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Lacking Control Increases Illusory Patter Perception
Abstract
We present six experiments that tested whether lacking control increases illusory pattern perception, which we define as the identification of a coherent and meaningful interrelationship among a set of random or unrelated stimuli. Participants who lacked control were more likely to perceive a variety of illusory patterns, including seeing images in noise, forming illusory correlations in stock market information, perceiving conspiracies, and developing superstitions. Additionally, we demonstrated that increased pattern perception has a motivational basis by measuring the need for structure directly and showing that the causal link between lack of control and illusory pattern perception is reduced by affirming the self. Although these many disparate forms of pattern perception are typically discussed as separate phenomena, the current results suggest that there is a common motive underlying them.
... Tieto špecifické epistemické motívy umožňujú vytváranie reality, ktorá namiesto nejasností ponúka "jasnosť a zrozumiteľnosť". Jedným z výsledkov daného procesu je potreba byť v stave kontroly, ktorá vytvára percepčný vzorec poskytujúci "zmysluplnú" interpretáciu okolitého sveta a to aj vtedy, keď samotné podnety nemusia mať nutne zmysluplný charakter (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Je však potrebné spomenúť, že mnohé z týchto vysvetlení nedeklarujú kauzálne vysvetlenia a majú skôr charakter nepodložených a špekulatívnych presvedčení (Wagner-Egger et al., 2018). ...
... súvisiacimi (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). ...
... Mnohé z takto detegovaných vzorcov viedli nie len k prežitiu, ale aj k vyhľadávaniu nových možností ako realizovať svoj životný príbeh v danom prostredí. Na strane druhej sa však vyskytli prípady, keď rozpoznávanie vzorcov bolo interpretované mylne (Shermer, 2011), teda vzorce neboli správne detegované (Gilovich et al., 1985;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Chyby, ktoré sa následne vyskytli v tomto kognitívnom procese viedli mnohokrát k iracionálnym formám presvedčení, medzi ktoré môžeme zaradiť napríklad paranormálne presvedčenia (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983 ...
... The perception of meaningful and organized relationships between random and unrelated stimulus clusters is illusory pattern perception (IPP; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Relational and conceptual processing during encoding is not fully functional in schizophrenia (Paz-Alonso et al., 2013). ...
... It was found that participants who perceive patterns in chaotic and unstructured modern art paintings demonstrated greater belief in existing conspiracy theories and imaginary models of conspiracy theories (Van Prooijen et al., 2018). Also people who were manipulated to have a feeling of lack of control had a greater need to perceive clear patterns, perceived more misleading patterns by identifying images in pictures with no real images than the control group (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Delusional experiences in humans include supernatural beliefs and conspiracy-like beliefs, and IPP is linked to a lack of control and belief in conspiracy theories (Van Prooijen et al., 2018). ...
... Previous studies (e.g. Greenaway et al., 2013, van Elk & Lodder 2018Whitson & Galinsky, 2008) showed that the IPP level increases with uncertainty as lack of control decreases. For instance, Greenaway et al. (2013) showed that threat did not inevitably lead to prejudice but interacted with levels of perceived control to guide social defensiveness. ...
Background
Whether the false memory dysfunction in schizophrenia is at the early (encoding, perceptual) or later (retrieval) stages and how delusions affect it remains unclear.
Method
In this study, we examined the perception and memory biases in schizophrenia patients with (Sch/D; n = 31) and without delusions (Sch/Nd; n = 32) and compared them with healthy controls (HCs; n = 35). We used the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) Paradigm and the Noise Task to measure the false memory and illusory pattern perception (IPP) biases, respectively.
Results
We found that the patient groups performed lower in both the recall and recognition phases for the DRM and the Noise tasks and made more errors compared to the HC group. Additionally, the performance of the Sch/D group was remarkably lower than the Sch/Nd and HC groups.
Conclusions
Our results indicated that the information-processing problem in schizophrenia exists in both the encoding and retrieval stages. Also found significant relationship between the presence of delusions and the increase in cognitive deficits.
... According to the compensatory model, a switch to fast, heuristic processing following control deprivation manifests in various ways, including a tendency to perceive illusory perceptual patterns (e.g. Whitson & Galinsky, 2008; but see van Elk & Lodder, 2018), as well as an increased perception of illusory correlations in the social world, superstitions and the formation of conspiracy beliefs (e.g. Greenaway et al., 2015;Kay et al., 2008;Landau et al., 2015;Rutjens & Kay, 2016;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). ...
... Whitson & Galinsky, 2008; but see van Elk & Lodder, 2018), as well as an increased perception of illusory correlations in the social world, superstitions and the formation of conspiracy beliefs (e.g. Greenaway et al., 2015;Kay et al., 2008;Landau et al., 2015;Rutjens & Kay, 2016;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Thus, the compensatory model would predict that a threat to control is more likely to promote deontological, rather than utilitarian, moral judgements. ...
... Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups (a manipulation based on the work of Whitson & Galinsky, 2008; for an evaluation of the validity of such a procedure, see Bukowski et al., 2024). In the experimental condition (n = 75), they were asked to recall and elaborate on an experience in which they had no influence over its outcome, and in the control condition (n = 51), they were asked to recall and elaborate on an experience in which they had total influence over its outcome. ...
In three studies (total N = 622), the effects of threat to control on subsequent moral judgement were examined. After recalling a lack‐of‐control experience, participants evaluated the morality of a protagonist's decisions in a series of incongruent moral dilemmas. We found that a control‐threatening reminder made moral judgements more utilitarian on the deontological–utilitarian dimension, which is consistent with the control motivation theory. However, this effect depended on the type of judgement and the duration of control deprivation. It emerged only when evaluating moral legitimacy, not overall moral acceptability, and only under brief control‐threatening situations, not long ones. Thus, control threat made moral reasoning more utilitarian only when factors promoting more careful, exhaustive story processing were at play. Presumably, under these conditions, the non‐specific motivation to regain control—by prompting effortful processing—allowed participants to weigh the moral pros and cons before reaching a final judgement.
... Individuals can do this by seeing order and structure even when, in fact, there is none. This has been shown for control threat reminders to increase illusory pattern perception (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008) or a preference for clear boundaries between objects (Cutright, 2012). In these studies, as reminders of control threat, for instance, researchers asked participants to think of an event in which they had full vs. no control or induced them to perceive high vs. low contingency between performance and feedback in concept identification tasks. ...
... Moreover, lack of control has been associated with a preference for clear, simple, and thus certain answers and worldviews. For example, it has been linked to increased approval of traditional gender stereotypes (Ma et al., 2019), the belief in a single moral truth (Stanley et al., 2020), belief in precognition (Greenaway et al., 2013), faith in scientific theories that emphasise predictability (Rutjens et al., 2010(Rutjens et al., , 2013, and beliefs in specific conspiracy theories (Kofta et al., 2020;Stojanov & Halberstadt, 2020;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). At the same time, people tend to react negatively to ambiguous contexts and situations that highlight a lack of structure, particularly following a salient threat to personal control (Ma & Kay, 2017). ...
... On the one hand, Latinos who are not born in the U.S. and whose parents are foreign-born may be more susceptible to disinformation and misinformation, which could increase their support for conspiracy theories. This may be due to typically lower levels of trust in government, as well as social exclusion and stigma, all of which are factors associated with endorsement of conspiracy theories (Albarracin 2022;Bedolla 2005;Douglas et al. 2019;Graeupner and Coman 2017;Robertson et al. 2022;Abeyta et al. 2015;Whitson and Galinsky 2008). On the other hand, limited experience in the U.S. may contribute to "rose-colored" perceptions, or a lack of familiarity with American political discourse, and a desire for social mobility that could act as a buffer, reducing their support for conspiratorial statements. ...
... A key element of conspiracy theories is the suspicion that an event or occurrence results from intentional actions by a secret organization with cynical motives. Existing literature suggests that people who believe in conspiracy theories tend to lack control, identify patterns in random events, and ascribe intention and agency to occurrences regardless of the factual evidence (Whitson and Galinsky 2008). In a similar vein, religious belief usually entails the existence of all-potent intentional agents (i.e., God) that act purposefully to shape the trajectory of human affairs and natural events. ...
What factors explain Latino support for conspiracy theories? Contemporary scholarship offers valuable insights on how psychological, social, and political factors shape support for conspiracy theories. At the same time, scholarly understanding of the dynamics that foster conspiracy beliefs among racial and ethnic minorities is much more limited. Utilizing survey responses from more than 1,000 Latinos, we theorize explicitly about the factors that explain their support for conspiracies. Consistent with the scholarship highlighting in-group diversity among Latinos, we reveal significant differences among Latinos in their propensity to harbor conspiracy beliefs. Some of the factors that influence their support for conspiratorial statements align with the broader literature, other results appear unique to Latino Americans. Religiosity, lack of trust in institutions, and conservative political ideology are associated with higher levels of conspiracy beliefs among Latinos. We also find that Latinos from later generations, those who consume Spanish media, and who disagree that Latinos face discrimination and White privilege exists are more likely to believe in certain conspiracy theories.
