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Love and money in Kinois popular music
Abstract
This essay looks at the lyrical and performative conventions of popular music from Kinshasa, capital of the Democratic Republic of Congo, concentrating particularly on how these conventions interact with ideas of emotion and exchange in the region. Setting the romantic texts of popular songs in the context of wider patronage relationships, the essay argues that love and money are not perceived as contradictory forces. At the same it is argued that the romantic lyrics of popular songs also contain a strong sense of the individual, and of a reflexive self-awareness which is often asserted to be absent in African cultural products. It is argued that Kinois popular music, viewed in its social context, does not merely reflect, but actively reproduces a set of affective and political economic relationships.1 This paper draws on 18 months of field work in Paris and Kinshasa. I would like to thank the anonymous reviewer, Filip De Boeck and Richard Fardon, as well as my PhD supervisors Michael Rowlands and Daniel Miller for their comments made on earlier versions of this paper. Any shortcomings to be found are of course entirely my own. In addition I would like to thank Megan Vaughan, Nico Tassi, Vincent Luttman, and Leon Tsambu-Bulu who all pointed me in the direction of much useful literature. I would also like to express particular gratitude to Nancy Rose Hunt, Pitshou Lumbu, Kalala Mayombo, ‘Mandela’ Atala, Saint-Jose Inaka, Mimi, Kristien Geenen, Marco Ndombasi and Smith ‘L'Homme des Anées’, who all in various ways, made my time in Paris and Kinshasa especially pleasant and productive. View all notes
... Faisant pourtant les choux gras des médias, la scène de la musique populaire congolo-kinoise a très peu intéressé les chercheurs et universitaires, en dépit de quelques travaux grand public et académiques dont la plupart portent sur la biographie des auteurs (Lonoh 1969 ;Ewens 1994 ;Matoko 1999 ;Mpisi 2004 ;Gakosso 2002 ;Nimy 2007), le contenu des chansons (Tshonga 1984 ;Debhovampi 1997 ;Trapido 2010 ;Tsambu 2013 ;Manda 2011), l'histoire de cette musique (Lonoh 1969 ;Bemba 1984 ;Manda 1996 ;Stewart 2000), la violence du champ musical (Tsambu 2004(Tsambu , 2012 ou l'ethnographie politique et sociale de ce champ (White 2008). Tsambu : La scène musicale populaire kinoise à l'épreuve du genre La thématique du genre, quant à elle, a été abordée en pointillé, d'abord dans une sociographie sériée de chansons (Tshonga 1982(Tshonga ,1984, ensuite dans deux réflexions (Tsambu 2001(Tsambu , 2009) sur la présence de la femme en scène et hors scène. ...
... Tsambu : La scène musicale populaire kinoise à l'épreuve du genre La thématique du genre, quant à elle, a été abordée en pointillé, d'abord dans une sociographie sériée de chansons (Tshonga 1982(Tshonga ,1984, ensuite dans deux réflexions (Tsambu 2001(Tsambu , 2009) sur la présence de la femme en scène et hors scène. Trapido (2010) effleure l'inversion du genre par l'usage de la voix masculine pour exprimer les sentiments féminins. Gondola (1997) fait allusion à une autre forme d'inversion du genre masculin/féminin. ...
