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MPAA Ratings Creep
Abstract
The term “ratings creep” refers to the belief that various types of adult content escalate in films with the same rating over time. The purpose of this study was to test the ratings creep hypothesis through a quantitative analysis of films from 1988, 1997, and 2006 in the PG-13 rating category used by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). A quantitative content analysis of 45 films was conducted, and significant increases in violent content in the PG-13 rating category from Time 1 (1988) to Times 2 (1997) and 3 (2006) were found. However, similar increases in other types of adult content in the PG-13 rating category were not found. Results suggest a leniency toward violent content by the MPAA ratings board that parallels America's parents' greater comfort with children being exposed to violence than other types of adult content—sex, for example—in the unrestricted PG-13 rating category.
... Recent research has found evidence of a phenomenon known as "ratings creep"the process by which adult content is increasingly allowed into non-R rated movies, especially PG-13 movies (e.g. Leone and Barowski 2011;Leone and Houle 2006;Leone and Osborn 2004). Ratings creep is important to study because researchers have argued that things like violent media content may have an effect on criminal behavior (Surette 2013). ...
... While studies have provided an interesting debate on if such content does indeed effect behavior (Ferguson, Miguel, and Hartley 2009;Savage 2004), few studies had focused specifically on ratings creep. Those that have done so tended to focus on the micro level analyses of behavior such as focusing on media watching habits of children and or adults (Leone and Barowski 2011;Leone and Houle 2006;Leone and Osborn 2004). Barranco, Rader, and Smith (2017) expanded this work by focusing on aggregate level data and not only confirmed the occurrence of ratings creep in popular movies, they also offered an explanation for itaudiences are drawn to violent content. ...
... Reactance has been used to explain smoking (e.g., Grandpre et al. 2003;Miller et al. 2006), teenage drinking (e.g., Engs and Hanson 1989;Quick and Bates 2010), and consumption patterns (e.g., Rummel et al. 2000). In a recent analysis, Leone and Barowski (2011) used reactance theory to explain children's desire to view adult content in movies. The authors argue that children are typically told adult content is off-limits, which only works to motivate children to see out this restricted content. ...
Recent research has found a link between the presence of violent content, movie ratings, and ticket sales, but has left several questions unanswered. The current study attempts to answer these questions by examining the level of adult content in 2,094 popular movies between 1992 and 2012. We find that the amount of violent content is a significant predictor of ticket sales, but only in non-R rated movies. Furthermore, we find evidence that violent content has been increasing in non-R rated movies and this increase is likely due to changes in MPAA ratings standards. We discuss the implications of our findings.
... Content analyses of films rated PG-13 from 1988, 1997, and 2006 show a trend toward increased violent content (but not sexual content) in the PG-13 category. 56 What was once R content now passes for PG-13, which concerns parents but benefits the movie industry, since it broadens the film's potential audience. p0325 CARA sponsors a Web site, www.filmratings.com, ...
The research is focused on the analysis of popular Ukrainian-language cartoons, such as "SpongeBob", "Cars", "Shrek", "The Adventures of Tom and Friends", "Speak Ukrainian", and "The Simpsons". The central goal of the study is to study how pejorative vocabulary in cartoons can influence the formation of children's language skills and their worldview. An important component of our work is the analysis of different types of communication in animation and their potential impact on children's perception through the principles of informatization, imitation and identification with characters. We seek to find out how animation, being not only a means of entertainment, but also an important element of artistic socialization, can shape children's ideas about social norms, stereotypes and roles. Pejorative language, which often goes unnoticed by adults, can have a decisive impact on children's development, contributing to the emergence of aggressive behavior patterns and the formation of negative stereotypes. In the context of our research, special attention is paid to cartoons, the speech of the characters of which contains pejorative vocabulary, which requires an in-depth analysis of their impact on children. In addition, the impact of globalization on the Ukrainian cartoon industry through the import of foreign cartoons, which carry cultural values and norms of behavior, often different from the traditions of the Ukrainian socio-cultural context, is considered. Such cartoons can influence the formation of the worldview of Ukrainian children, not always in a positive way. Therefore, our work also emphasizes the need to create high-quality domestic cartoon content that would correspond to national cultural traditions and values. The purpose of such content should be to promote the positive speech and emotional development of children, as well as to form in them an adequate understanding of social norms and values.