... Perceived behavioral control is one of the determinants for individuals to engage in pro-environmental behaviors (Aliedan et al., 2023). Perceiving things as controllable is an essential factor in psychological and physiological health, and maintaining a sense of control has long been recognized as a fundamental driver of people's lives and an essential determinant of constructed behavior (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). However, the lack of perceived control is a universal phenomenon, and natural and sociocultural environments can threaten consumers' sense of control (C. ...
... Y. Chen et al., 2017;Cutright & Samper, 2014). When individuals feel that their sense of control is threatened or they are unable to gain control objectively, they will attempt to perceptually gain control as a way to repair it (Landau et al., 2015;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Perceived behavioral control is an individual's assessment of the ease or difficulty of performing a particular behavior (Ajzen, 1991). ...
Plastic pollution control is imminent, and choosing biodegradable plastic bags instead of ordinary plastic bags is a critical way to control plastic pollution from the consumer side. This study constructs a prediction model of consumers’ willingness to use biodegradable plastic bags under the influence of perceived behavioral control based on the stimulus-organism-response model from the consumer perspective’s supply and demand sides. The empirical test results from 852 sample data points show that perceived product quality and price recognition have a significant positive effect on the willingness to use biodegradable plastic bags; attitude has a mediating effect on both paths; label cognition does not have a significant effect on the willingness to use biodegradable plastic bags, but label trust can play a mediating role; and the moderating effect of perceived behavioral control is also successfully verified. These findings can provide policy recommendations for promoting consumers’ use of biodegradable plastic bags.
... [P4] These accounts align with Douglas et al. [66] who proposed that conspiracy beliefs often stem from epistemic (the understanding of one's environment), existential (being in control of one's environment), and social motivations (the maintenance of positive images of the self and the wider social group). Similarly, Tetlock [67] noted that individuals have a desire for both personal and collective control over their environment, becoming more prone to conspiratorial thinking and endorsing superstitious beliefs during uncertain times (e.g., COVID pandemic), such as significant life events [68]. Participants responses also echo research showing that feelings of powerlessness and anxiety are associated with the increasing likelihood of adopting conspiracy beliefs [69,70]. ...
Conspiracy beliefs erode trust in science and lead to negative effects on public health and other science-related behaviours and political discourse. Despite extensive research on conspiratorial thinking, the literature lacks a comprehensive exploration of individuals’ experiences as they enter (and exit) conspiracy communities, presenting a notable research gap. Therefore, the present study adopts an interpretivist framework by interviewing four ex-conspiracy theorists, delving into what drew them into conspiratorial thinking, the catalysts for their exit from these online communities (e.g., Flat Earth, distrust of science and medicine), and the obstacles they faced in disengaging from these communities. Reflective Thematic Analysis identified four main themes with eight associated subthemes. The experiences of ex-conspiracy theorists revealed a profound personal dimension for them entering the conspiracy echo chamber (Theme 1), such as feelings of loneliness and the impact of significant life events. Scientific illiteracy and a general misunderstanding of the scientific process (Theme 2), further contributed to their adoption of more entrenched conspiratorial thinking. The (online) conspiracy community, with its powerful and dynamic nature, had impacted the experiences of members (Theme 3), providing a sense of identity, reinforcing community doctrine, and creating a social and personal barrier to leaving the community. Leaving the community proved a challenging process (Theme 4), with participants identifying a conflict between their personal experiences and the community’s doctrine as a key reason for their departure. We contextualize these findings within prior research and propose potential interventions for individuals susceptible to scientific misinformation, utilizing the principles of nudge theory for behaviour change and mindfulness-based therapies.
... Studies show varied impacts: Van Raalte et al. (1991) and Groth-Marnat & Pegden (1998) highlight control's role in superstitious belief, while Akbirova et al. (2020) and Balkis & Duru (2019) explore superstitious belief effect on coping and procrastination. Kramer & Block (2008) and Whitson & Galinsky (2008) demonstrate how superstitious belief influences consumer behavior and perception under control loss. ...
... Issues [42], [43] might get enhanced more on the issue of actual path and measured path of attainment trajectory. Moreover, human psychology which is often reckoned by accountability or standard in any marketing business needs to be ordained with better precision by removing several issues [44], [45] . ...
This study is about bringing in research pursuits in finding attainment "level" of different stages of behavior continuum, in cognitive psychology or consumer marketing behavior. The study is theoretical and seeking to academic interests. Attainment of stage in the continuum, in the methodological study, has been described by two inclusions of research interests and they are interaction and involvement. With these two in mind, modeling of continuum building has been explained by a mathematical basis, leading to determine the continuum modeling. The study could show a trend into further better research. For its application, it has although sighted to marketing (consumer marketing) field in order to attain several pursuits like policy making in a system integration facility, cutting-edge outcomes, future growth anticipation, competitiveness, etc. but is to be equally applicable for financial and various sectors of human resources management. 1.1 Keywords: attitude attainment modeling, behavior continuum, behavior continuum matrix, consumer psychology, financial psychology, human resources competitiveness, organizational financing, system integration.
... Thus, it would be plausible to link vaccine hesitancy derived from conspiracy theories with a sense of control loss, fear and anxiety, and as well as uncertainty. In fact, research on conspiracy mentality suggest that individuals who feel powerless or lack of socio-political control are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Bruder et al., 2013;Van Prooijen & Acker, 2015;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Since states from different regions of the world enforced compulsory vaccination during COVID-19 pandemic (Buchholz, 2022), it is plausible to expect a collective sense of control loss. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the psycho-political factors (i.e., the sense of control loss, trust in authorities, conspiracy mentality, dichotomous thinking, and intolerance of uncertainty) underlying the vaccine hesitancy that may adversely affect the fight against pandemics such as COVID-19. The sample consisted of 209 university students (75.12%) and staff (24.88%). Participants completed a package of questionnaires, including Vaccine Hesitancy Scale, Dichotomous Thinking Inventory, Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire, alongside with questions aimed to measure Trust in Authorities, and Loss of Control during pandemic. The results of serial mediational analysis showed that the sense of control loss during pandemic led to vaccine hesitancy via distrust in authorities, conspiracy mentality, and dichotomous thinking. These results indicate the need to take measures to reduce ambiguity in public communications and to build trust between the authorities and the public in order to maintain a psychologically and politically healthy environment.
... However, the high degree of uncertainty in the living environment during a pandemic reduces people's sense of control . Individuals who perceive a loss of control will show a strong order-seeking tendency (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). They are more inclined to buy goods that can reflect a sense of structure and order, and they will show a preference for environments, products, and logos with clear boundaries (Faraji-Rad et al., 2017). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has hit the tourism and hospitality industries hard, posing health risks to consumers and vastly affecting their psychology and behavior. Drawing on protection motivation theory and self-determination theory, this study investigates hotel consumers’ brand preferences between strong brands and others during the crisis and the underlying mechanisms. In Study 1, questionnaires were collected online (based on the Credamo platform) and offline (at a university in Southwest China) for analysis. In study 2, 437 valid questionnaires from China were modeled through the Credamo platform using a structural equation model. The results reveal that: (1) during the crisis, consumers show a preference for strong hotel brands; (2) individuals’ perceived severity and perceived vulnerability to the crisis positively influence their attitudes toward strong brands; and (3) the need for control and the need to belong mediate this effect. This study expands and enriches both self-determination theory and protection motivation theory, offering valuable management implications for hotel managers in formulating effective service and marketing strategies.
... Several factors have been identified as contributing to belief in conspiracy theories, including psychological, situational, and political aspects. In terms of psychological aspects, conspiratorial thinking is linked to paranoid ideation, schizotypy, narcissism, Machiavellianism, interpersonal distrust, feelings of powerlessness, and loss of agency and control (e.g., Abalakina-Paap et al. 1999; Barron et al. 2014;Brotherton et al. 2013;Cichocka et al. 2016;Darwin et al. 2011;March and Springer 2019;Whitson and Galinsky 2008). Furthermore, individuals with a general tendency to believe in conspiracy theories (conspiracy mentality) are more likely to endorse specific conspiracy theories (e.g., Enders et al. 2021;Goertzel 1994;Imhoff and Bruder 2014;Swami et al. 2010). ...