Dans une perspective théorique genrée et transdisciplinaire (théories des champs et de l’intersectionnalité), le présent article discute de l’androcentrisme en tant qu’ensemble de rapports de pouvoir focalisés sur l’hégémonie masculine, tel qu’il se déploie sur la scène musicale populaire de Kinshasa. L’enquête a démontré qu’assujettie sexuellement, débauchable ou « bien d’échange », la femme (chanteuse, choriste, danseuse) a en outre été soumise à un faisceau d’oppressions professionnelles par l’homme à travers a) une division sexuée du travail qui l’a confinée à la tâche érotique de la danse ; b) son instrumentalisation comme un corps-machine, support de marketing des spectacles vivants et vidéo à la faveur de son sex-appeal et de ses chorégraphies lascives ; c) une rémunération aléatoire ; bref, une précarisation sociale, culturelle, psychologique amenuisant, plus que pour son homologue masculin, ses droits humains. Tout cela est à lire dans le contexte du champ (acteurs directs) ou du hors-champ (acteurs périphériques) de cette scène. Cependant, sur cette scène prise pour un reflet du fonctionnement et un facteur de changement de la société kinoise, la femme ne fait toujours pas figure de victime, étant stratégiquement tournée vers des intérêts et désirs d’ingratiation, de célébrité, de mieux-vivre (en Europe), ou d’inversion de la domination – sans toujours y parvenir. Léon Tsambu, Sociologue et enseignant-chercheur, Laboratoire congolais de musique et des cultures populaires, Université de Kinshasa. E-mail : leon.tsambu@gmail.com
... This refers to a raft of patronage practices ranging from sponsored short name checks to a more expensive dedicace, involving a patron being named as the object of desire in a song's narrative of love. In this form, the singer, generally male, sings in the first person 'as a woman', often in a quavering falsetto, hopelessly smitten with the patron, who is also generally male (see Trapido 2010). In the version of this system that flourished between the 1980s and mid-2000s, mabanga was strongly connected with migration, with members of the diaspora paying to get their names onto recorded music, but also to be sung during landmark concerts in Paris, Brussels or London. ...
... In a campaign characterized by the violent contestation of the public sphere, two events stood out: first, the burning-down of Bemba's television station, presumably by regime agents; second, an attack by Bemba's supporters on two establishments associated with prominent Kabila supporters. Both were set on fire: the half-built church of Sony Kafuta 'rockman', a tele-evangelist and one of several preachers to suggest that God favoured Kabila; the other the Zamba Playa, a bar belonging to the singer Werra Son, Kabila's closest musician ally (see Trapido 2010). ...
Focused on London, this article looks at the ideology and practice of Congolese nationalism in exile, and at the ideas of home, belonging and return connected with this. Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) migrants came to Western Europe escaping violence and economic and political collapse but, for a long time, the imaginative concentration of the diaspora was not on politics, but on a consumer-based version of the good life. This article traces how this changed in the 2000s with the diaspora becoming a focus for violent and racialized forms of nationalism. Tracing this evolution historically, we look at how the practices and ideologies of ‘return’ and ‘home’ have come to express this transformation of exile nationalism.
... Anthropologists have tended towards nuanced accounts, examining the range of ways that youth create meaning in their lives, pursue forms of social realignment, grapple with 'presentist' and uncertain temporal confines, and investigating the ways that the meaning of 'youth' is socially and culturally constituted. Studies have focused on a variety of social practices and arenas: religious practice (Engelke 2010, Janson 2013, Masquelier 2007, Meyer 2008, technology (Archambault 2017, Gilbert 2016, love and sex (Cole andThomas 2009, Stasik 2016), and consumption and popular culture (Kringelbach 2013, Newell 2011, Trapido 2010, Weiss 2009). ...
In 2014 the Ebola virus entered Sierra Leone, soon to become the epicentre of a global health crisis. A state of emergency was declared, propped up by a large-scale and far-reaching humanitarian intervention; characterised by stringent bureaucratic and biomedical protocols, restrictions on social and economic life, and novel monetary flows. Based on 17 months of ethnographic fieldwork in Freetown, Sierra Leone’s capital, immediately before and during the state of emergency, the thesis presents an intimate account of the lives and social worlds of young men living in an urban neighbourhood. The thesis outlines the centrality of the domestic sphere – home, neighbourhood, and family – in young men’s projects of coming of age, as well as in surviving and brokering ‘crisis’ and foreign intervention. Rather than ‘crisis’ halting the processes of social reproduction, such processes became central means through which a conflict between ‘foreign’ and ‘local’ expectations – brought to the fore by external intervention – was reconciled and negotiated. The thesis demonstrates how a political economy of crisis maps onto core social tensions between independence and dependence that young men ambiguously negotiate around the home, and how resultant social practices and understandings connect to Freetown’s deeper and more recent histories of intervention, crisis, and entanglement with the Atlantic World.
