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Freud, Tourism, and Terror
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing
Abstract
Travel and tourist magazines are major sources of information about destinations, events, accommodations, and transportation. The majority of this information is conveyed visually through colorful, stimulating, and seductive photographs of familiar landscapes and destinations. We examine a dozen popular U.S. travel magazines in the five months following the events of September 11, 2001 to discern the extent to which issues of risk, security, and anxiety are addressed or disavowed in editorials, articles, advertisements, and photographs. There is little mention of the tragic events on the magazine covers, in photographs, and articles; however, editors and regular staff writers often discussed security and risk and their impacts on destinations. In evaluating the magazines' responses, this paper draws on the work of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan to offer the most rigorous utilization of psychoanalytic theory in tourism studies to date. In so doing, we seek to initiate a belated dialogue between critical tourism research and psychoanalytic approaches deployed in the disciplines of geography and social theory. Psychoanalytic concepts such as “symptom,” “ego,” “defense,” and “fantasy” enable us to critically understand the uncanny disjunctures between the exotic, vulnerable, terrorized, and sunny tourist worlds that traversed the pages of post-September 11 travel magazines.
... Risk perceptions can become overriding factors when introduced into travel decisions, changing the context of conventional models of decision-making. There is general agreement that tourists tend to avoid destinations with greater perceived risks (Batra, 2008;Chen and Noriega, 2004;Floyd et al., 2004;Kingsbury and Brunn, 2004;Law, 2006;Graefe, 1998a, 1998b). Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, most tourism risk studies focus on risks posed by terrorism, political instability, and crime. ...
The study provides insights into how tourism can be managed to improve financial access in sub-Saharan Africa. The empirical evidence is based on the generalised method of moments. To make this assessment, inequality dynamics (i.e. the Gini coefficient, the Atkinson index and Palma ratio) are interacted with tourism (tourism receipts and tourists' arrivals) to establish inequality levels that should not be exceeded in order for tourism to promote financial access in the sampled countries. From the findings, inequality levels that should not be exceeded for tourism to promote financial access are provided: (i) 0.666 of the Atkinson index and 5.000 of the Palma ratio for tourism receipts to promote financial access and (ii) for tourist arrivals to enhance financial access, 0.586, 0.721 and 6.597 respectively, of the Gini coefficient, the Atkinson index, and the Palma ratio. Policy implications are discussed.
This study complements existing literature by investigating how military expenditure can modulate the effect of terrorism externalities on tourism. The geographical and temporal scopes are 163 countries and the period 2010-2015. The empirical evidence is based on negative binomial regressions. Terrorism externalities are measured in terms of terror-related incidents, injuries, fatalities and damaged properties. We find that military expenditure significantly lessens the destructive impact of these terror-related incidents in order to induce positive net effects on tourism. This finding is robust to all measurements of terrorism. Homicides and violent demonstrations reduce tourists' arrivals whereas the rate of incarceration of convicted offenders has the opposite effect. The analysis is extended to income levels and regions in order to provide more opportunities for policy implications. Justifications for differences in these comparative tendencies are discussed.
Purpose
Due to recent international media reports of terrorist attacks in airports, people are more aware of the risk terrorism poses to flying and the need for security measures in the airline industry. This study aims to examine factors affecting willingness to pay (WTP) for airline security and safety flights after terror attacks incident.
Design/methodology/approach
A polling company distributed an internet survey among 415 Israelis in July 2014, after thousands of missiles had been fired into Israel from the Gaza Strip, threatening the population and disrupting aviation traffic to and from Israel. The results show that individuals who attributed higher importance to airline security and exhibited more fear and less optimism were willing to pay more for airline security and safety.
Findings
The results show that individuals who attributed higher perceived importance to airline security and exhibited more fear and less optimism were willing to pay more for the security and safety of flying.
Research limitations/implications
The implications of the study are important for understanding how terrorist attacks and negative aviation events affect people’s feelings, pessimism/optimism and general attitudes toward airline security.
Originality/value
Due to the increase in the number of terror attack involving airlines, it is important for understanding the demand for tickets on secure airlines. Such an understanding is essential for evaluating the perceived benefit of safety and security improvements in the aviation industry and for developing marketing strategies for different tickets.
The study assesses the role of forces of law and order in modulating the insecurity-tourism nexus in 163 countries for the period 2010 to 2015. Policy syndromes or insecurity dynamics include: violent crime, access to weapons, political instability and perception of criminality while the policy variables of forces of law and order are captured with "security officers & police" and "armed service personnel". The empirical evidence is based on Negative Binomial regressions. The findings show that the policy variables can be effectively used to crowd-out the negative incidence of policy syndromes on tourist arrivals. The results are contingent on net effects (from conditional and unconditional effects), insecurity dynamics and thresholds. A threshold is an inflexion point at which the unfavorable unconditional effect from a policy syndrome of insecurity on tourist arrivals is completely neutralized by policy variables of forces of law and order. Policy implications are discussed.