Conspiracy beliefs have become a focus of media attention in recent years. Especially during the Covid‐19 pandemic, it has become evident that conspiracy beliefs are not just a harmless phenomenon but can actually pose a challenge to social cohesion. This paper hypothesizes that tolerance for ambiguity—the ability to deal with ambiguous stimuli and situations—plays an important role in the emergence of Covid‐19 conspiracy beliefs. Theoretically, the connection between tolerance for ambiguity and the emergence of conspiracy beliefs can be understood as an epistemic motivation—a desire for understanding, accuracy, and subjective certainty. Empirically, few studies have examined this relationship, and those that have found only small negative associations. However, these assessments were conducted using unreliable scales for measuring tolerance for ambiguity and neglected the concept of right‐wing authoritarianism, which is associated with tolerance for ambiguity and can become salient during times of crisis, such as a pandemic. To reexamine this relationship, a survey instrument for tolerance for ambiguity, recently validated for the German‐language context, was applied. The data for this study were collected via an online panel surveyed between November 2020 and June 2021. After identifying confounding variables using directed acyclic graphs (DAGs), random‐effects panel models are computed using data from two waves (n = 3819 observations, N = 2244 persons). To test the mediation assumption regarding right‐wing authoritarianism, structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to data from the second wave. Results show that tolerance for ambiguity has no significant direct impact on Covid‐19 conspiracy beliefs, but an indirect effect via right‐wing authoritarianism.
... Наличие/отсутствие состояния психологической безопасности порождает эмоции, чувства, установки, ожидания. Человек, который находится в состоянии психологической безопасности, будет воспринимать окружающих людей как заслуживающих доверие (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), среду как управляемую (Zhao & Jing, 2015;Yu & Zhao, 2016), условия жизни в городе как стабильные и привычные (Gao, Ahern & Koshland, 2016;Zhou, Tan & Watanabe, 2021). При отсутствии психологической безопасности восприятие окружающей среды будет происходить через призму угроз и опасности при повышенной бдительности и недоверии к окружающим. ...
Введение. На желание оставаться жить в городе влияет огромное количество факторов, от социальных до эмоциональных, и одним из факторов может выступать психологическая безопасность. Целью данного исследования было изучение особенностей психологической безопасности как предиктора желания жителя города сохранить место своего проживания. Методы. В исследовании приняли участие 272 жителя города Екатеринбурга, возраст респондентов 18–60 лет. Оценка психологической безопасности жителей города осуществлялась при помощи методики измерения психологической безопасности жителей городов О. Ю. Зотовой и Л. В. Тарасовой. Желание остаться жить в том городе, где сейчас проживает респондент, изучалось при помощи анкеты. Результаты. В результате исследования было выявлено, что в основе желания жителя города сохранить место своего проживания лежат особенности психологической безопасности. Значимыми предикторами желания личности из старшей группы остаться в городе своего проживания являются такие переменные как контроль над средой, надежность и самоэффективность, а у представителей младшей группы – комфорт, доверительные отношения и свобода. Желание остаться в городе своего проживания у представителей старшей группы продиктовано возможностью управления средой (надежная и контролируемая), в то время как желание представителей младшей группы определяется их уверенностью в благоприятности, благосклонности среды (комфортная и дружественная). Также было выявлено, что чем старше житель города, тем сильнее он бы хотел, чтобы его дети проживали в этом же городе. Обсуждение результатов. Было выявлено, что жители города Екатеринбурга в большинстве своем хотят оставаться жить в своем городе вне зависимости от возраста. Показатели психологической безопасности жителей города Екатеринбурга находятся на среднем и выше среднего уровней, что говорит о том, что у них удовлетворены базовые потребности в самосохранении и восприятии собственной психологической безопасности в городе. Психологическая безопасность поддерживает уверенность людей в том, что город пригоден для жизни, предсказуем, удобен и поддается управлению. Выполненное исследование позволило выявить различия между возрастными группами. У представителей старшей возрастной группы безопасность не связана со стремлением к изменению окружающей среды и с желанием вкладывать свои ресурсы. А предиктором нежелания оставаться жить в городе в младшей возрастной группе является такая переменная как свобода. Они не воспринимают безопасность жизни в своем городе в контексте свободы, возможности самостоятельно принимать решения и выбирать формы своего поведения.
... Instead of feeling powerless against the "system" as a whole, they offer a kind of abbreviated critique of capitalism while also enhancing the status of one's own group. In this regard, a substantial body of research suggests that a diminished sense of control is strongly linked to a propensity for conspiracy beliefs (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), a finding that is complemented by evidence linking political (Bruder et al., 2013;Kofta et al., 2020) and economic deprivation as well as insecure employment (Imhoff & Decker, 2013) with conspiracy mentality. On the other hand, reinforcing individuals' sense of control may help to reduce these tendencies (Mao et al., 2020;van Prooijen & Acker, 2015). ...
For many people, the coronavirus pandemic meant an enormous and existential loss of control. At the same time, an increase in right-wing extremist attitudes like xenophobia could be observed in Germany. In this study, we hypothesize that the loss of control caused by the pandemic has contributed to the rise in xenophobic and anti-Semitic attitudes in Germany. We propose that this occurs through an attempt to restore control via elements of a revised authoritarian syndrome understood as both the classic authoritarian dynamic of aggression, submission and conventionalism on the one hand, and a general belief in conspiracy theories on the other. In a representative, probability-based study, N = 2522 participants were surveyed on locus of control, right-wing authoritarianism, conspiracy mentality, xenophobia, and anti-Semitism. It was found that right-wing authoritarianism and conspiracy mentality mediated the relationship between external locus of control and xenophobia (partial mediation) and anti-Semitism (full mediation). Surprisingly, internal control beliefs had a direct effect on right-wing authoritarianism—an effect that also leads to increased resentment. We conclude that social crises make people particularly vulnerable to regaining control via conspiracy theories and authoritarianism, which harbors dangers such as right-wing extremism as a consequence. Limitations are discussed.
... The tendency of people to rely on external sources of control when they are not in direct control of events has been proposed and developed by several psychological theories and perspectives (22). Previous research has already shown that lacking control makes people more likely to perceive a variety of illusory patterns, including seeing images in noise, forming illusory correlations, and developing superstitions (23). This is consistent with the attribution hypothesis: attributing symptoms to RF-EMF exposure might be a way for people with long-lasting unexplained symptoms to find an explanation to their poor health. ...
Introduction
The aim of this study is to understand the temporal relationship between the somatization usually attributed to RF-EMFs, and to evaluate the attribution hypothesis and the nocebo hypothesis in this context.
Method
In this longitudinal study, data from the Dutch Occupational and Environmental Health Cohort Study (AMIGO) was analyzed, consisting of a baseline questionnaire collected in 2011 (14,829 participants) and a follow-up questionnaire collected in 2015 (7,904 participants). Participants completed a questionnaire providing information on their health status, perceived environmental exposures, and demographics. Two sets of multiple regressions were conducted to evaluate the two hypotheses.
Results
Results show that the attribution hypothesis overall explained symptom reporting in association to perceived RF-EMF base station exposure and perceived electricity exposure more frequently than the nocebo hypothesis.
Discussion
This finding stands out from most of the existing literature, which primarily points to the nocebo effect as the main explanation for somatization in response to RF-EMF exposure. While this does not exclude, in absolute terms, the existence of a nocebo effect, potentially at other time scales, this finding has relevant consequences at the policy making level. The emerging relevance of the attribution hypothesis moves the focus on the discomfort of people with unexplained symptoms and their need to find a plausible explanation for their discomfort.
... Van Prooijen and Douglas (2018) suggest that anxiety is an emotional antecedent of conspiracy beliefs through its connection to uncertainty and lack of control. Individuals who feel that they lack control, a state closely related to anxiety, are more likely to identify illusory patterns, a bias also associated with identifying conspiracies (Whitson and Galinsky 2008). More broadly, the experience of uncertain emotions such as fear, but also hope, increases beliefs in conspiracy theories in experimental studies, as compared to emotions related to certainty (Whitson et al. 2015). ...
