Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Students With Writing Difficulties

Abstract

Students with writing difficulties often struggle with the planning, composing, and revising skills required for effective writing. Fortunately, researchers have documented that explicit, interactive, scaffolded development of powerful composing strategies and strategies for self-regulating the writing process, as in Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) instruction, results in improved student performance across writing genres. In addition, SRSD has had significant and meaningful effects among students with learning disabilities (LD) in both elementary and secondary settings. In this article, examples of SRSD instruction for planning, composing, and revision are described. Promising findings of recent research for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are also highlighted. Finally, tips for effective classroom implementation are provided.

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Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Students With Writing
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Linda H. Masona; Karen R. Harrisb; Steve Grahamb
a The Pennsylvania State University, b Vanderbilt University in Nashville, TN
Online publication date: 18 January 2011
To cite this Article Mason, Linda H. , Harris, Karen R. and Graham, Steve(2011) 'Self-Regulated Strategy Development for
Students With Writing Difficulties', Theory Into Practice, 50: 1, 20 — 27
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Theory Into Practice, 50:20–27, 2011
Copyright © The College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University
ISSN: 0040-5841 print/1543-0421 online
DOI: 10.1080/00405841.2011.534922
Linda H. Mason
Karen R. Harris
Steve Graham
Self-Regulated Strategy
Development for Students
With Writing Difficulties
Students with writing difficulties often struggle
with the planning, composing, and revising skills
required for effective writing. Fortunately, re-
searchers have documented that explicit, interac-
tive, scaffolded development of powerful compos-
ing strategies and strategies for self-regulating
the writing process, as in Self-Regulated Strat-
egy Development (SRSD) instruction, results in
improved student performance across writing
genres. In addition, SRSD has had significant and
Linda H. Mason is an associate professor of Education
at The Pennsylvania State University; Karen R. Harris
is a professor of Special Education at Vanderbilt
University in Nashville, TN; Steve Graham is a pro-
fessor of Special Education at Vanderbilt University in
Nashville, TN.
Correspondence should be addressed to Professor
Linda H. Mason, 210 Cedar, Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity, University Park, PA 16802. E-mail: lhm12@
psu.edu
meaningful effects among students with learn-
ing disabilities (LD) in both elementary and
secondary settings. In this article, examples of
SRSD instruction for planning, composing, and
revision are described. Promising findings of
recent research for students with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder are also highlighted. Fi-
nally, tips for effective classroom implementation
are provided.
With some encouragement he completed rewrit-
ing his response and did a nice job. In the end
he seemed to be proud of himself and his work.
I think that is promising. (Mason et al., 2009)
TEAC HIN G WR IT IN G TO S TU DENTS WIT H
learning difficulties can be challenging for
many teachers. Words such as encouragement,
rewriting, and promising are often used to de-
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Mason, Harris, Graham Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Writing Difficulties
scribe these students’ writing performance. Stu-
dents with writing difficulties spend little time in
critical writing processes, and tend to focus on
low-level transcription skills such as handwriting,
spelling, capitalization, and punctuation (Gra-
ham, 2006). It is well documented, for example,
that one group of struggling writers, students
with learning disabilities (LD), have difficulty
with generating ideas for writing, planning what
to write, organizing thoughts, setting goals for
effective writing, self-monitoring performance,
and revising for content and mechanics (Harris
& Graham, 1996). For students with LD, a lack
of writing skills for expressing ideas and for
demonstrating knowledge negatively impacts the
ability to maximize learning opportunities and
can have long-lasting effects, posing problems
for future goals related to higher education and
employment (Graham & Perin, 2007; Mason &
Graham, 2008).
Researchers have fortunately established that
explicit, interactive, scaffolded instruction in
strategies for planning, composing, and revis-
ing improves performance for students who
struggle with writing (Graham & Harris,
2003). One such evidence-based approach, Self-
Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) in-
struction, well-established as effective for both
elementary and adolescent students with LD
(Baker, Chard, Ketterlin-Geller, Apichatabutra,
& Doabler, 2009), is described in this article.