Drawing on the critique of ideology elaborated by the Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek, in this conceptual paper we rethink responsible tourism. More specifically, in line with Žižek’s argument that ideology is closely linked to reality and not a dreamlike illusion, we reconceptualise the ideological character of responsible tourism. This ideological character, we propose, is fundamentally rooted in real global issues, and often inadvertently and implicitly sustains the mechanism of modern global capitalism. Although responsible tourism has been a powerful unifier among tourism stakeholders, we argue that its critical conceptual considerations have not yet been given sufficient robust reflection. Hence, in this conceptual paper, we rethink responsible tourism through the lens of ideology contributing to further knowledge about this topic. In doing so, we analyse two key policy documents: the Cape Town (2002 Cape Town Declaration. (2002). Cape Town Conference on responsible tourism in destinations. Retrieved from http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/tourism/Documents/Responsible%20Tourism/Toruism_RT_2002_Cape_Town_Declaration.pdf. Accessed 05/04/2018. [Google Scholar]) and Kerala (2008 Kerala Declaration, 2008. http://www.haroldgoodwin.info/documents/KeralaDeclaration.pdf. Accessed 05/04/2018. [Google Scholar]) Declarations from which the term of responsible tourism originated. Following Žižek’s critique of ideology, we aspire to shape more inclusive and effective sustainable and responsible development as advocated by the Sustainable Development Goals and responsible tourism stakeholders. Furthermore, the novel interjection of the Žižekian concept of ideology to the context of responsible tourism opens up new theoretical possibilities for critical tourism studies.
This study examines the effect of terrorism and peace on tourist destination arrivals using a panel of 163 countries with data for the period 2010 to 2015. The empirical evidence is based on Generalised Method of Moments and Negative Binomial (NB) regressions. Our best estimators are from NB regressions from which the following main findings are established. First, political instability, violent demonstrations and number of homicides negatively affect tourist arrivals while the number of incarcerations positively influences the outcome variable. Second the effects from military expenditure, "armed service personnel" and "security officers and polices" are not positively significant. Managerial implications are discussed.
The relative simplicity of the term ‘dark tourism’, which has achieved a broad if not contested acceptance within academia and industry alike, is in contrast to the multifaceted nature of the phenomenon. Embedded in this complexity is the association dark tourism makes between the presentation and consumption of death in the context of tourism, as well as the complex relationships humans have with death and mortality—as individuals as well as societies. Tourism has been traditionally explored from a hedonistic perspective and, subsequently, has assumed that consumption of tourism products and destinations predominately serve the purpose of experiencing fun and pleasure (Gnoth, 1997; Malone et al., 2014). Death, conflict, and atrocity sites which elicit sadness, distress, and an inherent sense of danger have been predominately considered deterring factors for tourists (Biran et al., 2014; Buda, 2015a). An important aspect of dark tourism—that of human suffering—has made it difficult to apply traditional tourism motivational theories to its study (Dunkley et al., 2011). Moreover, with the seemingly pleasure-oriented consumption of tourism in places connected to death and tragedy, visits to such sites have been often portrayed as immoral, deviant, or a social pathology (Biran and Poria, 2012; Stone and Sharpley, 2013; also see Chap. 7).
The aim of this paper was to identify and better understand factors and conditions related to fear in travel. A review of literature on concepts such as constraints, shock, panic, risk, anxiety, and worry provided the necessary content from which to both summarize the tourism literature on fear, and also formulate a Model of Travel Fear. This model, developed through content analysis of the literature, and student trip summaries, is comprised of six main components. These include Characteristics of the tourist, Fear-inducing factors of a trip, Strategies to reduce (or amplify) fear, Travel stage, Fear intensity, and Fear responses. Suggestions were made for future research, particularly empirical testing of the model, and for applications of the model in the tourism industry.
Terrorism, pandemic diseases, and other threatening events have recently heightened the sense of personal risk for tourists considering international travel. This article addresses the paucity of research assessing perceptions of risk both before and during travel to risky destinations. Tourists on two nature tours in Mexico were interviewed and observed while engaged in the travel. Many types of specific perceived risks were uncovered, including insect-borne disease, traffic accidents, financial losses, and unattained goals. Some correlates of perceived risk were tour company reputation, stage of family life cycle, age, and motivation. Based on the types of perceived risk and the factors, five propositions are discussed. One unexpected proposition addresses the role of age and states that as the perceived years of physical ability to travel decreases, the tolerance for safety risk increases. Another proposes that eco-tourists with intense, destination- specific motivations are more tolerant of travel risk than those with casual and/or social motivations. The article concludes with suggestions for tour industry managers and directions for future research.