Using data obtained from the Common Sense Media website, this study aimed to examine the dynamics that cause differences in age ratings of media content. The study revealed significant differences in age and likability ratings among the raters. Multilevel moderated mediation modeling also showed that the differences in age ratings between the raters were moderated by three content valence variables (extent of negativity, positivity, and consumerism) and that the mediation effects of likability on the rater differences in age ratings were also moderated by the content valence, particularly the extent of negativity and positivity.
Economic policy reform that started in China in early 1980s also affected its movie industry. Like other sectors, movie industry is also not fully liberalized. The industry is required to ensure that movie contents are consistent with core socialist and cultural values and locally produced movies are also financially viable. However, cultural and politically motivated regulation can adversely affect box-office revenues. Using a recently available dataset, which covers the period of 2009-2018, we investigate the box-office performance of Chinese domestic movies. We start by examining the role of movie quality signals (such as star power, internet media evaluation and industry recognition) in our empirical analysis of the relationship between family-friendly content of movies and box-office revenues. We then match the movie contents with its financial performance records. Our novel approach reveals that the explicit sex and profanity in movies have a negative and statistically significant impact on box-office revenues, which confirms the role of cultural values in financial success of motion pictures in China. However, in the case of large-budget movies involving celebrity superstars, the violent and gore (graphic violence) content attracts viewers and hence the box-office revenue increases. Our work highlights the contradictory nature of China’s movie industry policy, which binds the industry to strict cultural and politically motivated regulation while insisting on financial success.
Film censorship in Canada and the United States was similar in the early decades of film, but while the United States moved from state government censorship to industry self-regulated censorship, censorship remains a provincial government responsibility in Canada. In both countries, agencies officially moved from censorship to age classification, but censorship continues. Comparing the histories of classification in both countries shows similar events happened at different times, which may predict industry self-regulated classification coming to Canada. Comparisons of the film classifications issued by six provincial agencies and the film industry in the United States show that Canadian agencies agree on the classification for more than 70% of films, and that Canadian classifications are more liberal than the classifications issued by the American film industry. The findings are consistent with previous studies. The international comparison finding may reflect Canadian liberalism but is more likely the result of the different agency structures. In a democracy, film classification run by the government is responsive and independent. Film classification run by the film industry may be affected by a desire to protect the industry from government classification. The similar classifications among the provinces suggest regional differences are minor. This and other factors lead to the possibility of Canadian provincial film classifications being replaced by the more conservative American industry film classifications.
Adolescents spend many hours per day watching television, and there are racial differences in time spent watching television and in show preferences. Prior research suggests there are also differential associations in how exposure to media content affects adolescent behavior. This study examines the demographic representation of main characters and health risk behaviors (i.e., sex, alcohol use, violence, bullying, and their combinations) portrayed in television content popular with Black and non-Black adolescents. A content analysis of television show characters (n = 377) from the 2014–2015 season was conducted on shows popular with 14–17-year old adolescent audiences in the United States. Group popularity was determined by Nielsen ratings segmented by Black and non-Black (primarily White) adolescents. Results suggest that character representation varies by whether shows were popular with Blacks or others, and that risk portrayals are common in all popular content with few group differences. Implications for adolescent behavior are discussed.
Film classification helps countries meet their obligations to protect children under Article 17(e) of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Classifying films is an administrative proceeding that affects children, by limiting and setting conditions on what they can view. Therefore, children should have their interests represented or otherwise participate, as required by Article 12. This paper researches the degrees and methods of child participation in film classification systems, primarily by a survey of agencies. Based on data from 22 agencies in 17 countries, 73 per cent have some degree of child participation. This ranges from providing a website for children, to children's panels reviewing and discussing classification for pre-screened films. Comparison with other international data sets suggests countries with a high degree of child participation in film classification are those which are generally making good progress implementing children's rights.
Nearly 20 years after the Telecommunications Act of 1996, it is unclear how its mandates influence current parents’ mediation behavior. Parents of 2- to 17-year-old children (N = 1,431) were surveyed about their awareness and perceptions of the TV ratings system and use of the V-chip. Most (81%) parents knew about the ratings system and found it to be only “somewhat useful.” Only 16% of those parents had ever used the V-chip. Ratings awareness and perceptions and V-chip use varied with family characteristics. Policymakers should revisit how to provide better tools for mediating children’s viewing in this new information age.
Disney films have long interested effects researchers, who have consistently shown the "quot;wholesome"quot; image generated by the company is misrepresentative. This content analysis explored tobacco and alcohol exposure in 24 Disney G-rated, animated, feature-length motion pictures from 1937 to 2000 and found 381 incidents of substance use. Over the decades, tobacco use tended to decrease while alcohol use increased. Virtually no antiuse messages were seen in these films directed to young children.