... From the pyscho-social and affective manifestations of collective African identity (Ede 2016), lyrical and performative conventions in African popular music (Trapido 2010), the nexus between affective, national and cultural affiliation in African films (Snell 2014), the mapping of performance and social meaning in Africa (Gunner 2015), through to the role of radio in creating African public spaces (Gratz 2013), critiques of African culture are increasingly turning to affective energies as poignant sources of meaning-making. ...
Adopting an Affective-Discursive approach, this article explores the visual and textual representations of Somali Pirates in the Danish Film A Hijacking, which is based on true events. I argue that the lack of subtitles for exchanges in the Somali language, camera treatment of the pirates, and the juxtaposition between sound and editing techniques used to capture the pirate and the western crew, have resulted in a screen production that not only masks the complexities of the piracy enterprise but also marginalizes Somali pirates and their truths, portraying them as little better than savages. This irreducibility between image and text will also be a key point of departure for examining the figure of the pirate as an affective/abjective/monstrous construction, rather than simply a discursive/textual one.
... Pius Ngandu Nkashama (1979, 1992) et d'Olema Debhonvapi (1998. Depuis le milieu des années 2000, il y a un nombre important de jeunes chercheurs qui abordent justement l'analyse de la musique congolaise en accordant plus d'attention aux questions esthétiques (Ginzana U-Lemba, 2005 ;Nadeau-Bernatchez, 2011 ;Nimis, 2010 ;Salter, 2008 ;Trapido, 2010). 2000, p. 115) 4 . ...
La rumba congolaise de la musique populaire de la Republique democratique du Congo est devenue en quelque sorte une musica franca pour une bonne partie de l’Afrique sub-saharienne. Les Congolais d’aujourd’hui aiment dire que leur musique a colonise le continent, mais cette musique, fortement influencee par ses racines afro-cubaines, a subi un nombre important de transformations esthetiques depuis son emergence sous le regime de la colonie belge. Bien que ce genre musical ait une longue histoire, il y a relativement peu de recherche a son sujet, surtout en ce qui concerne ses aspects esthetiques. En mettant l’accent sur certaines caracteristiques de ces chansons, cet article tente d’expliquer comment la musique populaire a Kinshasa vise a transcender la crise economique et politique que le pays vit depuis plusieurs generations : la conjoncture. En s’inspirant de la philosophie hermeneutique de Gadamer, la metaphore de l’ecoute est proposee pour nous faire prendre conscience que l’impossibilite d’entendre la musique de l’Autre de son point de vue a lui ne devrait pas nous empecher d’essayer d’ecouter.
... In Kinshasa, social hierarchy impacts not only a man's sexual status, but his chances of finding romantic love as well, and the status that wealthy men enjoy does not merely help them to attract many sexual partners, it also gives them greater advantage in finding long-term loving relationships. Impoverished men, according to some, on the other hand, are left only to suffer and yearn for love (Trapido 2010). ...
Women in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo are increasingly entering new professions partly due to an increase in higher education levels. In so doing, and as they become more visible in political and economic spheres, women are subjected to new forms of moral suspicion. While women have historically maintained a strong presence in the informal sector, such as commerce, new urban modes of employment dictate new kinds of visibility. It is within this context that notions of femininity and female virtue in Kinshasa continue to be redefined. This article explores several modes of employment for women, such as money-changing, journalism, and politics as they relate to local concepts of encadrement (supervision) and débrouillardisme (resourcefulness). Further, it also examines the threat that a woman's social network outside of her kin poses to men, as well as how women's participation in the economic sphere can motivate distrust between the genders.
... Official anthems of amateur soccer clubs in Rio de Janeiro help establish healthy identities for locals (Tubino, et al, 2009) and music has central importance for the development and transference of cultural identity of the people of central Appalachia (Baummer, 2010). The performance of race in the United States (Schroeder, 2010), the complex social practice of popular song of Kinois music both in the Congo and in the diaspora (Trapido, 2010), and protest songs during the civil right movement in the United States (Trigg, 2010) offer additional examples of cultural transmission through song. The interpretation of song lyrics by different political groups, in particular, rightwing cultures, has been studied (Spencer, 2010) as has the rise of Soca music in Trinidad (Guilbault 2010) and the different roles musicians have taken in response to the 2006 war in Lebanon (Burkhalter, 2011). ...