One of the sustained threads in geography's disciplinary history is the study of human/environment relationships. Many landmark studies were conducted by those with interests in historical and cultural geography, the same groups that pioneered the study of religion in geography. More recently, the study of religion and religious topics within geography has blossomed with investigations into geopolitics, social practices and institutions, everyday life, and new migration mixes. Studying the religious content in the reporting of natural disasters illustrates one example of a topic where the religion/environment interfaces exist. I examine lead articles or hyperlinks about the January 2010 Haitian earthquake and April 2010 Icelandic volcanic eruption on the Google search engine. I also accessed and deconstructed the religious content of editorial cartoons about both disasters from major cartoon databases. Distinct differences occurred in the hyperlink and cartoon analyses. The leading hyperlinks about Haiti related to the comments Rev. Pat ROBERTSON made about the country making a pact with the devil. Fewer were stories about aid and relief efforts. Conservative clerical comments also dominated Google's hyperlinks about Iceland's eruption. Religious cartoons about Haiti's adversity were predominantly about ROBERTSON, mostly poking fun at him. The cartoons about Iceland were fewer and displayed more humor. Tins study suggests additional research topics using hyperlinks and cartoons that would enhance our studies into theological/environmental issues on the Internet as well as visualization.
On the Geographies of Psychic LifePsycho-social GeographiesHow We Know Psychic LifePsychogeographies and the Psychodynamic CityDisruptive Psychic Life and Traumatic GeographiesConclusion
References
Purpose
– The current study aims at exploring China’s tourism sustainability issues as indicated in magazine articles related to China tourism. China’s environmental, socio-cultural and economic sustainability has been frequently discussed in Western media.
Design/methodology/approach
– Both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies were used to content analyze the textual data in one of the most popular US travel magazine – National Geographic in the past ten years (2003-2012).
Findings
– This study presents the changes of topics on China tourism image conveyed by Western media in the past ten years (2013-2012). In addition, themes on China tourism sustainability issues are extracted from the China tourism image messages. The results reveal China tourism sustainability issues in two levels: sustainability issues directly related to China tourism with two dimensions of environmental sustainability and socio-cultural sustainability, and sustainability issues indirectly related to China tourism with two dimensions of economic sustainability and socio-cultural sustainability. Furthermore, the results delineate both positive and negative observations on environmental, socio-cultural and economic sustainability.
Originality/value
– The findings of the study highlight challenges and successful practices of the sustainable development in China tourism destinations and the importance of incorporating tourism image in sustainable practices, as well as a need of better communication with foreign media.
The psychoanalytical concept of the death drive postulated by Freud and Lacan refers to a constant force at the junction between life and death, which is not understood in a biological sense of physical demise of the body, nor in opposition to life. Tourist experiences in conflict zones can be more critically understood through the lens of the death drive. Empirical data for this project draws on individual and group interviews undertaken with tourists and tourism industry representatives in Jordan. Findings suggest that by travelling in a conflict area some tourists negotiate embedded family memories and archaic traumas. Accessing the death drive, tourists also assert and disrupt binaries such as fun/fear and life/death.
Desire is a continuous force, fundamentally eccentric and insatiable, yet insufficiently explored in tourism studies. To examine desire in tourism to ‘unusual’ places of darkness and danger we propose four interpretations of this psychoanalytic concept: desire as recognition, ‘object’ cause of desire, desire for novelty, and desire for fantasy. Initial empirical evidence drawn from analysing online mass-media accounts of tourists in North Korea suggests that tourists access desire when travelling to such a country portrayed as one of the most reclusive, dangerous and feared in the world.
This research article examines the communicative techniques and discourse employed by Chinese tour guides during their interaction with English-speaking tourists. In-depth interviews were conducted with tour guides in three locations, intending to capture a cross section of major destinations for visitors to China where the interface between the Chinese host and visitors is likely to be most instructive. The locations for the interviews included Beijing, the cultural and historical center of China; Shanghai, the country's commercial center; and Guilin, a major nature-based tourism destination. The findings indicate that, from a functional perspective, Chinese tour guides employ a variety of communicative strategies when interacting with tourists, which may be indicative of coping behavior or reflective of their inherent attitudes toward visitors. These interactive communication strategies include the use of proverbs, metaphors, analogies, similes, and humor. The prevalent utilization of such techniques in the tour guides’ discourse with visitors not only manifests guides’ wit and wisdom but, viewed from critical tourism and sociolinguistic perspectives, also likely arises in large part from their intent to maintain China's traditional social, political, and economic order in the face of the dramatic changes now taking place in China.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to propose voyeurism as one possible lens to analyse the experiential nature of dark tourism in places of socio‐political danger, thus expanding psychoanalytic understandings of those who travel to a “dark” place.