Conspiracy theories have become a prominent topic for sociological research. But although emotions such as paranoia and panic are—sometimes dismissively—referred to in classical accounts of conspiracy theories and different emotions have been empirically linked to conspiracy beliefs, a comprehensive theoretical account of the emotional underpinnings of conspiracy theories is still lacking. In this contribution, I aim to fill this gap by proposing a theoretical model that focuses on the transformation and collectivisation of emotions, facilitated by conspiracy theories. Drawing on existing research, I first identify three groups of emotions relevant to conspiracy theories: (1) anxiety and fear, (2) excitement, fascination and awe and (3) anger, ressentiment and hate. Many of these emotions are both considered to drive individuals towards conspiratorial beliefs and are found to be evoked by conspiracy theories, which raises questions regarding their causal relationship to conspiracy theories. To clarify this conceptual ambiguity, I propose a processual account, according to which conspiracy theories enable the transformation of individual emotions which are marked by powerlessness and thus are frequently suppressed into emotions that are less harmful to the self and can be expressed and acted upon. Crucially, the resulting emotions are experienced collectively and consequently can drive the formation of emotional collectives. Thus, the emotional mechanism does not only motivate individuals to subscribe to conspiracy beliefs but also allows them to reassert their collective political agency and sense of control. In this process, however, the original emotional concern may be lost, resulting in potentially misdirected political actions.
... Verschillende studies laten daarnaast zien dat complotdenken vaker voorkomt onder mensen die geneigd zijn patronen te herkennen in willekeurigheid (Van der Wal, Sut ton, Lange & Braga, 2018; Van Prooijen, Douglas & De Inocencio, 2018;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), hoewel anderen zo'n verband juist níét vinden (Dieguez, WagnerEg ger & Gauvrit, 2015). Verwant aan deze patroonzoekende blik is een overactieve agency detection: de neiging om intentionaliteit te zien, ook als die er niet is. ...
Mid-2020, during the coronavirus pandemic, a story about alleged satanic child abuse in the Dutch village Bodegraven began circulating on the internet. In February 2021, the municipality gained "worldwide attention" when large groups of people responded to repeated online calls to lay flowers at the local cemetery in memory of the alleged victims. The local authorities were faced with the challenge of addressing the excesses of the conspiracy theory. The book "Flowers at the Cemetery" shows how this was handled and the lessons we can learn from "the Bodegraven case."
The conspiracy theory, fueled by four, later three central figures ("moral entrepreneurs", in terms of Moral Panic Theory), contained elements of the QAnon ideology and quickly gained traction. The "instigators" combined expressions of outrage over the (concealment of) satanic-pedosexual practices with dissatisfaction about the handling of the coronavirus pandemic and other anti-government sentiments, all shared online via YouTube, Telegram channels, and groups. At the same time, they fostered a strong sense of community among their followers, both online and offline.
The case became highly visible when people from near and far came to the local cemetery to lay flowers in memory of the alleged victims. This caused great distress among the bereaved and those who were accused of the alleged crimes. Meanwhile, local authorities, after investigation, had concluded that the story could not possibly be true, and they were confronted with disturbances to public order and grave peace at the cemetery, (serious) threats against alleged key figures, as well as protests and threatening situations for their own staff.
In the book "Flowers at the Cemetery", the approach that local government, the police, and the Public Prosecutor’s Office developed and implemented from 2020 to 2023 (with a small extension into 2024) is meticulously reconstructed. It clearly illustrates how an apparently local issue quickly turned into a national matter. It also shows how vulnerable our society has become to disinformation and how important it is to take people and their grievances seriously and keep the conversation going.
... In einer Reihe empirischer Studien haben die Wirtschaftswissenschaftler Jennifer A. Whitson und Adam D. Galinsky gezeigt, dass Menschen, die eine Situation nicht unter Kontrolle haben -gleich, ob gefühlt oder tatsächlich -, dazu tendieren, Muster, Verbindungen und Beziehungen zu sehen -und zwar auch dort, wo es gar keine gibt (Whitson & Galinsky 2008). 1 Schon zuvor war empirisch bestätigt worden, dass aktuelle Bedürfnisse Wahrnehmungsprozesse nicht nur beeinflussen, sondern auch verzerren können: So überschätzten Kinder aus einkommensschwachen Haushalten im Vergleich mit Kindern aus wohlhabendem Elternhaus die Größe von Münzen; hungrige Menschen neigten eher dazu, Le-Widerlegungen von ordnungsverleihenden Annahmen aber destabilisieren, sie rauben Halt, wo es umgekehrt gerade darum geht, überhaupt irgendeinen Halt zu finden, Kontrollverlust einzudämmen und das Gefühl der Hilflosigkeit zu verringern. Die Ansätze der »Aufklärung« verschwörungsdenkerischer »Aufklärer« verkennen, dass Verschwörungsdenken Halt verleiht und die Möglichkeit von Kontrolle eröffnet, wo es keinen Halt und keine Kontrolle gibt. ...
Verschwörungsdenken und Judenhass, seit je Indikatoren gesellschaftlicher ebenso wie persönlicher Krise, haben in den letzten Jahren explosionsartig zugenommen; spätestens seit dem 7. Oktober 2023 haben sie weltweit Hochkonjunktur. Weltverschwörungsvorstellungen aber sind nicht nur individuelle Wahnidee, sondern auch allgemein geteilter Mythos. Dessen »Logik« funktioniert anders als das, wovon wir sprechen, wenn wir von Logik sprechen. Ungeachtet offensichtlichster Widersprüche vermag diese »Logik« beliebige Fakten und Fiktionen zu Erzählungen zu verknüpfen, die man nur glauben, niemals widerlegen kann. Der Beitrag entwickelt Perspektiven darauf, wie dieses Denken funktioniert, wie es sich verbreitet, worin seine Anziehungskraft liegt und worauf es eigentlich zielt.
SCHLÜSSELWÖRTER: Verschwörung; Projektion; Antisemitismus; Gerücht; Omnipotenz
... Supporting this rationale, conspiracy beliefs have been linked with multiple psychological factors such as uncertainty (van Prooijen & Jostmann, 2013), the need for closure (Marchlewska et al., 2018), lack of personal control (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), and threatened self-esteem . Furthermore, people who are more vulnerable to threats appear to be more likely to engage in conspiracy thinking (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999;Imhoff & Bruder, 2014;van Prooijen & Douglas, 2017), including people from marginalized groups who are more likely to endorse conspiracy beliefs (Cichocka, Marchlewska, Golec de Zavala, & Olechowski, 2016; see also Bilewicz et al., 2013;Uscinski & Parent, 2014), and those with low sociopolitical control (Bruder et al., 2013), lower levels of education (Douglas et al., 2016), belief in a dangerous world (Moulding et al., 2016), relative deprivation (Bilewicz et al., 2013), anomie (Goertzel, 1994), and a lack of power (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999). ...
One way to cope with crises is by attributing their ultimate causes to malevolent conspiracies. As crises are rarely simple, and may involve an interplay between multiple, co-occurring threats, we suggest that conspiracy thinking mainly occurs among individuals who experience conditions of threat complexity – such as socioeconomic vulnerability paired with a sense of helplessness in society, and who are also sufficiently paranoid to infer a conspiracy. In the present study, we focused on financial strain and disempowerment, as two relevant threats which were both dramatically affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and hypothesized a three-way interaction between financial strain, disempowerment and paranoia in predicting conspiracy thinking. This hypothesis was supported in both cross-national ( N = 64,130) and longitudinal data ( N = 11,159), collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. Implications of the results for understanding the tendency to reduce multiple threats to a single cause are discussed.
... Os seres humanos encontrarão ordem e significado no mundo mesmo onde os padrões evidentes estão ausentes (por exemplo, Whitson e Galinsky, 2008), sejam rostos nas nuvens, pontos em movimento em uma tela, ou interpretando a coincidência como destino (Guthrie, 1995). Além disso, criamos histórias a partir de eventos aleatórios (McAdams, 2008) e vivemos pelas histórias que construímos. ...
Tradução de Sport as a meaning-making system: insights from the study of religion, publicado originalmente na revista Religion, v. 13, n. 10, 2022, com as devidas permissões dos autores, dos editores acadêmicos (Hans Zollner e Carles Salazar) da revista Religion e da editora MDPI.
... Nevertheless, it has been plagued by inconsistent and often ambiguous findings (Douglas & Sutton, 2023). For instance, some studies have shown that lack of personal control fosters belief in conspiracy theories (e.g., Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), whereas other research found no effects (e.g., Hart & Graether, 2018;see Stojanov & Halberstadt, 2020). These and related findings point to the complexity of psychological mechanisms underlying conspiracy beliefs. ...
... Perceived control is frequently described as the level of how a person perceives events as influenced by and contingent upon their own activities, rather than external factors [27,28]. The level of perceived control among individuals fluctuates throughout their daily lives, and this variability has been demonstrated to impact results for both the consumer and personal domains [29][30][31]. It has been pointed out that there exists a congruity between the absence of perceived control and perceived scarcity [15]. ...