Societal structures create and maintain disparities between persons of dominant and non-dominant status affecting all aspects of the community including healthcare service delivery. Music therapists as healthcare providers have a responsibility to explore ways that social justice approaches can address and mitigate discrimination in music therapy education, research, and practice. Anti-oppressive practice (AOP) offers a systematic way to disassemble inequity in practice and to inspire inclusive practices. In order to consider how music therapy can operate as an anti-oppressive practice, this thesis explored the question; What are the experiences of residents and staff in music therapy as an anti-oppressive practice? Interviews were conducted with older adults in a residential setting who were living with complex health conditions including dementia, and with residents who have dual-diagnosis intellectual deficit/mental illness referred to an assessment service for teens and adults. Analysis of the interviews using Constructivist Grounded Theory indicated that music therapy is perceived as valuable in providing a broad spectrum of support including in improving socialization, mood, and communication, but potential negative impacts can occur if music is not provided sensitively. Music therapy was additionally observed to foster positive relations between staff and residents although some staff considered music therapy was a hassle for them. The song-based music therapy service model developed by the author and described by interviewees were contextualized through a reflection on the service development and training experiences of the author. This is provided through historical description and critical autoethnography. The wider literature about music and human experiences was consulted for further context and rationale. The research processes and findings of the interviews and autoethnography revealed that it is the inclusive collaborative expertise of the music therapist which allows the social justice framework of anti-oppressive practice to be evident in her music therapy service and music therapy research.
This article maintains that African philosophy should consider those discourses that function as channels of important ideas in African cultures, without prejudice against their language and, especially, their genre. What are such philosophical discourses? This article starts from a case study, Swahili culture, and interrogates the communicative resources available to it to serve as vehicles of philosophical thought. The survey includes language itself, proverbs, musical performance (sung lyrics), metric and free-verse poetry, novelistic prose, theoretical writings, and translations. Based on this spectrum of genres, the article ventures some general observations about the relationship of African philosophy to language and genre.
This piece investigates the connections between love and liberation in the context of the Congo’s late colonial and early postcolonial history. It explores the relationships between gender, sexuality, and liberation from colonial oppression, suggesting that Congolese men and women experienced independence through the twin categories of intimacy and politics. Through a series of vignettes mobilizing a love song, a letter from prison, an autobiographical novel, a photographic self-portrait, and a painting, the chapter outlines a history that accounts for the interconnections of the utopian, the carceral, and the affective.KeywordsDecolonizationStudent politicsRumbaSelf-portraitImprisonment
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Music plays an important socio-cultural role in constructing and/or reflecting geo-cultural and universal emotional states by giving voice to personal emotional sensibilities, such as self-searching, romantic longing, and desire, alongside collective spatial sentiments, patriotism, etc. Moreover, popular song lyrics reveal the socio-cultural values, norms, tastes, and emotional conventions of both their creators and their audience. Thus, this article focuses on decoding geo-cultural vs. universal emotional sensibilities via narrative analysis of the first place winners of the annual Israeli Hit Parades between 1963 and 2018, broadcast on the two major Israeli radio stations, Kol Yisrael and Galgalatz, every year on the eve of the Jewish New Year. This long-standing tradition offers a unique opportunity to examine ongoing changes in socio-emotional coping with fear and death, wars and terror while providing a contemporary conceptual and practical inquiry into the normalization of emotions within a culture and politics of fear.