Design/methodology/approach
Freud's and Lacan's theories on voyeurism are used to examine the desire to travel to and gaze upon something that is (socially constructed as) forbidden, such as a place that is portrayed as being hostile to international tourists. A qualitative and critical analysis approach is employed to examine one tourist's experience of travelling to Iran and being imprisoned as a result of taking a photograph of what he thought was a sunrise but also pictured pylons near an electrical plant.
Findings
The authors' analysis of the experiences of this tourist in Iran reveals that tourism, in its widest sense, can be experienced as “dark” through the consumption and performance of danger. This finding moves beyond the examination of dark tourism merely as “tourist products”, or that frame a particular moment in time, or are merely founded on one's connection to or perception of the site.
Research limitations/implications
Whilst the authors recognise the limitations of the case study approach taken here, and as such, generalisations cannot be inferred from the findings, it is argued that there is merit in exploring critically the motivational and experiential nature of travel to places that may be considered forbidden, dangerous or hostile in an attempt to further understand the concept of dark tourism from a tourist's lived perspective.
Originality/value
As the authors bring voyeurism into the debate on dark tourism, the study analyses the voyeuristic experiences of a dark tourist. In short, the authors argue that the lived and “deviant” experiential nature of tourism itself can be included in the discussion of “dark tourism”.
This review, which is organised according to key themes, suggests that tourism researchers can profit from contemporary developments in mainstream psychology. The themes addressed are motivation and destination choice, attitudes and satisfaction, memory, and personal growth. Patterned and dual processing approaches to behaviour are highlighted. Additionally a framework for advancing the analysis of minds on the move should consider a range of dimensions including emic and etic approaches, transects across domains of inquiry, social as well as individual processes, longitudinal work, pan-cultural analysis and contextual classifications. It is argued that accessing psychology scholarship can build the capacity of tourism researchers.
The current article conceptualizes the phenomenon of deviant tourist behavior from the perspective of psychodynamic sociology. The analysis suggests that various unconscious drives can either be gratified by normative tourist activities that involve adaptive defense mechanisms or lead to deviant tourist behaviors that entail distorting defense mechanisms. This argument is illustrated with respect the following unconscious needs: Sigmund Freud’s Id instincts of sex and of aggression, his notion of social rules internalized in the Superego and the archetypes of the hero and of the lost paradise that derive from Carl Jung’s theory. The conceptual analysis is discussed in light of recent theoretical developments within and beyond tourism scholarship.
This article investigates the impact of cultural and psychographic factors on perceptions of travel risk, anxiety, and intentions to travel internationally. The study involved 246 Australian and 336 foreign respondents who were surveyed as to their cultural orientation, personality, lifestyle, travel motivation, risk and safety perception, anxiety, and intentions to travel. The results of a path analysis showed that the travel risk perception was a function of cultural orientation and psychographic factors in both samples, and anxiety was a function of type of perceived risk. The terrorism and sociocultural risk emerged as the most significant predictors of travel anxiety. Intentions to travel internationally were determined by travel anxiety levels and level of perceived safety. Implications for future research and marketing practices are discussed.
This study aimed to explore the projected images of major outbound destinations based on popular travel magazines in China. Travel articles on Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan from 2006 to 2008 were content analyzed. Japan was reported on most, and the projected images of the six destinations are dominated by leisure and recreation, and culture, history and art. Correspondence analysis was used to examine relationships between destinations and popular image attributes. The results showed that South Korea and Macau had distinct projected images, whereas Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Vietnam shared many similar image attributes. Practical implications for destination marketing organizations are provided.
The article provides a review of the expansion of the concept of security and the relationship of security to tourism. It is argued that the concept of security has become transformed from one of collective security and common defence to embrace notions of common and cooperative security. Despite the damage done to the concept of collective security because of the United States led invasion of Iraq, the development of common security structures through collective, multilateral frameworks such as the United Nations remains important for the expansion of security concerns to cover the environment, health and economic threats. The article also notes that tourism and supranational tourism organizations have little influence on peace and security agendas although such agendas are important for tourism. Nevertheless, particularly at the micro-level, appropriate tourism development may serve as a means to ward off potential future conflict over resource and environmental security.