Perceived scarcity can significantly shape consumer behavior, particularly regarding luxury consumption during economic downturns. This study examines how perceived scarcity influences the preference for luxury goods and assesses the mediating role of perceived control in this relationship. Employing a multi-method approach that combines questionnaire surveys and bias adjustment techniques, this research captures the complex interplay between scarcity cues, perceived control, and consumption behaviors. The findings indicate that when consumers experience scarcity, they are more inclined to seek out luxury goods as a means to restore a sense of psychological balance. Perceived control emerges as a key mediating factor, helping explain why scarcity leads to a heightened interest in luxury products. This mediation suggests that consumers turn to luxury items not solely due to external constraints, but also as a way to reassert control over their circumstances. By integrating compensatory control theory and considering variations in locus of control and perceived economic mobility, this study provides a nuanced understanding of the psychological mechanisms underpinning luxury consumption in resource-constrained contexts. These insights advance theoretical perspectives on scarcity effects and offer practical implications for marketers and policymakers aiming to engage consumers responsibly and effectively in challenging economic environments.
... Given the unprecedented scale and speed with which misinformation can spread online, research has increasingly relied on models from epidemiology (Cinelli et al., 2020;Kucharski, 2016). Misinformation often proliferates after unexpected or tragic events because it helps people reduce a sense of uncertainty, lack of control, chaos, or uncontrolled risks (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). For example, misinformation has been a major concern during Ebola (Sell et al., 2020;Spinney, 2019), Zika (Bora et al., 2018), or yellow fever (Ortiz-Martínez & Jiménez-Arcia, 2017) outbreaks. ...
This chapter explores the pervasive issue of health-related misinformation and fake news, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. It defines key terms, examines how misinformation spreads, and discusses its prevalence and impact on public health. The chapter highlights the role of social media in the rapid dissemination of false information and investigates the reasons behind the public’s belief in such misinformation. Consequences of believing in health misinformation are addressed, including negative impacts on health behaviors and public trust. The chapter also reviews various strategies to combat misinformation, such as debunking, nudging, andprebunking, and emphasizes the need for comprehensive approaches to strengthen individual and societal resilience. Future research directions are suggested, focusing on underexplored areas and the generalizability of findings beyond the COVID-19 context. This comprehensive analysis underscores the importance of combating health misinformation to protect public health.
... Changing individual variables can also effectively reduce the detrimental consequences of ostracism. One frequently tested individual factor is self-affirmation or affirming one's core values, which can boost the four basic psychological needs: self-esteem 211 , meaning in life 212 , belonging 213 and sense of control 214 . It is therefore not surprising that self-affirmation led to recovering the basic psychological needs thwarted by ostracism 215 . ...
... They explained to the group that as a data analyst, given long enough, they could decipher the meaning of the work through these patterns. This is perhaps an example of illusory pattern perception, which occurs when patterns and images are perceived where they don't exist in reality (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). This is often experienced when a person feels a loss of control, so it is understandable that workshop participants would look to pattern-seeking as a way of unravelling their confusion-especially for those who spend their time studying data for patterns. ...
In the Fall of 2021, STEM researchers were invited to participate in a series of SSHRC-funded workshops delivered at the University of Guelph’s School of Fine Art and Music (SOFAM), where they examined a work of abstract art drawn from the SOFAM Print Study Collection ( Reflex Victory by Chrysanne Stathacos, lithograph, 1979). The project’s objective was to determine if methodologies used in the analysis and interpretation of art are helpful to researchers who use visual observation as a primary method of collecting data. Our findings indicate that over the duration of the one-hour workshop, participants demonstrated greater confidence in identifying what lay in their fields of vision with precision, exhibited greater comfort in pursuing open-ended inquiry, and became more conscious of the mutable and subjective qualities of their looking. This report shares the story of our experiment and presents our preliminary findings on the value of arts-based methodologies in developing skills in data collection and analysis. This research contributes to the discourse on the role visual art can play in practices of teaching, learning, and research that extend beyond the studio, museum, and gallery space.
... Political leaders that seem detached from, and indifferent to, the will of citizens are, therefore, likely perceived as meaningless and senseless. Supporting this notion, studies show that lack of control is related to perceived meaninglessness in life (Newcomb & Harlow, 1986) and leads to illusory pattern recognition, reflecting a heightened desire for meaning and certainty (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). ...
Studies have shown that anomie, that is, the perception that a society’s leadership and social fabric are breaking down, is a central predictor of individuals’ support for authoritarianism. However, causal evidence for this relationship is missing. Moreover, previous studies are ambiguous regarding the mediating mechanism and lack empirical tests for the same. Against this background, we derive a set of integrative hypotheses: First, we argue that perceptions of anomie lead to a perceived lack of political control. The repeated failure to exert control in the political sphere leads to feelings of uncertainty about the functioning and meaning of the political world. This uncertainty heightens people’s susceptibility to authoritarianism because, we argue, the latter promises a sense of order, meaning, and the guidance of a “strong leader.” We support our hypothesis in a large-scale field study with a representative sample of the German population (N = 1,504) while statistically ruling out alternative explanations. Adding internal validity, we provide causal evidence for each path in our sequential mediation hypothesis in three preregistered, controlled experiments (conducted in the United States, total N = 846). Our insights may support policymakers in addressing the negative political consequences of anomie.
This chapter presents two studies that investigate the complex relationship between perceptions of control and intergroup discrimination, offering insights into cultural dynamics that underpin these phenomena. Study One explores how intergroup discrimination, measured through intergroup evaluations, enhances individuals’ sense of control. Study Two examines two key elements: (a) the extent to which intergroup discrimination, assessed via the allocation of white noise, leads to increased feelings of control, and (b) the role of threats to control—manipulated through an exclusion paradigm—in amplifying discriminatory behaviors. Findings from both studies reveal that New Zealanders experienced heightened feelings of control following acts of intergroup discrimination, targeting Americans and Asians, respectively. Study Two further demonstrates that participants exposed to inclusion or exclusion feedback exhibited elevated levels of intergroup discrimination based on their perceived control—whether high or low—compared to those in a baseline condition. Across both investigations, intergroup discrimination emerges as a mechanism for restoring or reinforcing control, independent of other influential factors such as self-esteem, group-specific esteem, social identity, and uncertainty. The chapter explores the cultural context of these dynamics, discussing how varying cultural norms and values shape individuals’ reliance on intergroup discrimination as a psychological tool to restore control. By elucidating the interplay between control, discrimination, and cultural frameworks, this research contributes valuable insights to the field of cross-cultural management. It underscores the importance of understanding intergroup behaviors in diverse cultural contexts, offering actionable implications for fostering inclusivity, reducing biases, and navigating complex intercultural environments. For readers of “Modern Cross-Cultural Management,” these findings provide critical perspectives on the psychological underpinnings of intergroup interactions and their practical relevance to managing diversity in global organizations.
A group of perhaps 2,000 Māori, whose main representative is Monica Matāmua, claim that they are not Māori or Polynesian but descendants of a White race they call the Hotu. They claim that they were the first to settle in Aotearoa New Zealand, more than a thousand years before Māori, so that they are the true Indigenous inhabitants of the land. Further, they hold to a conspiracy theory that claims evidence for White Hotu has been covered up by Māori and elites. This article examines the epistemic modes by which modern Hotu defend their contentions. A key foundation is their employment of the biblical motif of Paradise, by which they identify as an originally Edenic people, in contrast to Māori. The Hotu combine the authoritative biblical motif of Paradise with parallel epistemic foundations, including Māori traditions of original peoples, the colonial myth of a Pacific Paradise, and modern DNA testing. This article demonstrates how the Hotu generate epistemic authority not only via each epistemic mode, but via a hermetic-like combination of epistemic modes. The piling up of superficially similar epistemic claims provides a seemingly profound yet spurious basis for asserting White pre-Polynesian identity and origins. It also provides Hotu with a sense of agency that encourages their ongoing fight to reverse the damaging effects of colonization. Yet the Hotu contention to be descendants of a White pre-Polynesian people comes at the significant cost of demonizing Māori, absolving European colonizers, and emboldening many New Zealanders to deny Māori their Indigenous status.
The increasing prevalence of knowledge withholding in online knowledge communities has become a significant obstacle to the growth and development of these platforms. This study explores the influence of social crowding on knowledge withholding with an added focus on the role of individuals' secondary control mechanisms. Experimental results highlight a positive association between social crowding and knowledge withholding that is mediated by four types of secondary control, namely, predictive, interpretive, vicarious, and illusory. Specifically, social crowding increases individuals' perceived loss of knowledge power (interpretive control), knowledge sharing self‐inefficacy (predictive control), and perceived control of information (illusory control) while reducing task visibility (vicarious control), and these factors indirectly contribute to increased knowledge withholding. Results also highlight the moderating role of self‐construal in shaping how secondary control mediates the effects of social crowding. These findings deepen the current understanding of how environmental factors, such as social crowding, impact knowledge withholding and provide valuable insights for community managers seeking to mitigate such behaviors and enhance collaboration within online knowledge communities.