In the French-dominated multilingual D. R. Congo where Lingala music reigns supreme, it may seem unusual and unexpected to note the presence of English in lyrics where pervasive mixing of French in Lingala lyrics would be an unmarked phenomenon. This remarkable craze for English in Lingala lyrics in the 1970s and 1980s, by young musicians in a period where there was no obsession for, affiliation with, or inspiration from, the hip-hop movement which often carries the seed of (American) English, seems perplexing. It may assumedly symbolize, or project, values ranging from identity – imagined or real – to refusal, rebellion, or subversion and resistance. Better still, hybridization of this kind serves a variety of social, linguistic, or discourse functions. Would it signify a claim for an imagined or real hybrid identity? Was it a symbolic medium for expressing identity and solidarity? This type of phenomenon engenders a singular type of discourse embedded in the historical context of political, socio-economic and cultural changes of the time. The paper seeks to answers these key questions by reflecting on the music in which special crossing was prevalent at the time.
In this article, I map out spaces of social encounters and elaborate upon the once openly exposed but now hidden nightlife of the city of Butembo, in eastern Congo. I explore what moves the people of Butembo, where they go to have fun, and what “fun” means in a war torn place. The main focus lies on the city’s countless cabarets, as these seemed the places where people mostly met. A cabaret is a private dwelling where a single woman offers home-brewed alcohol and sexual services alike. Usually, a cabaret bears no signage at all, so from the outside, they are hard to discern from an ordinary house. Yet, their sheer invisibility stands in sharp contrast to their major importance.
Cabarets have multiple functions: pleasing clients, exchanging job offers, and sharing frustrations and beers. On top of that, they provide a reliable source of information. Particularly in this climate of violence, being well informed can be a matter of live or death. To the women involved, running a cabaret is both a means to provide an income and to secure future prospects. As I proceed through the article, it will become clear that these obscure cabarets are in fact spaces of sociability with an undeniable importance that contribute to the functioning of the city in many respects. It are places where pleasure and danger meet.
The inhabitants of Kinshasa (Kinois) in general and the street children (bashege) in particular, exist in a kind of half-dead (or half-living) state. The social, political, economic and cultural circumstances that characterise the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) manifest themselves in daily life in the form of permanent and structural exclusion, discrimination, humiliationand poverty. All this is not to say that the Kinois and the bashege remain entirely passive in this regard, or that they make no attempt to assert control over their lives. In this article, we will argue that they transform themselves into active agents who exercise agency – that is, exert deliberate control over their lives. We therefore opt for the term human agency instead of coping or coping strategies in this text.
This essay presents a history of the mikiliste, the high-living bon vivant who travels to Europe and is a central figure in Kinois urban mythology. It looks in particular at the highly theatrical exchanges engaged in by the mikiliste, which relate especially to music patronage and to designer clothing. I show how these exchanges have evolved over time, both shaping and being shaped by the political economy of Kinshasa. The essay shows how such aesthetic performances should not be discussed in isolation from wider political-economic considerations. Those who participate in economies of prestige must be connected to a material base, and the ruling class, with their access to the resources of the interior, have become ever more important participants in the mikiliste rituals of largesse. Recently, the violent contestation of mikiliste exchange, both in Europe and in Kinshasa, indicates that such moments of largesse may be involved in reproducing politicaleconomic relations in the Congolese capital.
Emotion terms are used in everyday discourse to indicate experiences that involve both meaning and feeling, both mind and body. Most attempts to theorize emotions, however, tend to reduce them to one side or the other of these dichotomies; anthropology is divided between views of the emotions as primarily biological and as primarily sociocultural in nature. In this article I consider these approaches and propose three ways around the meaning/feeling dichotomy: through a rereading of the intellectual past of the modern West; through analytic methods that seek to reconstruct affective resonances; and through a realization that feeling-tones, as well as meanings, are conveyed in the writing and reading of ethnography. In this article I draw on comparative material from the Central Himalayan region of Kumaon in northern India. [emotion, meaning, feeling, anthropological theory, South Asia, Himalaya]
©1982 John M. Janzen. The contents of this monograph have been divided into five files for easier downloading. Readers on faster internet connections may prefer to download the entire book in one 70 MB file. It is being made available in both formats.