Six recursive stages of instruction (develop back-
ground knowledge, discuss it, model it, memorize
it, support it, and independent practice) are used
in SRSD to develop genre specific and general
writing strategies (Harris, Graham, MacArthur,
Reid, & Mason, in press). Teacher-led modeling,
for example, can be repeated or revisited through-
out instruction as needed to support mastery.
Self-regulation of writing (including goal set-
ting, self-instructions, self-monitoring, and self-
reinforcement) is explicitly taught and practiced
throughout the writing process. Each student’s af-
fective, cognitive, and behavioral characteristics
are considered when planning and implementing
instruction (Sandmel et al., 2009). In this arti-
cle, we describe effective SRSD instruction for
planning, composing, and revising strategies.
Planning, Composing, and
Revising Strategies
A well-constructed planning strategy will
guide students to generate ideas and organize
their writing for a specific genre. Researchers
have validated a number of planning strategies
for stories, persuasion, and informational text
(Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008).
Often a general universal writing strategy, one
that can be used with multiple genres, can be
taught. For example, the POW (Pick my idea,
Organize my notes, Write and say more) strategy
guides students to (a) think about, brainstorm,
and pick ideas prior to writing; (b) select a plan-
ning strategy to help with organizing notes; and
(c) write from a plan and remember to add new
information while writing. The POW strategy
has been effectively combined with strategies for
planning and composing stories and for persua-
sive writing (see Table 1 for sample strategies).
When teaching students to move flexibly from
one genre to another, the teacher stresses the
importance of selecting the right genre planning
strategy for the O, organizing notes, in POW. See
Table 1 for additional writing strategies that may
be used in combination with POW.
For more complex writing tasks, such as plan-
ning and composing informational text, strategies
are often combined. For example, The PLAN
(Pay attention to the prompt, List main ideas
to develop your essay, Add supporting details,
Number major points) and WRITE (Work from
your plan to develop a thesis statement, Re-
member your goals, Include transition words
for each paragraph, Try to use different kinds
of sentences, Exciting words) supports students
informative writing across a number of writing
elements and conventions (De La Paz, Owen,
Harris, & Graham, 2000). Elements such as using
different kinds of sentences are supported with
explicit instruction and support materials.
Several revising strategies have also been
validated for students with writing difficulties.
In the Six Steps for Revising Strategy with
SCAN for revising persuasive essays, students
are prompted: (a) Read your essay, (b) Find
the sentence that tells what you believe. Is it
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Current Perspectives on Learning Disabilities and ADHD
Table 1
Strategies for Planning and Composing
Stories W-W-W, What D2, How D2
Who is the main character?
When does the story take place?
Where does the story take place?
What does the main character want
to do?
What does the character do next?
How do the characters feel?
How does the story end?
Persuasive for
developing
writers
5-Part TREE
Topic sentence
Reasons: 3 or more
Ending
Examine your TREE parts
Persuasive for
older writers
8-Part TREE
Topic sentence
Reasons: 3 or more
Explanations for each reason
Ending
Persuasive for
adolescents
10-Part TREE
Topic sentence
Reasons: 3 or more
Explanation for each reason
a counter reason and refute
Ending
clear? (c) Add two reasons why you believe it,
(d) SCAN each sentence (does it make Sense, is
it Connected to my belief, can you Add more,
Note errors), (e) Make changes, and (f ) Read
your essay and make final changes (Graham &
MacArthur, 1988).
Strategies for Self-Regulation
Self-regulation development involves explic-
itly teaching and guiding students to set goals,
monitor performance, self-instruct, and self-
reinforce (Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2003). Goal
setting is established by teaching students to
set specific, challenging, and proximal goals for
learning the strategy, using the strategy, and gen-
eralizing and maintaining strategy use. Students
are also taught to self-monitor their progress
in achieving goals by counting the number of
strategy parts while planning, as well as counting
the number of parts written in the final product.
Students are encouraged to revise their planning
notes and their final products to include any
missing part. A graphing sheet can be used to
chart the number of strategy parts written.