The primary objective of this paper is twofold: (i) to investigate the impact of perceived risk on the tendency to travel internationally; and (ii) to explore if there is any difference in the perception of risky places among three clusters segmented based on the Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance index. The sample population of the study consists of 1180 international travellers visiting Hong Kong in the fall of 2003. The research findings show that the majority of travellers are more likely to change their travel plans to a destination that has elevated risk while the minority reports they are more unlikely. These findings suggest that international travellers appear to be sensitive towards the occurrence of any type of risk in their evoked destinations. Differences were also observed from one continent to another in terms of the influence of perceived risks. The final note is that travellers from different national cultures may have varying degrees of the perceived risk. Implications both for theory and practitioners are also discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Critical approaches to tourism, united by a refusal to conceptualize tourism as mere enjoyment, illustrate how Third World tourism typically involves labor exploitation, unequal gender relations, cultural destruction, and environmental degradation. Researchers presuppose, however, that enjoyment is an innocent and self-evident psychological phenomenon underpinned by and opposed to worthier objects of inquiry such as exploitation, domination, and discrimination by virtue of their politically serious, conceptually profound, and empirically complex properties. These critical approaches, however, are not critical insofar as they tacitly assume that the phenomenon of enjoyment is just enjoyment: easily enjoyed and unrelated to the problems of tourism. The main thesis of this paper is that a thorough theoretical conceptualization of enjoyment is necessary for any analysis of tourism to be sufficiently rigorous. The psychoanalytic concepts of Jacques Lacan and the work of Slavoj Žižek offer an unparalleled theoretical vocabulary with which to investigate the subjective, material, embodied, discursive, and enacted dimensions of enjoyment in tourism. The paper elaborates what I call a politics of enjoyment using key psychoanalytic ideas that include jouissance, the pleasure principle, the Other, and fantasy to critically explicate the contradictions, antagonisms, and impasses that (de)structure Jamaica's “One Love” and “No Problem” tourism product located on a Caribbean island renowned for beach bliss and civil unrest.
The present paper examines the way protected areas are constructed as tourism destinations by the information sources (i.e. a Greek travel magazine) that are consumed by potential visitors to such areas. Specifically, it explores what form of tourism is proposed for virtual visitors, whether it is ecotourism (i.e. both tourism and environmentalism) or simply a nature-based one (i.e. exclusively tourism). Examining the way a Greek travel magazine builds protected areas as tourism destinations, and consequently what expectations are created for readers and potential visitors to such areas, the focus of the present paper is on whether the media contribute to the failure on the part of visitors to protected areas, who are the majority of the people engaging in ecotourism activities, to incorporate environmentalist besides tourism pursuits in their travel experiences. The analysis suggests that the travel magazine cultivates the view that other protected areas (with a tradition in mass tourism) are suitable for nature-based tourism, others (with great ecological interest) for environmentalism, but few for ecotourism. This means that visitors to protected areas will probably have a difficulty in combining tourism with environmentalist pursuits, rather than in developing environmentalist concerns in general. Copyright
This book presents an introduction to tourism, leisure and recreation and to the relationships between them. It includes a number of international case studies spanning Europe, North America, Australasia and Asia. Each chapter highlights the methods of analysis used by geographers to analyse recreation and tourism, and highlights the similarities and differences between the way recreation and tourism is analysed. Recent perspectives developed in human geography are introduced (e.g. gender studies and post- modernism) and a range of chapters examine: the demand of recreation and tourism; the supply of recreation and tourism; the impacts of recreation and tourism; tourism and recreation in urban and rural environments; tourism and recreation in wilderness areas and other peripheral regions; tourism and recreation planning and policy; and the future for tourism and recreation.
Over the past decade a growing number of tourism researchers have turned their attention to the effects of political instability and violence on tourism (Teye, 1986; 1988; Ryan, 1991; Gartner and Shen, 1992; Richter, 1992; Wilson, 1993; Mihalic, 1996; Pizam and Mansfield, 1996). The relationship between political turmoil and tourism is particularly salient to this volume's theme of interconnected worlds in Southeast Asia. Even very localised political violence has the potential to reverberate on tourism within national boundaries as well as regionally and internationally. In recent years, political turmoil in parts of Indonesia, Myanmar, and Cambodia appears to have slowed the flow of international tourists to other Southeast Asian nations. For this reason, even countries celebrated for their safety as tourist destinations fear declining tourism revenues when political violence erupts in neighbouring nations. While acknowledging these important concerns, this chapter explores some of the hidden dimensions and potentials of tourism in violence-tainted times.