This chapter provides both a genealogy of the changing semantic field associated with fitiavina. It also recounts the story narrated by a young Malagasy man, Dez, who, when asked about love, launched into an account about meeting his true love in a clothing stall at the marketplace. Missionary interpretations of fitiavina and marriage had an impact on local conceptions of fitiavina. Dez's narrative is iconic, given the role of gifts, and especially clothes, in creating and expressing fitiavina between men and women. Anita's narrative clearly embodies the increasingly evident opposition between fitiavina and money. For contemporary urbanites like Anita or Bera, fitiavina has become split and differentiated so that there can be such a thing as “clean fitiavina” where a woman can feel love for a man and get nothing in return or a woman can take resources from one man while “loving” another.
This chapter looks at the history of romantic love in Sub-Saharan Africa. This text comes from a lecture given at the British Academy's 2009 Raleigh Lecture on History. This text attempts to explore some of the methodological and theoretical issues involved in an historical study of love in Africa. It argues that romantic love in Africa is not simply an extension of an imperialist cultural and political project and that emotional regimes cannot be divorced from economic circumstances. It explains that though the configurations of interest and emotion take specific forms in African societies, there is nothing peculiarly African about the evident need of individuals to balance realism and idealism in their emotional lives.
What can texts - both written and oral - tell us about the societies that produce them? How are texts constituted in different cultures, and how do they shape societies and individuals? How can we understand the people who compose them? Drawing on examples from Africa and other countries, this original study sets out to answer these questions, by exploring textuality from a variety of angles. Topics covered include the importance of genre, the ways in which oral genres transcend the here-and-now, and the complex relationship between texts and the material world. Barber considers the ways in which personhood is evoked, both in oral poetry and in written diaries and letters, discusses the audience's role in creating the meaning of texts, and shows textual creativity to be a universal human capacity expressed in myriad forms. Engaging and thought-provoking, this book will be welcomed by anyone interested in anthropology, literature and cultural studies.
Across much of the postcolonial world, Christianity has often become inseparable from ideas and practices linking the concept of modernity to that of human emancipation. To explore these links, Webb Keane undertakes a rich ethnographic study of the century-long encounter, from the colonial Dutch East Indies to post-independence Indonesia, among Calvinist missionaries, their converts, and those who resist conversion. Keane's analysis of their struggles over such things as prayers, offerings, and the value of money challenges familiar notions about agency. Through its exploration of language, materiality, and morality, this book illuminates a wide range of debates in social and cultural theory. It demonstrates the crucial place of Christianity in semiotic ideologies of modernity and sheds new light on the importance of religion in colonial and postcolonial histories.
Monzolo,' from the small marquisate of Nzolo in the extreme east of the Kingdom of Kongo,2 then enslaved and residing in Cartagena, described some of his reactions to his passage across the Atlantic. He noted the fear that his fellow slaves had in crossing the sea, for "when they left their own country, they believed that the Spanish, whom they called the whites,3 brought them to kill them and to make the flags for the ships from their remains, for when they were red it was from the blood of the Moors, and desperately fearing this many threw
This is a study of letter writing amongst migrant workers on the Witwatersrand before World War II. It moves from a consideration of the paradoxical character of literacy amongst migrant mineworkers to a discussion about the history of privacy in South Africa. The paper suggests that both the field of popular culture and the politics of democracy can be better understood by paying attention to the particular forms of letter correspondence that have developed in 20th century South Africa.