Self-instructions for problem definition (“I
need to write a story with 7 W-W-W parts”),
focusing of attention and planning (“First, I
need to Pick my idea”), strategy implementa-
tion (“I know what to do, I need to check
for my parts”), self-evaluation (“Did I include
all strategy parts?”), coping (“I can do this, I
know the POW CW-W-W strategy!”), and self-
reinforcement (“Wow, I can write a great story!”)
are used by the teacher while modeling. Stu-
dents are taught to self-reinforce for success in
planning and writing. Self-reinforcement occurs
naturally when students note their progress on
the graphing sheet. During instruction, students
develop a list of self-reinforcing statements such
as “I finished with all the parts!”
To illustrate SRSD instruction, we have in-
cluded discussion board comments and lesson
transcription notes from a graduate assistant tu-
tor, Roger, who was implementing SRSD for
the 10-part POW CTREE persuasive strategy
(Mason, Kubina, Kostewicz, & Mong Cramer,
2009; Mason, Kubina, & Taft, 2009). Roger was
teaching students with and without disabilities in
a low-income urban middle school how to write
a short persuasive essay. Prior to instruction,
the students averaged writing four parts, which
generally included a topic sentence and reasons.
Students did not write explanations for their
reasons or provide a counter argument. In addi-
tion, the disorganization of the students’ written
argument resulted in poor response quality.
Strategy Acquisition
Six essential stages for strategy acquisition
are included in SRSD: (a) develop background
knowledge, (b) discuss the strategies, (c) model
the strategies, (d) memorize the strategies,
(e) support use of writing and self-regulation
strategies, and (f ) independent performance (Har-
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Mason, Harris, Graham Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Writing Difficulties
ris et al., 2008). SRSD lessons typically integrate
two or more of these stages. These stages are not
intended to be implemented in a linear fashion;
they are designed to be flexible and recursive.
One student, for example, may require only 1
or 2 days to complete the first two stages, but
other students may need 3 or more days. A
teacher may need to repeat or revisit stages
for students with significant learning difficulties
(Graham & Harris, 2005). Lessons are intended
to be differentiated to meet the needs of both the
teacher and the students. In other words, although
researchers have provided metascripts for SRSD
instruction, goals and elements of instruction
are individualized based on students’ needs and
capabilities (Harris et al., 2008). In preparation
for teaching, for example, Roger noted how he
planned to work with the lessons provided: “I
had planned on ::: highlighting parts of lesson
plans and modifying the language slightly to
fit my own style and to meet the needs of the
students.”
Develop Background Knowledge
It is critical that teachers evaluate students’
prior knowledge and abilities regarding writing
and self-regulation strategies, the writing process,
and the specific writing genre (e.g., story, persua-
sive, or informative writing) prior to beginning
instruction in order to incorporate explicit devel-
opment of critical knowledge and abilities during
this stage and throughout instruction as needed.
Roger, for example, had one student who was
able to define a strategy—“A strategy is some-
thing you use to help you”—but another student
needed Roger to explain that “A strategy is steps
or a method for helping you get something done.”
Continued discussion of what strategies are and
how they help you occurred throughout Roger’s
instruction.
Students with LD may also need development
in areas such as writing a good introductory or
topic sentence. In addition, some students may
lack an understanding of the basic elements of
a genre: for example, stories have characters, a
setting, and actions; persuasive writing provides
reasons and explanations; and informational writ-
ing includes main ideas and details.
Discuss the Strategies
Teachers and students discuss what good writ-
ers do when planning, composing, or revising.
The strategies to be learned (such as a prewriting
planning strategy and a genre-specific strategy)
and their benefits are discussed, and goals are de-
veloped. Genre-specific elements or parts (e.g., a
good explanation for a reason) that make writing
powerful and fun to read are noted. Instructional
materials such as mnemonic charts and graphic
organizers are used to support memory while
learning the strategy. Good example or model
papers can be used for identifying elements
or parts. Generalization support begins by not
limiting discussion to the current classroom or
task at hand. Student effort in strategy mastery is
emphasized to enhance motivation and facilitate
the development of adaptive attributions. During
the discussion stage, teachers may, if appropriate,
have students examine and graph their current
performance (e.g., counting how many elements
of opinion essays were included in essays written
before SRSD instruction).