This paper argues that modern constructions of “race” are inherent in specifically modern constructions of heterosexuality and that both of them inform the normative familial quadrad: Mother, Father, Son, and the Repressed (Bestial). These mythic familial categories constitute the basis of the “oedipal” family and are instrumentally interconnected. Here the oedipal triad of Mother-Son-Father is ideationally encoded as white, the repressed bestial being “colored”– typically “black.” I argue racism’s immanence to oedipal familial constructions by spatially reworking Fredric Jameson’s notion of the political unconscious. In so doing, I develop ways for thinking through how the psyche can be understood as a structured and libidinized spatial effect, a repository of colonial violences of body and place, unspoken and hence repressed (“unconscious”). I propose the term racist-oedipalization (after Deleuze and Guattari's oedipalization) to connote the processual ways in which racist thinking and practices are integral to white oedipal family structures and norms. In so doing, I explore how racist-oedipal configurations have worked variably, in the interests of contemporary and past colonialisms, to great embodied geographical effect. The paper begins by theoretically linking blackness to incestuousness and colonization to productions of the psychical “unconscious.” The core of the paper threads the theory through particular racialized geographies in the U.S. These include, on the one hand, southern plantation slave and post-Reconstruction settings, and, on the other hand, urban segregationary practices impelled by the University of Chicago, culminating in their racialized plans for urban renewal in the 1950s.
The relationships between tourism and politics in Southeast Asia are probably more important now than they have ever been before. The impacts of the Asian financial crisis have served to heighten the interconnectedness of the Asian economies through the increased mobility of capital, information, investment, labour, tourists and, consequently, their political relationships as well. Tourism is a very significant part of these relationships. Tourism, for long one of the mainstays of the region's economy - accounting for 10.3 per cent of Asia's gross domestic product (GDP) ( AsiaWeek, 6 November 1998) - has now become an even more important source of economic development, foreign exchange, and employment generation. Indeed, the extent to which the Asian financial crises and political crises are related illustrates the way in which a better understanding of the political dimensions of tourism may assist government and industry in developing appropriate policy settings. Such an observation reflects the comment of Richter and Waugh (1986:23 1): … tourism may decline precipitously when political conditions appear unsettled. Tourists simply choose alternative destinations. Unfortunately, many national leaders and planners either do not understand or will not accept the fact that political serenity, not scenic or cultural attractions, constitute the first and central requirement of tourism.
The symbiotic relationship between terrorism and tourism needs to be understood and acted on, not just in terms of security and marketing, but in terms of such factors as planning, site development, employment policies, political risk analysis and emergency management. This article looks at the relationship between tourism and terrorism from several perspectives. The political and economic impact of terrorism on tourism is assessed, including the sensitivity of the tourism industry to general political strife and the vulnerability of travellers and tourist facilities to terroristic activity. The nature of terroristic violence and the objectives of terrorist groups are evaluated to determine why and how attacks on tourists and facilities may fit the organizational and political objectives of terrorist groups. Finally, the article suggests how the industry and policy makers must proceed to reduce the vulnerability for tourists and the travel sector.
War is a major modern security issue, distinguished from crime and terrorism by its deep societal penetration and long-term consequences. As an important cultural time-marker, populations segment their history in three phases, “before the war”, “during the war” and “after the war”. The interrelationships between war and tourism have been minimally investigated, but the literature to date indicates that war negatively affects tourism. This ethnography examines the sequential development of the United States tourism from World War I to the present, and the impact of World War II in laying the foundations for modern mass and charter tourism. The data suggest that war stimulates promotional, emotional, military and political tourism, and that war-related tourism attractions are the largest single category known.RésuméLa guerre et le tourisme de masse: une ethnographie américaine. La guerre est distinguée du crime et du terrorisme par ses conséquences sociales profondes et à long terme. Une guerre est un jalon temporel important: on segmente l'histoire en “avant-guerre”, “temps de guerre”, “après guerre”. On a peu examiné la relation entre guerre et tourisme; la littérature parle des effects négatifs de la guerre sur le tourisme. La présente ethnographie examine le développement du tourisme aux États-Unis depuis la Première guerre mondiale au présent, et l'impact de la Deuxième guerre mondiale sur la fondation du tourisme moderne de masse. On suggère que la guerre stimule le tourisme promotionnel, émotionnel, militaire et politique, et que les attractions touristiques de guerre sont la plus grande catégorie qui soit.