Belgian African anti-polygamy attitudes and measures are first reviewed, including polygamous wife liberations in the Leopoldian period; the introduction of supplementary wife taxation in 1910; demographic anxieties from the 1920s; and post-World War II worries about ‘camouflaged polygamy’, leading to the passage of the anti-polygamy law in 1950. The published evidence of ‘camouflaged polygamy's’ noisiest critics, élite African ‘new men’ or évolués, suggests that polygamy was increasing in rural areas due to forced labour obligations, and becoming camouflaged in response to pro-natalist rewards for monogamy. A second section analyses the urban single women's tax in terms of the embarrassed silence surrounding this new form of moral taxation, which was introduced following legislation in the 1930s designed to better differentiate ‘customary’ space from urban sites of ‘evolution’. A third section draws on Buyenzi women's oral memories to reconstruct their noisy rebellion against the tax. The conclusion analyses these Muslim women's outrage in light of the contradictions of gaining municipal revenue through moral taxation, an urban surveillance process which necessitated naming the category of persons taxed. The etymology of the term femme libre demonstrates that polygamous wife and prostitute were associated categories in colonial thought from the Leopoldian period. Colonial authorities lost control over these categories in this atypical ‘extra-customary’ township super-imposed on a pre-colonial ‘customary’ community. The new African need for camouflaging plural wives, created by the strong urban expulsion powers of the 1950 anti-polygamy law, converged with the name-calling of the single women's tax, resulting in a local struggle to control the naming process. The category of women created by the tax coalesced around the sexual insult embedded in the tax's name, embarrassing colonial authorities into exemptions and inciting the men of their community into a tax rebellion.
The article considers the changing pattern of kinship relations amongst the Kongo south of the Zaïre river and west of the plateau in the region once dominated by the nuclear Kongo kingdom. It argues that the normative pattern of kinship and family relationship was probably established in the early years of agricultural settlement by the ideology of the kanda , the exogamous matrilineal descent groups which controlled access to land. This ideology dominated family and kinship relationships as long as agricultural production was the dominant economic factor. In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries the evolution of the trade-based kingdom of Kongo modified the normative pattern established by the kanda , and in the late sixteenth century the acquisition of large numbers of slaves and the use of Christianity as a legitimating ideology effected more profound change. In particular, the elite developed a system of patrilineal descent categories which were used to control trade-based wealth and to organize political relationships. Freedom came to be related more to patrilineal descent category membership and less to kanda membership, whilst the economic and political position of all but the most eminent women deteriorated. When, in the late seventeenth century, changing patterns of trade caused the kingdom of Kongo to disintegrate, the Mwissikongo of the centre adopted a cognatic mode of descent which enabled them to control both agricultural and trade-based wealth. Certain eminent women seized the political opportunities afforded by the crumbling of male-dominated centres of power whilst the definition of slave and free became increasingly problematic. In the north-western province of Sonyo, increased trade-based wealth enabled the dominant patrilineal category to establish itself as a corporate group and to monopolize all positions of power. In the eighteenth century power disintegrated throughout the region and land again became the primary economic asset. The ruling elite sought legitimation in terms of the ideology and descent system of the kanda . The former slave groups sought to establish rights in the same way. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries all groups legitimized their holding of land, primarily in terms of the ideology of the kanda and secondarily in terms of the concept of Mbanza Kongo.
"This excellent work consists of 16 essays which view internal or indigenous African slavery from a variety of perspectives. . . . A significant breakthrough in our understanding of a crucial yet curiously neglected subject. Essential reading for all Africanists and a very important acquisition for all academic libraries."ââ¬âHistory See also The End of Slavery in Africa, the sequel to this book, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff and published by the University of Wisconsin Press.
Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics' Consumer Expenditure Survey provide empirical verification of changes in household spending across a wide variety of products as households pass from one stage of the household life cycle to another. Three spending patterns emerged: (1) a generalized inverted U pattern, with spending rising sharply as households shift from young single to young married, then remaining relatively high, and falling sharply at the older married and/or older single stages, (2) generally increasing expenditures across stages until the last one or two stages, and (3) generally decreasing expenditures across the life cycle. Expenditures are especially influenced by the presence of young children in the household. Copyright 1995 by the University of Chicago.
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- Antoine
- Kolosoy
Wemba, Papa. 1977/1998. Mère supé. In Viva la Musica and Papa Wemba. Paris: Ngoyarto NG0108. 'Wendo', Antoine Kolosoy, and Henri Bowane. 1948/1996. In Marie-Louise Ngoma the early years, 1948–1960.