It is important that students make a commit-
ment to learn the strategy and act as collaborative
partners. Roger supported students’ initial goal
setting by stating,
What you and I are going to be working on is
writing with all POW CTREE parts. We will
work together; I am going to work as hard as I
can to teach you, as long as you will work hard
to learn the strategy.
Roger reflected on his first day of teaching,
where he had begun to both develop background
knowledge and discuss the strategies:
The students listened well, and they seemed
committed to implementing POW and TREE.
Also, I stuck to the script most of the time, and
the pacing of the script worked pretty well—
I didn’t think there was any dead time dur-
ing the lesson. The visuals (graphic organizer,
mnemonic page, etc.) helped there.
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Current Perspectives on Learning Disabilities and ADHD
Model the Strategies
Teacher modeling is critical for establishing
the metacognitive processes needed for effective
strategy use. The teacher does this by modeling
the writing process aloud, with input and sup-
port from students, demonstrating how and when
to use the writing and self-regulation strategies
throughout the writing process. It is important
that the teacher practice and be prepared to model
for students. Roger, for example, practiced mod-
eling for the research team and noted practicing
with a friend just prior to implementing the
lesson. Roger began modeling by stating,
I am going to show you how I would approach
my own persuasive response and the thoughts
that would go through my head. And I am going
to talk you through my thought processes. The
first thing I want to do is to think about POW.
The first step is to Pick my idea.
After the teacher models, the teacher supports the
students in developing a personal self-statement
list to be used before, during, and after writing.
These personal self-statements are recorded on a
sheet of paper for easy referral during the writing
lessons.
Memorize the Strategies
Students should be provided time to practice
and memorize the strategy from the beginning
of instruction through daily individual, pair, or
group practice. Memorization includes mnemon-
ics and the meaning and importance of each
strategy step, as well as selected self-instructions.
By the third lesson, Roger reported, “The lessons
all seemed pretty good today. Everyone was able
to rattle off and explain at least 6 out of the 7
parts of POW and TREE beforehand.”
Support Use of Writing and
Self-Regulation Strategies
Scaffolded teacher support and guided prac-
tice are critical to SRSD. Practice begins with
collaborative writing. The teacher takes the lead,
gradually turning control of the writing and self-
regulation strategies over to students. Students
self-monitor use of the writing strategy, deter-
mining the number of genre elements and other
targeted aspects of their compositions they have
included in their composition, comparing this
to their goals, and graphing their performance.
Students progress through this stage at differ-
ent rates; this stage typically is the longest of
the six stages for students who have significant
writing difficulties. As Roger noted during this
stage:
I was silent a lot of the time because the kids
were doing so well writing on their own; I
intervened a few times to help them explain
more specifically. One girl wrote, “When I’m
outdoors, I can’t think.” I asked her to explain
what she meant, and she changed it to, “I can’t
think when the wind is blowing in my face.”
Everyone used their self-statements when they
got stuck.
Guided practice is implemented to ensure suc-
cess for each student. Prompts, interaction, and
guidance are faded individually as each student
demonstrates independent and effective use of
the strategy. Students are taught, for example, to
create their own planning sheet on blank paper
because the graphic organizer will not always be
available. As Roger wrote:
Today went pretty well. I fell behind with a
couple of the earlier students because they wrote
too much on their self-made graphic organizers,
even though I kept reminding them to write
only a few words at a time. This issue revealed
an interesting problem: The students seemed so
focused on working hard that they didn’t listen
as closely as they had earlier. Next time, I will
remind them at the beginning of the lesson to
be brief on the graphic organizer. (Probably
I will remind everyone about this just to be
safe.) I find that brief notes often lead the
students to come up with ideas that are more
complete and/or creative than what they had
first described. The last two students of the day
didn’t seem to need any help from me.
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Mason, Harris, Graham Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Writing Difficulties
Independent Performance
Students demonstrate independent perfor-
mance when they can use writing and self-
regulation strategies effectively without teacher
or material support. After instruction, Rogers’
students were able to write short essay responses
with 10 to 11 well-organized parts. As Roger
noted, it is important that teachers try letting
go and let students demonstrate what they have
learned.