The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) provides ratings for the majority of commercially released films. The MPAA system is based largely on estimates of what types of film content may be offensive to most parents. We identify four assumptions that underlie the current rating system and show how these assumptions are inconsistent with social science research regarding the impact of media portrayals on young viewers. Finally, we offer an alternative scheme based on what is harmful to children rather than what is offensive to parents.
Television portrayals may contribute to the sexual socialization of children and adolescents, and therefore it is important to examine the patterns of sexual content presented on television. This report presents a summary view across three related studies of sexual messages on television. The content examined ranges from programs most popular with adolescents to a comprehensive, composite week sample of shows aired across the full range of broadcast and cable channels. The results across the three studies identify a number of consistent patterns in television's treatment of sexual content. Talk about sex and sexual behaviors are both found frequently across the television landscape, although talk about sex is more common. Most sexual behaviors tend to be precursory in nature (such as physical flirting and kissing), although intercourse is depicted or strongly implied in roughly one of every eight shows on television. Perhaps most importantly, the studies find that TV rarely presents messages about the risks or responsibilities associated with sexual behavior.
The aim of this study was to content analyze 60 of the most popular video games for violence from three gaming systems: Nintendo 64, Sega Dream-Cast, and Sony PlayStation. Games were played for 10-minutes and videotaped for later content analysis. Adapting the coding scheme from the National Television Violence Study (Wilson et al., 1997, 1998, Smith et al., 1998), the amount as well as the context of violence in games rated for general (e.g., "E" or "K-A") or mature audiences (e.g., "T" or "M") were assessed. The results show that mature games are more likely to feature violence than are those rated for general audiences. Differences also emerged in the context of violence. When compared to general audience games, mature games are not only more likely to feature child perpetrators but also justified acts of repeated gun violence that are graphic in nature. The findings are discussed in terms of the risks interactive violence may be posing to youth.
“Ratings creep” is the term used to describe the escalation of adult content over time in movies with the same rating. This study is an analysis of the language used by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) in rating descriptions for films rated PG-13 from 2000–2003 and R from 2000, looking for mention and modification of overall adult, sexual, and violent content. For this period, PG-13-rated movie descriptions showed gains in sexual content only. When comparing descriptions from PG-13-rated films from 2003 to R-rated films from 2000, significant creep in terms of sexual and violent content was detected.
This study is an examination of the Motion Picture Association of America's (MPAA's) use of the PG-13 rating through a content analysis of ratings descriptions-sentences used by the MPAA to explain why PG-13 was assigned to a movie-for the years 2000 to 2002. It is hypothesized that during the period, rating descriptions will indicate increases in overall adult content (H1), sex (H2), and violence (H3). The hypotheses received various levels of support. Overall, adult content in PG-13-rated movies has increased; sexual content showed a marginal increase from 2001 to 2002; and violence, when mentioned, was described as more "intense" over the 3-year period. Implications of PG-13, the effects of sex and violence on adolescents, study limitations, and future research suggestions are all discussed.
An analysis of 9 week-long samples of prime-time network programming broadcast between the fall of 1997 and the fall of 2003 found that more than 8 out of 10 programs were labeled with an age-based rating (TV-G, TV-PG, TV-14, or TV-MA), whereas fewer than 4 in 10 programs were also labeled with content-based ratings (V, S, L, or D). Although programs with age- and content-based ratings accurately reflected sexual and violent content, a sizable number of programs without content-based ratings also had sexual and violent content. Ratings provide parents with incomplete information on which to base viewing decisions.
We examined the violent content of the top-grossing comedy films from 1951 to 2000. Comedic violence increased sharply around 1970 and has been relatively consistent since then. Aggressors were depicted in somewhat more positive terms than targets, but in general, the message of comedic violence was not one of good triumphing over evil. Top-grossing comedy films featured more violence when unemployment, suicide, homicide, divorce, and the consumer price index were higher.
After rating male and female characters in the top-grossing comedy films for each year (1951-2000), the authors predicted that during times of greater social and economic threat female film characters who joke about sex would be less physically attractive, and male characters would be lower in socioeconomic status. These qualities have been found in prior research to denote desirability in potential mates. Results were generally consistent with predictions. It was suggested that these results, paired with findings from previous studies, could be taken as support for a lowered expectations hypothesis: during bad times people feel less optimistic, and consequently even people's fantasy partners are less grandiose.