In an investment experiment, we show variations in information affect beliefs and decision-making within the information-beliefs-decisions chain. Subjects observe the time series of a risky asset and a signal that, in random rounds, helps predict returns. Subjects form extrapolative forecasts following a signal they perceive as useless, and their investment decisions underreact to their beliefs. If the same subjects perceive the signal as predictive, they rationally use it in their forecasts, they no longer extrapolate, and they rely significantly more on their forecasts when making risk allocations. Analyzing investments without observing forecasts and information sets leads to erroneous interpretations.
Nous sommes sans cesse exposés à des informations qui violent nos attentes sur l'état du monde, et l'aptitude à y réagir de manière efficiente se pose comme un impératif adaptatif de premier ordre. Si la théorie de la dissonance cognitive est un modèle influent pour comprendre nos réactions face aux inconsistances, elle n'a pas offert jusqu'à présent un modèle de décision susceptible de prédire le type de stratégie de réduction. Par ailleurs, bien que la théorie de la dissonance cognitive se soit focalisée sur le changement d'attitude, plusieurs travaux empiriques ont mis en évidence une radicalisation des croyances après une inconsistance, sans pour autant fournir de mécanisme explicatif. Dans cette thèse, nous suggérons un mécanisme de prise de décision (i.e., modèle EIM) susceptible d'amener l'individu à maintenir ses attentes contre les informations contradictoires via l'utilisation de stratégies de réduction défensives. Parmi ces stratégies, nous nous concentrons tout particulièrement sur l'utilisation de théories du complot comme stratégie de réduction par adhocité pour réduire une inconsistance générée lors d'une communication sociale et susceptible d'entraîner un renforcement des croyances. Dans une première ligne de recherche empirique, nous montrons que les paramètres informationnels isolés par notre modèle de prise de décision face à une information contradictoire influencent la réduction de l'inconsistance (études 1, 2 et 3). Nous montrons également que l'utilisation d'une stratégie de réduction défensive à travers l'adhésion à une théorie du complot ad hoc génère un renforcement des croyances (études 1 et 4). Dans le second axe de la thèse, nous nous interrogeons sur les mécanismes susceptibles d'orienter la réduction de l'inconsistance vers une théorie du complot lorsque l'information contradictoire est produite dans le cadre d'une communication sociale. Comme nous le présentons dans notre modèle de traitement de l'inconsistance, la prise de décision face à une 3 information contradictoire doit intégrer une prédiction de second ordre quant à la fiabilité du signal d'erreur. Dans le cas spécifique d'une inconsistance générée dans le cadre d'une communication sociale, l'évaluation de la fiabilité pourrait reposer, entre autres, sur l'évaluation du risque de triche. À partir de cette hypothèse, nous suggérons un mécanisme de détection de la triche permettant à l'individu d'évaluer le risque de triche et susceptible d'orienter la réduction de l'inconsistance vers une théorie du complot, lorsque le risque de triche associé à l'information contradictoire est perçu comme important. Dans une seconde ligne de recherche empirique, nous commençons par montrer le lien entre le mécanisme de détection de la triche que nous décrivons et la croyance dans des théories du complot (études 5 et 6). Puis, nous mettons en évidence que l'utilisation d'une stratégie de réduction défensive sous la forme d'une théorie du complot dépend de la présence de l'existence d'indices de triche associés à l'information contradictoire (études 7 et 8). Enfin, dans la dernière partie de la thèse nous discutons de l'intérêt du modèle EIM pour comprendre la gestion des anomalies empiriques dans la pratique scientifique. Nous aborderons en particulier les conséquences de ces réductions sur la radicalisation des communautés scientifiques, mais également sur les crises et les changements de paradigme dans l'Histoire des sciences en adoptant la perspective épistémologique de Thomas Kuhn.
When individuals face financial constraints, do they tend to choose experiential or material purchases? Adopting a compensatory perspective, this study hypothesizes that financial constraints heighten individuals’ perception of losing control. To restore this sense of control, individuals are more likely to prefer material goods, which offer greater predictability and stability, over experiential purchases. Studies 1–3 in this paper consistently show that financial constraints increase the preference for material over experiential purchases. This effect is mediated by a sense of control over one's situation (Study 2). Furthermore, using the moderation-of-process method, Study 3 reveals that boosting the sense of control mitigates the effect of financial constraints on preference for material over experiential purchases. That effect is also found to be reversed by framing experiential purchases as enhancing one's sense of control, which reinforces the proposed underlying mechanism (Study 4). Overall, the findings suggest that financially constrained consumers prefer material over experiential purchases as a way to compensate for reduced sense of control. Our studies contribute to research on financial constraints, sense of control, and experiential versus material purchases, with implications for marketers.
Conspiracy theories are a common feature of social and political debate, and of growing concern for governments and policymakers. Awareness of the importance of conspiracy theories has been facilitated by a rapid expansion of empirical research in the past 20 years, and the bulk of this research comes from social psychology. In the current chapter, we review this significant research progress, focusing on the antecedents of conspiracy
beliefs and their consequences. As we review this literature, we refer to examples from our ongoing research programme. We then articulate what we perceive to be the main limitations of the research to date focusing on measurement, sampling and theoretical focus, and propose avenues for future research. Finally, we briefly discuss interventions to address the effects of
conspiracy theories.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine the effects of both transient and chronic loneliness on consumers’ variety-seeking (VS) behavior and to identify the various underlying mechanisms involved.
Design/methodology/approach
Four studies were adopted to clarify how transient and chronic loneliness affect consumers’ VS behavior.
Findings
Both transient and chronic loneliness promote consumers’ VS behavior. More importantly, the effect of transient loneliness on VS behavior is driven by perceived loss of control, whereas the effect of chronic loneliness on VS behavior is driven by need for uniqueness and sensation-seeking.
Research limitations/implications
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research is the first to explore the differential roles of transient and chronic loneliness on VS behavior, which may open new avenues for future research. First, future research could investigate moderators that influence the impacts of transient and chronic loneliness on VS behavior. Second, future research could examine different participant populations and use cognitive neuroscience techniques to further verify the differential roles of these two types of loneliness on VS behavior.
Practical implications
This research contributes to marketing practice by providing practical guidance on how to effectively design different marketing strategies to promote VS for consumers with different types of loneliness. For consumers with transient loneliness, marketers can benefit from a concerted focus on improving consumers’ sense of control. Yet, for consumers with chronic loneliness, marketing strategies that improve consumers’ need for uniqueness will be more effective.
Originality/value
This research contributes to the literature on loneliness and consumer behavior, which has largely overlooked the distinct roles of different types of loneliness (i.e. transient vs chronic loneliness) in influencing consumer behavior. Specifically, this paper conducted a comparative analysis of the impacts of transient and chronic loneliness on consumers’ VS behavior and proposed that transient and chronic loneliness promote consumers’ VS behavior through divergent underlying mechanisms.
The belief that we can exert an influence in our environment is dependent on distinct components of perceived control. Here, we investigate the neural representations that differentially code for self-efficacy (belief in successfully executing a behavior) and response-efficacy (belief that the behavior leads to an expected outcome) and how such signals may be integrated to inform decision-making. Participants provided confidence ratings related to executing a behavior (self-efficacy), and the potential for a rewarding outcome (response-efficacy). Computational modeling was used to measure the subjective weight of self-efficacy and response-efficacy while making decisions and to examine the neural mechanisms of perceived control computation. While participants factored in both self-efficacy and response-efficacy during decision-making, we observed that integration of these two components was dependent on neural responses within the vmPFC, OFC and striatum. Further, the dlPFC was observed to assign importance to self-efficacy and response-efficacy in specific trials, while dACC computed the trade-off between both components, taking into account individual differences. These findings highlight the contributions of perceived control components in decision-making, and identify key neural pathways involved in computing perceived control.
Heightened ingroup favoritism under threat conditions is a well-established phenomenon in social psychology. Past research has focused on self-esteem as a motive for ingroup favoritism, but inconsistent evidence has led some researchers to consider alternate motives. In this study, we aim to investigate the effects of COVID-19-related threats to perceived control on ingroup favoritism. We hypothesized that (a) ingroup favoritism would increase perceived control and (b) threats to perceived control would increase ingroup favoritism. Participants were randomly allocated to three conditions in which they read a low-threat article on COVID-19, a high-threat article on COVID-19, or a control article. Participants then completed a resource allocation task where they were allowed to distribute 100 vaccinations between the outgroup (Asians) and the ingroup (New Zealanders). Control was measured before and after the allocation task. The results did not support our hypotheses; ingroup favoritism did not affect perceived control, and COVID-19-related threats did not reduce perceptions of control. There was a modest effect of ingroup favoritism. The theoretical ramifications of these findings and their implications for organizational and political leadership are discussed.
