted of two sessions per week for 10 to 27 months, with a gradual phase-out. Feedback was provided for either increasing 12-to 15-Hz SMR or 16- to 20-Hz beta activity. Inhibit circuits were employed for blocking the SMR or beta when either gross movement, excessive EMG, or theta (4–8 Hz) activity was present. Treatment also consisted of combining the biofeedback with academic training, including reading, arithmetic, and spatial tasks to improve their attention. All children increased SMR or beta and decreased slow EEG and EMG activity. Changes could be seen in their power spectra after training in terms of increased beta and decreased slow activity. All six children demonstrated considerable improvement in their schoolwork in terms of grades or achievement test scores. None of the children are currently on any medications for hyperkinetic behavior. The results indicate that EEG biofeedback training, if applied comprehensively, can be highly effective in helping to remediate children who are experiencing attention deficit disorders.
Eighteen children with ADD/ADHD, some of whom were also LD, ranging in ages from 5 through 15 were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. The experimental condition consisted of 40 45-minute sessions of training in enhancing beta activity and suppressing theta activity, spaced over 6 months. The control condition, waiting list group, received no EEG biofeedback. No other psychological treatment or medication was administered to any subjects. All subjects were measured at pretreatment and at posttreatment on an IQ test and parent behavior rating scales for inattention, hyperactivity, and aggressive/defiant (oppositional) behaviors. At posttreatment the experimental group demonstrated a significant increase (mean of 9 points) on the K-Bit IQ Composite as compared to the control group (p<.05). The experimental group also significantly reduced inattentive behaviors as rated by parents (p<.05). The significant improvements in intellectual functioning and attentive behaviors might be explained as a result of the attentional enhancement affected by EEG biofeedback training. Further research utilizing improved data collection and analysis, more stringent control groups, and larger sample sizes are needed to support and replicate these findings.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego, 1995.
Previous work in cats demonstrated a discrete 12–16 Hz rhythm in sensorimotor cortex (SMR), present only during absence of movement, that could be operantly conditioned. Trained cats were resistant to drug‐induced seizures. Similar biofeedback training procedures were employed with epileptic and nonepileptic human subjects, utilizing lights, tones, and slides. Initially SMR activity was detected only at low voltage by tuned filters. Biofeedback training sessions resulted in a significant increase in this activity after 2 to 3 months. Learned SMR responses in nonepileptic subjects were trains of pure or polyrhythmic 12–16 Hz activity at 20 to 25 μV over central and frontal areas. Although epileptic subjects failed to develop the enhanced SMR amplitude, they did demonstrate increased occurrence of this frequency. Training in four epileptic patients, who previously were not controlled by chemotherapy, was accompanied by a significant reduction of EEG and clinical epileptic manifestations, as indicated by sequential power spectral analysis, clinical EEG records, and seizure logs. Tonic‐clonic and myoclonic seizures were most markedly reduced.
RÉsumé
Des travaux antérieurs chez des chats ont démontré qu'il y a un rythme discret à 12–16 Hz dans le cortex sensorimoteur (SMR) évident seulement au repos mais suceptible d'étre conditioné. Les chats entrainés étaient résistants aux crises provoquées par des drogues. Des procédés analogues de biofeedback training ont été employeś chez des personnes avec ou sans épilepsie, en utilisant des lumières des sons et des diapositives. Au début, le rythme du cortex sensorimoteur était détecté seulement à des bas voltages avec des filtres à sonorisation appropriée. A la suite de séances de biofeedback training, il y avait après 2–3 mois, une augmentation significative de L'activité rythmique des régions sensorimotrices. Chez les sujets sans épilepsies, les activités acquises à la suite de L'apprentissage étaient constituées par des bouffées d'activités mono‐ ou polyrythmique à 12–16 Hz et de 20–25 μV d'amplitude, intéressant les régions centrales et frontales. Bien que les sujets avec épilepsie ne soient pas arriveés à augmenter L'amplitude des rythmes des régions sensorimotrices, ils ont cependant mis en évidence une augmentation quantitative de ces rythmes. Chez 4 sujets avec épilepsie qui avant L'entra înement n'étaient pas contrôlés par les médicaments, on a observéà la suite de L'entraînement une diminution significative des decharges paroxystiques sur L'EEG et des crises diminution objectiveée par L'analyse séquentielle des spectres de puissances et par le compte rendu du nombre des crises. Les crises tonico‐cloniques et myocloniques etaient le plus remarquablement diminuées.
RESUMEN
Estudios previos en gatos nan demostrado que un discreto ritmo de 12 a 16 Hz en la corteza sensorial‐motora (SMR), registrable solamente en ausencia de movimiento, podía ser condicionado. Los gatos entrenados eran resistentes a los ataques inducidos. Un entrenamiento semejante (bio‐feedback) se utilizeó en enfermos epilépticos y en individuos sanos mediante el empleo de luces, tonos y diapositivas. Inicialmente la actividad SMR se registró solamente con voltajes bajos y filtros apropiados. El entrenamiento con retro‐información boilógica (biofeedback) produjo un aumento significativo de esta actividad a los 2 o 3 meses. En individuos sanos, las respuestas SMR aprendidas, se expresaban en forma de trenes de una actividad, pura o polirítmica, de 12 a 16 Hz y de 20 a 25 micro‐voltios en las areas frontal y central. Los enfermos epilépticos mostraron un aumento de estas frecuencias a pesar de que no se pudo conseguir un incremento de la amplitud SMR. En cuatro enfermos epilépticos entrenados sin posible control farmacológico previo, se consiguió una reducción significativa de las manifestaciones clínicas o electroencefalográficas de la epilepsyía, como demostró el análisis espectral secuencial y los trazados clónicos de EEG Los ataques tónico‐clónicos y las mioclónias fueron los que más se redujeron.
ZUSAMMEnfassung
Frühere Untersuchungen bei Katzen liessen einen diskreten 12 bis 16 Hz‐Rhythmus im sensomotorischen Cortex (SMR) erkennen. Er war nur bei Bewegungsruhe vorhanden und konnte konditioniert werden. Trainierte Katzen waren gegenüber medicamentös erzeugten Anfällen resistent. Ahnliche Programme mit biologischem Rückkopplungstraining wurden mit epileptischen und nicht epileptischen Patienten durchgeführt, wobei Licht, Töne und Dias verwendet wurden. Anfangs wurde die SMR.‐Aktivität nur mit niedriger Amplitude durch abgestimmte Filter gefunden. Nach 2 bis 3 Monaten dauerndem Training der biologischen Rückkopplung wurde eine signifikante Zunahme dieser Aktivität gefunden. Bei nicht epileptischen Patienten bestanden die erlernten SMR‐Ant‐worten in Zügen reiner oder polyrhythmischer 12 bis 16 Hz‐Aktivität mit 20 bis 25 μV über den zentralen und frontalen Ableitepunkten. Obwohl epileptische Patienten keine verstärkte SMR‐Amplitude aufwiesen, zeigten sie doch eine vermehrte Häufigkeit dieser Frequenz. Das Training von 4 epileptischen Patienten, deren Anfälle durch Chemotherapie vorher nicht zu kontrollieren waren, wurde von einer signifikanten Verminderung der epileptischen Manifestationen im EEG und klinisch begleitet. Das zeigten die sequentielle Power‐Spektrumanalyse, klinische EEG‐Untersuchugnen und Anfallsaufzeichnungen. Tonisch‐klonische und myoklonische Anfälle wurden am deutlichsten vermindert.