I assessed Tom today. I had asked Linda for
guidance in how to help him because he had
struggled repeatedly; he had never put more
than five parts into his written response. We
discussed some strategies, but they didn’t seem
to work. Regardless, we agreed that I should
assess him today. So ::: I counted eight (or
perhaps even nine) parts in his response today.
It was truly remarkable! He wrote three good
reasons for not bringing iPods to school (might
get stolen, might get lost, might get broken).
He gave some explanation for these, and he put
together his best attempt at a counter reason.
To support generalization, students should be
given the opportunity to write in different set-
tings, with different teachers, and with novel
prompt formats. Booster sessions are frequently
needed to support maintenance. Roger reported
the following maintenance testing results.
One of the two students I tested said he had
trouble with the prompt (the school uniforms
one) because he “had too many ideas” and spent
too much time thinking (and not enough writing
the response). Nonetheless, his response was
pretty good. The other student did brilliantly,
I thought, pacing herself properly to finish
in the time allowed and putting enough parts
(especially good reasons) in her response.
SRSD for Students With LD and ADHD
Researchers have established the effectiveness
of SRSD instruction for students with learning
disabilities and other struggling writers in over
40 studies conducted over the past 25 years
(Mason, Harris, & Graham, in press). Findings
from this research indicate that SRSD meaning-
fully improves what students write, how students
write, and how students perceive the writing
process. The positive effects of SRSD instruc-
tion have been clearly established for elemen-
tary through high school grades, in both self-
contained and inclusive classrooms, and with
one-to-one, small group, and whole class instruc-
tion.
In recent studies, SRSD instruction has also
shown positive effects for students with a range
of disabilities, including students with attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Taft &
Mason, 2010). Although students with LD and
ADHD often demonstrate common difficulties,
students with ADHD may have additional prob-
lems (e.g., executive functioning and working
memory deficits) that affect writing performance
(see Martinussen in this issue). Results of a
meta-analysis, fortunately, indicated that use of
self-regulation interventions for students with
ADHD results in improved on-task behaviors,
decreased inappropriate behaviors, and increased
academic productivity and accuracy (Reid, Trout,
& Schwartz, 2005).
In five studies, researchers have documented
the effectiveness of SRSD for story and/or per-
suasive writing for students with ADHD in
grades 2 through 12 (De La Paz, 2001; Jacob-
son & Reid, 2010; Lienemann, Graham, Leader-
Janssen, & Reid, 2006; Lienemann & Reid, 2008;
Reid & Lienemann, 2006). In these studies, stu-
dents with ADHD demonstrated improvement in
the quantity of story or essay elements written as
well as the quality of writing. Given the focus on
self-regulation instruction in SRSD (Harris et al.,
in press), it is not surprising that this approach
would be effective for students with ADHD.
Tips for Instruction
SRSD instruction is demanding in terms of
teacher planning, time, and effort. Research indi-
cates, however, that teacher efforts here pay off.
Even though not all instructional stages and pro-
cedures are needed for all students, researchers
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Current Perspectives on Learning Disabilities and ADHD
have documented that for the weakest writers,
all six strategy stages and all four self-regulation
procedures are typically needed to support stu-
dent success (Harris et al., 2008).
It is important that students are not provided a
more advanced stage of strategy instruction until
they have mastered needed skills. Writing me-
chanics such as grammar, spelling, and handwrit-
ing should not be explicitly taught or remediated
during prewriting, planning, and composing and
are best saved for revision. Teachers should avoid
overemphasizing student errors. Finally, it is well
established that students with writing difficulties
have difficulty in maintaining skills. Teachers
should plan opportunities for ongoing review and
practice. Maintenance is best supported when
strategies are used across the curriculum and
grades, requiring teachers to collaborate with
each other. Finally, it is important that teachers
celebrate writing successes with their students.
Roger wrote: “I wanted to give him a big hug
::: Tom and I had a great time today.”
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