Across six studies, we provide converging and robust lab and field evidence that the fundamental human desire for control motivates consumer engagement in collecting, defined as the act of acquiring items that belong to an existing collection. This is because consumers who desire control seek structure, which is created when interconnected components form a holistic entity. A collection can provide such a structure, as it comprises related items that together create a whole set. Hence, as consumers add items to a collection, they are also manifesting a structure. Indeed, we demonstrate that desire for control’s motivating effect on engagement diminishes when structure-seeking is hindered or when the collection is far from completion. This work contributes to extant consumer research by identifying desire for control as a fundamental motivation of collecting behavior, explaining when and why consumers work toward completing their collections, and explicating the structured nature of collecting. Of practical relevance, we provide implications for the enhancement of consumer well-being; the design, positioning, and communication of collectible products; and the creation of policies regulating the collectibles market.
In addition to their conduct, organizations can be stigmatized for conduct they did not engage in. Advancing a conceptual foundation of illusory conduct stigma, I explain how it stems from a perceptional process that is distinct from the one underlying conduct stigma. I use conspiracy theory as an illustrative source of illusory conduct stigma and explain how the former evolves in the absence of evidence, differs from an official narrative, and incorporates organizations. The study proposes that organizations are likely targets when they have higher status, larger size, and recent media coverage, and the targeting is persistent when organizations are complex, diversified, and carry strong emotional appeal. Moreover, organizations are at times participants in the production, facilitation, and forbearance of illusory conduct stigma. The study contributes by explicating how organizations are affected as well as how they participate in the development and propagation of illusory conduct stigma.
Understanding religion requires explaining why supernatural beliefs, devotions, and rituals are both universal and variable across cultures, and why religion is so often associated with both large-scale cooperation and enduring group conflict. Emerging lines of research suggest that these oppositions result from the convergence of three processes. First, the interaction of certain reliably developing cognitive processes, such as our ability to infer the presence of intentional agents, favors—as an evolutionary by-product—the spread of certain kinds of counterintuitive concepts. Second, participation in rituals and devotions involving costly displays exploits various aspects of our evolved psychology to deepen people’s commitment to both supernatural agents and religious communities. Third, competition among societies and organizations with different faith-based beliefs and practices has increasingly connected religion with both within-group prosociality and between-group enmity. This connection has strengthened dramatically in recent millennia, as part of the evolution of complex societies, and is important to understanding cooperation and conflict in today’s world.
The present investigation sought to examine the differential effects of expected versus unexpected information on interpretive activity. It was predicted that expected information would involve an automatic mode of processing, while unexpected information would prompt a more controlled mode. More specifically, we examined the proposition that unexpected or inconsistent information would lead to attempts at generating explanations for the discrepancy, and that the resulting explanations would tend toward maintaining the original expectation. Subjects were exposed to a general description of an actor, and then received additional information consistent or inconsistent with that description; the strength of or confidence in the original expectation was also varied. The primary experimental task involved subjects retelling these stories. The data revealed that, relative to processing consistent information, subjects tended to provide explanations spontaneously for the unexpected events. These findings were discussed in terms of unexpected events producing greater observer involvement, which in turn increases the likelihood of interpretive activity.
Only 2 chapters are available as full-text:
1. Stress Processes and the Cost of Coping.
2. Correlational Field Methodology in the Study of Stress
Conducted 2 experiments to examine whether the tendency to make more extreme attributions following control deprivation, observed by T. S. Pittman and N. L. Pittman (see record
1981-25822-001), stemmed from a motive to regain actual environmental control or to affirm an image of oneself as able to control (important outcomes). Study 1 varied control deprivation by exposing 78 undergraduates to either high-, low-, or no-helplessness training prior to measuring attributions. A 4th condition exposed Ss to low-helplessness training but allowed them to affirm a valued self-image (by completing a self-relevant value scale) just prior to the attribution measure. Replicating the findings of Pittman and Pittman, Ss made more extreme attributions and had worse moods in the high- and low-helplessness conditions than in the no-helplessness condition, but in the 4th condition the self-affirming value scale eliminated the effect of low-helplessness training on both attributions and mood. Study 2, using 32 undergraduates, showed that this effect occurred only when the value scale was central to Ss' self-concept. It is concluded that the motive for attributional analysis following control deprivation in this paradigm was to protect a positive self-image rather than to regain environmental control and that this motive can stimulate attributional analysis that is not related to the self or the provoking control threat and, thus, is not self-serving. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Drawing from self-affirmation theory (C. M. Steele, 1988) and L. L. Martin and A. Tesser's (1989, 1996) theory of ruminative thinking, the authors hypothesized that people stop ruminating about a frustrated goal when they can affirm an important aspect of the self. In 3 experiments participants were given failure feedback on an alleged IQ test. Failure feedback led to increased rumination (i.e., accessibility of goal-related thoughts) compared with no-failure conditions (Studies 1 and 2). Rumination was reduced when participants could self-affirm after failure (Studies 1 and 2) or before failure (Study 3). In Study 3, self-affirmation led to increased positive affect on a disguised mood test and more positive name letter evaluations. Moreover, the obtained increase in positive affect mediated the effect of self-affumation on rumination. It is concluded that self-affirmation may be an effective way to stop ruminative thinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the hypothesis that individuals engage in more thorough attributional processing for unexpected events than they do for expected events. 51 undergraduates observed the experimenter asking a confederate either a small or large favor. The small request led to an expectancy of compliance; the large request led to expectancy of refusal. The confederate then either did or did not comply with the request, thus either confirming or disconfirming Ss' expectancies. Ss were than allowed to look at any 5 of the confederates' responses to a 10-item questionnaire that the confederate had supposedly filled out earlier. Five of the items on the questionnaire were relevant to helping, and 5 were of general interest. As predicted, Ss chose more helping-relevant items when their expectancies had been disconfirmed. Implications for attributions for the behavior of stereotyped out-group members are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments, with 60 undergraduates, examined what types of events instigate causal reasoning and what effects causal reasoning has on the subsequent use of information stored in memory. Ss were shown descriptions of behaviors performed by hypothetical characters, wrote brief continuations, and were given a surprise recall test on the behavior description phrases. Memory and use of explanatory content were assessed. Results indicate that unexpected events elicit causal reasoning and that causal reasoning produces relatively elaborate memory representations of these events so that they are more likely to be recalled. Findings are discussed in terms of the role of causal reasoning during acquisition, retention, and retrieval in social memory tasks. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the proposition that variations in experience with lack of control ought to cause variations in the tendency to engage in attribution processes. 158 university students were first given 1 of 3 levels of experience with lack of control (high, low, or no helplessness training); in a 2nd study, their utilization of information that had previously been shown to be sensitive to motivational variations was measured. Results indicate the expected effects on mood and performance: Low helplessness Ss were hostile and showed performance gains, and high helplessness Ss were depressed and showed performance deficits. However, the attributions of both low and high helplessness Ss were significantly more affected by variations in the description of a communicator than were the attributions of Ss who had not been given experience with lack of control. Findings are consistent with the general control motivation hypothesis. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Individual differences in the desire for simple structure may influence how people understand, experience, and interact with their worlds. Studies 1 and 2 revealed that the Personal Need for Structure (PNS) scale (M. Thompson, M. Naccarato, and K. Parker, 1989) possesses sufficient reliability and convergent and discriminant validity. In Studies 3–5, Ss high in PNS were especially likely to organize social and nonsocial information in less complex ways, stereotype others, and complete their research requirements on time. These data suggest that people differ in their chronic desire for simple structure and that this difference can have important social–cognitive and behavioral implications. A consideration of chronic information-processing motives may facilitate the theoretical integration of social cognition, affect, motivation, and personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the hypothesis that an experience that simply affirms a valued aspect of the self can eliminate dissonance and its accompanying cognitive changes. Three experiments were conducted using the conventional forced-compliance procedure. In Study 1, some of the 76 college student Ss were allowed to affirm an important, self-relevant value (by completing a self-relevant value scale) immediately after having written unrelated dissonant essays and prior to recording their attitudes on the postmeasure. Other Ss underwent an identical procedure but were selected so that the value affirmed by the scale was not part of their self-concept. The value scale eliminated dissonance-reducing attitude change among Ss for whom it was self-relevant but not among Ss for whom it was not self-relevant. This occurred even though the value scale could not resolve or reduce the objective importance of the dissonance-provoking inconsistency. Study 2, conducted with 24 Ss with a strong economic and political value orientation, showed that the self-affirmation effect was strong enough to prevent the reinstatement of dissonance. Study 3, testing generalizability with 24 Ss, replicated the effect by using a different attitude issue, a different value for affirmation, and a different measure of dissonance reduction. Results imply that a need for psychological consistency is not part of dissonance motivation and that salient, self-affirming cognitions may help objectify reactions to self-threatening information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on Wortman and Brehm's integration of reactance theory with Seligman's model of learned helplessness, an investigation was conducted to examine the effects of amount of helplessness training and internal--external locus of control on subsequent task performance and on self-ratings of mood. Subjects were divided into "internal" and "external" groups and were then given either high, low, or no helplessness training on a series of concept-formation problems. After completing a mood checklist, all subjects worked on an anagram task presented as a second experiment by a second experimenter. The results revealed that internals exhibited greater performance decrements and reported greater depression under high helplessness than did externals. In the low helplessness conditions, internals tended to perform better than control subjects, while externals tended to perform worse than control subjects; low helplessness subjects also reported the highest levels of hostility. The results are discussed within the context of Wortman and Brehm's integration of reactance and learned helplessness theories.