Travel and tourism has become one of the largest industrial complexes and item of consumption in modern Western economies. It is argued here that, to date, geographers studying tourism have done so without fully grasping the fact that tourism is an important avenue of capitalist accumulation. I contend that if this weakness is rectified the geographic analysis of tourism could provide important contributions to contemporary debates in geography. In an attempt to integrate critical theory and political economy into the study of tourism, two themes are developed: the capitalistic nature of most travel and tourism production and consumption; and the contribution of tourism to the analysis of territorial competition and economic restructuring. The core of the argument presented is that the study of tourism assists us to recognise how the social meaning and materiality of space and place is created, and how these representations of place are explicitly incorporated into the accumulation process. To understand how tourism is involved in this, we need a theorisation that recognises, and unveils, tourism as a capitalistically organised activity driven by the inherent and defining social dynamics of that system, with its attendant production, social, and ideological relations. -Author
Development of Africa's immense tourism potential is severely limited for reasons including lack of capital, distance from the large North American and European markets, the cost of travel to Africa, and Africa's poor image abroad. A key factor contributing to this image problem is political instability. Since World War II, almost all African countries have achieved independence. In several countries, this decolonization process has taken the form of long and often bloody liberation wars. This paper examines the impact of Zimbabwe's protracted liberation war on tourism development in Zambia and suggests that a detailed examination of major internal and external political events associated with the decolonization process in Zimbabwe could provide important perspectives on the obstacles to tourism development in other African countries.RésuméLes guerres de libération et le développement du tourisme en Afrique: le cas de la Zambie. Le développement des immenses potentialtés du tourisme en Afrique est très limité pour des raisons qui comprennent la manque de capital, la distance des grands marchés de l'Amérique du Nord et de l'Europe, le coût de voyager en Afrique, et la mauvaise image de marque de l'Afrique qui existe à l'étranger. Un facteur clef qui contribue à ce problème d'image est l'instabilité politique. Depuis la Deuxième guerre mondiale, presque tous les pays de l'Afrique ont atteint l'indépendance. Dans plusieurs pays, ce processus de décolonisation a consisté en des guerres de libération qui ont été longues et souvent sanglantes. Le présent article examine l'impact de la très longue guerre de libération au Zimbabwe, et il suggère qu'une étude détaillée des événements principaux intérieurs et extérieurs que l'on associe au processus de décolonisation au Zimbabwe pourrait donner des perspectives importantes sur les obstacles au développement du tourisme dans d'autres pays africains.
The relationship between crime and tourism is discussed. After suggesting a classification of the relationship between crime and tourism, it is suggested that further analysis must recognize that both tourism and crime are demands derived from a wider social context. The practical implications for tour operators are also discussed.
This commentary aims to introduce the utility of social theory for tourism research. It summarizes the theoretical perspectives of post-modernism, structuralism and post-structuralism and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of applying these theories in tourism studies. The article concludes that when researchers guided by social theory stay engaged with empirical studies, they can expand the focus of tourism research. Furthermore, these theoretical approaches should not supplant traditional research methodologies, but should be employed to better understand the spaces and places of tourism.
This study reviews the general literature on tourism and crime and the recent history of violent and property crime in several Caribbean destinations. It highlights the failure of most previous research to discriminate crimes against tourists vs. residents. Annual crime data for Barbados for 1989–93 are analyzed and reveal that overall guest victimization rates are higher than host rates. Residents are significantly more likely to be victimized by violent crime while tourists are significantly more likely to experience property crime and robbery. Monthly data on guest victimization for 1990–93 show similar patterns. The paper concludes with a number of measures to enhance tourist safety.
How often have we heard in answer to the question “How did you enjoy your holiday?”, the inevitable reply “It was simply fantastic.” Perhaps, knowing the answer in advance has dulled our intellects from further investigating the fuller meaning of such an expression, namely that holidays are essentially experiences in fantasy. In the course of this article I should like to examine briefly the notion of fantasy from both a theoretical and empirical perspective, the latter being based on certain findings derived from a psycho-sociological study of tourists' attitudes, conducted recently in Barbados.
Since before the end of the Cold War, terrorism acts have had major effects on tourism destinations. As a result, the 'shadowy, mobile, and unpredictable' forces of terrorism are becoming an unfortunate part of the travel and tourism landscape. Few can forget the explosion that killed three in Paris in 1986, the home-made pipe bomb in Tel Aviv in 1990, the November 1997 massacre of 58 tourists at Luxor's Temple of Hatshepsut in Egypt, and the Kenyan and Tanzanian US Embassy truck bombings killing 263 in August 1998. This paper provides a quantitative analysis of major terrorism events around the world during 1985-98, classified by date, location, victims, weapons used, severity of damage, motive, effect on tourism demand, and length of effect. The analysis is followed by a summary and conclusions about the magnitude of the impact of these events on host destinations and the tourism industry worldwide.
This article analyses the relationship between tourism and the terrorist attacks carried out by Muslim groups during the past two years in Egypt. The paper examines the relationship between Islam, hospitality and the notion of tourism — and finds that Islam does not reject tourism per se. However, the nature of tourism development in Egypt, and especially in Upper Egypt, has led to acts of violence by Muslim groups. In order to envisage the scope of the problem a profile of these groups is presented to assess whether tourists are the real targets of such attacks. The tourism industry, the government, the developers and the tourists are as responsible for this undersirable situation as the Muslim groups. Central to the argument is that violence is a reaction to irresponsible tourism development. Clamping down on the Muslim groups is damage limitation rather than problem solving. Terrorism in Egypt is an indicator of the problem rather than being a problem in its own capacity.