Sound Recordings (first date indicates original release) Bitshou, Cé Infidelité Mado. In The rough guide to Franco, Africa's legendary guitar maestro Canon ya Mofude
- Viviana A Zelizer
- Rotman
Zelizer, Viviana A. Rotman 2005. The purchase of intimacy. Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Sound Recordings (first date indicates original release) Bitshou, Cé. 1970/2001. Infidelité Mado. In The rough guide to Franco, Africa's legendary guitar maestro. London: AMG. Boyibanda, Michaux. 1974/2000. Zanzibar. Franco et le T.P. OK Jazz 1972/1973/1974. Paris: Soneca. Boziana, Bozi. 1988. Canon ya Mofude. In Anti-choc LP. London: Sterns/Aswe. d'Ete, Jus. 2004. Ecole. In Miracles, disk 1. Paris: Simon Music.
Death and the invisible powers: the world of Kongo belief Love letters and amanuenses: beginning the cultural history of the working class private sphere in Southern Africa
- Bockie
- Simon
Bockie, Simon. 1993. Death and the invisible powers: the world of Kongo belief. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Breckenridge, Keith. 2000. Love letters and amanuenses: beginning the cultural history of the working class private sphere in Southern Africa, 1900–1933.
Reflections on the relevance of a theory of the history of exchange. In The articulation of modes of production: essays from Economy and society
- Dupré
- Pierre Rey Georges
Dupré, Georges, and Pierre Rey. 1980. Reflections on the relevance of a theory of the history of exchange. In The articulation of modes of production: essays from Economy and society, ed. Harold Wolpe.
Slavery and social death: a comparative study Rumba on the river: a history of the popular music of the two Congos The family, sex and marriage in England
- Orlando Patterson
- Cambridge
- Ma
- London
Patterson, Orlando. 1982. Slavery and social death: a comparative study. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. Stewart, Gary. 2001. Rumba on the river: a history of the popular music of the two Congos. London: Verso. Stone, Lawrence. 1990. The family, sex and marriage in England, 1500– 1800.
La Femme vue par l'homme dans la musique zaı moderne de 1960 a ` 1981. Zaı -Afrique, no
- Onyumbe
- Tshonga
Onyumbe, Tshonga. 1984. La Femme vue par l'homme dans la musique zaı moderne de 1960 a ` 1981. Zaı -Afrique, no. 184: 229 –43.
Living-room wars: new technologies, audience measurement and the tactics of television consumption The anthropology of texts, persons and publics La culture urbaine dans les arts populaires d'Afrique: analyse de l'ambiance zaı
- Ang
- R Ien
- E Silverstone
- Hirsch
Ang, Ien. 1992. Living-room wars: new technologies, audience measurement and the tactics of television consumption. In Consuming technologies: media and information in domestic spaces, ed. R. Silverstone and E. Hirsch, 74– 81. London and New York: Routledge. Barber, Karin. 2007. The anthropology of texts, persons and publics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Biaya, T.K. 1996. La culture urbaine dans les arts populaires d'Afrique: analyse de l'ambiance zaı. Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne des E ´ tudes Africaines 30, no. 3: 345–70.
bandeko na ngai ya mibali. In Souvenirs de l'Un Deux Trois. Paris: AMG. Franco (or Lola Checain?)
- Paris Veve
- Fbd Mayala
- Franco
Paris: Veve/Mayala/FBD. Franco. 1977/ 1995. bandeko na ngai ya mibali. In Souvenirs de l'Un Deux Trois. Paris: AMG. Franco (or Lola Checain?). 1978/1998. Sala lokola Lutandila. In Bomba, Bomba Mabe +Mbongo. Paris: Sonima.
Brief name checks on record-ings by a popular artist sell for around $600, though considerable horse-trading is involved. These name-checks are also known as mabanga, (lit. 'stones'). Somewhat confusingly mabanga is also used as the general term for the complex of music-related gifts
- Around
- Us
Around US$5000 for a dé with a popular artist such as Fally Ipupa. Brief name checks on record-ings by a popular artist sell for around $600, though considerable horse-trading is involved. These name-checks are also known as mabanga, (lit. 'stones'). Somewhat confusingly mabanga is also used as the general term for the complex of music-related gifts.
Nzela na leka. Personal recording mini-DV
- Show Musica De Livulu