The origins of ethical concern about tourism development in the Third World are traced in both the sociology of development and environmental ethics literature. New secular and religious writings single out the traveler and the tourism industry as objects of ethical concern. This paper presents a preliminary overview of the growing “responsible tourism” and travel ethics literature and explores the significance of anti-tourism activity in the Indian State of Goa. In conclusion, a three-part grouping into Third World development ethics, tourism industry ethics, and personal travel ethics categories is suggested.RésuméUne éthique du développement du tourisme au Tiers-Monde. Dans cet article, on remonte la filière du souci éthique au sujet du tourisme au Tiers-Monde dans la littérature de la sociologie du développement et dans la littérature de l'éthique environnementale. De nouveaux écrits d'ordre religieux et profane identifient le voyageur et l'industrie touristique comme des sujets d'intérêt éthique. On présente une vue d'ensemble de la croissance d'une littérature du “tourisme responsable” et de l'éthique du voyage. On étudie la signification de l'activité anti-touristique dans l'état indien de Goa. Pour conclure, on propose un groupement de ces questions en trois catégories: l'éthique du développement au Tiers-Monde, l'éthique de l'industrie touristique et l'éthique des voyages individuels.
This paper focuses on motivational and emotional aspects of destination choice behavior. In a marketing context, a conceptual model using push, pull, and hedonic factors is developed for research on evaluations of destination attributes. In this context tourists are pushed by their emotional needs and pulled by the emotional benefits. Consequently, emotional and experiential needs are relevant in pleasure-seeking and choice behavior. From an information processing point of view, it is suggested that mental imagery is an anticipating and motivating force that mediates emotional experiences, evaluations, and behavioral intentions. The conceptual model is relevant for managers who want to know the affective and motivational reaction of customers to promotional stimuli.RésuméL’information du tourisme et la motivation du plaisir. Cet article discute des motivations et des émotions dans le comportement du choix de destination. Visant un contexte de marketing, un modèle théorique a été établi à la base de stimulation et d’encouragement ainsi que d’éléments hédoniques, afin d’étudier l’évaluation des attributs de destinations. Dans ce contexte affectif, les touristes sont stimulés par leurs besoins et encouragés par des bienfaits éventuels. Le besoin d’émotions et d’expériences est donc lié aux comportements de choix et d’hédonisme. Du point de vue de l’assimilation de l’information, on suggère que l’image mentale est une force motivante et anticipatoire qui modifie les expériences affectives, les évaluations et les intentions du comportement. Ce modèle est utile pour connaı̂tre les motivations et les réactions que produisent les stimulus publicitaires.
Concepts of terrorism, political turmoil, and war appear unrelated to tourism. Closer examination of their points of convergence and impacts on tourism reveals otherwise. This paper examines literature focusing on the relationships between these phenomena. Research themes which emerge from available studies include impacts of terrorism and political instability on tourist demand, motives of terrorists in targeting tourists, using tourism as a political tool, the effects of political violence on destination image, crisis management, and recovery marketing efforts. The intent of this article is to synthesize research on these relationships, to present a comprehensive index of relevant publications, and to suggest topics for future research.RésuméTourisme, terrorisme et instabilité politique. À première vue le terrorisme, l'instabilité politique et la guerre ne semblent pas être liés au tourisme. Mais une examination plus approfondie de leurs points de convergence et de leurs impacts sur l'industrie du tourisme indique autrement. Cet article examine las littérature sur les relations entre ces phénomènes. Les thèmes des études précédentes incluent les impacts du terrorisme et de l'instabilité politique sur la demande touristique, les motivations des terroristes prenant pour cible des touristes, l'utilisation du tourisme comme outil politique, les effets des violences politiques sur l'image des destinations, la gérance des crises et les efforts de promation suite aux incidents. L'article présente aussi un index exhaustif des publications importantes et suggère des sujets de recherche future.
Sumario: Tourism and crime -- Tourism and political instability -- Tourism and war -- Crime and the hotel industry
Herber Marcuse (1898-1979), filósofo alemán, plantea en la presente obra un estudio que tiene como fin contribuir en la construcción de una filosofía del psicoanálisis y destacar sus implicaciones sociológicas en la comprensión de la sociedad, como una cultura que paulatinamente se ha ido emancipando de los instintos represivos.
Interconnected Worlds: Tourism in South-east Asia
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Understanding psychographics in tourism research
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The Body and the City: Psychoanalysis, Space and Subjectivity Tourism, Crime and International Security Is-sues Tourism and terrorism: A quantitative analysis of ma-jor terrorist acts and their impact on tourism destinations
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The Plague of Fantasies
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Theoretical issues for tourism's future development
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Tourism and world peace
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Terrorism and tourism: an overview and an Irish example
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Welcome to the Desert of the Real
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