Depressed and nondepressed college students received experience with solvable, unsolvable, or no discrimination problems. When later tested on a series of patterned anagrams, depressed groups performed worse than nondepressed groups, and unsolvable groups performed worse than solvable and control groups. As predicted by the learned helplessness model of depression, nondepressed subjects given unsolvable problems showed anagram deficits parallel to those found in naturally occurring depression. When depressed subjects attributed their failure to the difficulty of the problems rather than to their own incompetence, performance improved strikingly. So, failure in itself is apparently not sufficient to produce helplessness deficits in man, but failure that leads to a decreased belief in personal competence is sufficient.
Reviews 17 publications (including some containing multiple studies) on spontaneous attribution activity. The paradigms include the coding of written material, recording of thoughts during or after task completion, and indirect inferences of attributional activity exhibited in other cognitive processes. There is unequivocal documentation of attributional activity, with unexpected events and nonattainment of a goal among the antecedent cues that elicit causal search. It is concluded that the topic under investigation, therefore, should not be the existence of attributional search, but rather the conditions under which it is most promoted. (35 ref)
Many investigators have proposed that threat is a basic cause of authoritarianism. This perspective suggests the hypothesis that increased threat should evoke increased authoritarianism. To test this prediction, various archival data from 2 threatening historical periods (the 1930's and 1967-1970) and 2 nonthreatening periods (the 1920's and 1959-1964) were examined to determine whether authoritarianism did increase in response to threat. Data indicate that environmental threat was reliably associated with changed behavior in most areas of the "authoritarian syndrome." Results are consistent with the hypothesis that threat is a cause of authoritarianism and added validity to the concept of an authoritarian syndrome. (45 ref)
The provision of information before medical or surgical procedures should improve knowledge and allay anxiety about the pending procedure. This trial aimed to assess the value of an information video in this process.
Patients scheduled to undergo colonoscopy were approached about 1 week before the procedure. All patients were given an information leaflet about colonoscopy, and completed a Spielberger state anxiety inventory (STAI) questionnaire to assess baseline anxiety. The patients were then randomly assigned to watch or not watch the information video. Immediately before colonoscopy, all patients completed a second anxiety questionnaire and a knowledge questionnaire.
198 patients were screened. 31 declined to participate and 17 were unable to complete the forms. Of the remaining 150 patients, 72 were assigned the video, and 78 no video. The groups were similar with regard to age, sex, educational attainment, and initial anxiety score. Female patients had higher baseline anxiety than male patients (mean STAI 46.3 [95% CI 44.9-47.7] vs 36.9 [35.5-38.3]; difference 9.4 [7.8-12.2], p=0.0008). Patients who had not had a previous colonoscopy had higher baseline anxiety scores than those who had prior experience of the procedure (46.9 [45.4-48.5] vs 36.3 [34.7-37.9]; difference 10.6 [7.5-13.8], p=0.0008). Patients who watched the video were significantly less anxious before colonoscopy than those who did not. The former also scored more highly in the knowledge questionnaire than the latter with regard to the purpose of the procedure, procedural details, and potential complications of colonoscopy.
An information video increases knowledge and decreases anxiety in patients preparing for colonoscopy.
Theories of motivation built upon primary drives cannot account for playful and exploratory behavior. The new motivational concept of "competence" is introduced indicating the biological significance of such behavior. It furthers the learning process of effective interaction with the environment. While the purpose is not known to animal or child, an intrinsic need to deal with the environment seems to exist and satisfaction ("the feeling of efficacy") is derived from it. (100 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
At intervals of 1, 3, 6, and 9 hours after eating, 5 experimental subjects were tested in a situation wherein they were to identify a series of 80 ambiguous figures (40 chromatic and 40 achromatic) in order to determine if the number of identifications of the figures with food and food objects increased as the degree of hunger increased. Each subject was tested at least twice at each interval, whereas 5 control subjects were tested at intervals of from 45 minutes to 2½ hours after eating, each interval constant for a given subject. The number of food responses to the achromatic figures increased at 3 and 6 hours and then decreased, while for the chromatic figures the responses increased up to 3 hours and then decreased. An hypothesis is presented which "emphasizes the conflict between food-set and reality-set, the chromatic cards activating the reality-set more than the achromatic cards do." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACT The hypothesis that people engage in attribution processes to obtain a sense of control was tested In each of three experiments, subjects identified on an individual difference measure as high in a general desire for control (DC) were found to engage in attnbution processes more than subjects low in desire for control In Experiment 1, high-DC subjects were more likely to utilize attributionally relevant information when describing the cause of a writer's behavior than were low-DC subjects High-DC subjects in Experiment 2 were more likely to ask attribution questions about hypothetical events than were low-DC subjects In Expenment 3, high-DC subjects gave more attributions for their performance on a test than did low-DC subjects The findings are interpreted as support for the control motivation explanation for why people engage in attribution processes
Recent social psychological research on paranoid cognition has shown that when individuals are self-conscious or feel under evaluative scrutiny, they tend to overestimate the extent to which they are the target of others' attention. As a result, they make overly personalistic attributions about others' behavior. These personalistic attributions, in turn, foster a pattern of heightened distrust and suspicion regarding others' motives and intentions. Drawing on this research, the present work investigates antecedents and consequences of paranoid cognition in groups and organizations. Results of two studies are presented. Study 1 investigates how tenure in a group or organization affects individuals' self-consciousness and susceptibility to paranoid cognition. Study 2 replicates and extends the results of the first study using a new laboratory analog for studying paranoid cognition in small groups. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of their contribution to theory regarding the origins and dynamics of collective distrust and suspicion.
Past attributional studies have produced a consensus that negative and unexpected outcomes promote spontaneous causal search. Howwever, there is no theoretical reason to believe that outcome has an effect on spontaneous causal attribution independent of expectancy. Past studies thatfound the outcome effect all sufferfrom the methodological problems of (a) lack of spontaneity in elicited attributions and/or (b) improper manipulation. Experiment I (N = 44) introduced rigorous control of the two independent variables and showed that only expectancy has an independent effect on spontaneous causal thinking. Experiment 2 (N = 100) showed that, although expectancy is the only antecedent to spontaneous causal attribution, outcome does affect nonspontaneous causal search, giving a strong indication that the lack of spontaneity accounts for the outcome effect found in the past studies.
The object of the study was to observe the changes in efficiency of perceptive activity of man (recognition of visual patterns against a background of noises) throughout an increase in emotional stress caused by a forthcoming parachuete jump. A moderate degree of emotional stress can improve performance efficiency and decrease the number of the subject's errors. Later an impairment of differentation of similar signals was seen and an increase in the number of "false alarm" errors along with a decrease in the number of omissions to reactions signals. The neurophysiological basis of such changes in perceptive activity consists in a transition from conditional behaviour to reaction through mechanisms of Ukhtomsky's dominant focus.
The p53 tumor suppressor promotes apoptosis in response to DNA damage. Here we describe the Caenorhabditis elegans gene ced-13, which encodes a conserved BH3-only protein. We show that ced-13 mRNA accumulates following DNA damage, and that this accumulation is dependent on an intact C. elegans cep-1/p53 gene. We demonstrate that CED-13 protein physically interacts with the antiapoptotic Bcl-2-related protein CED-9. Furthermore, overexpression of ced-13 in somatic cells leads to the death of cells that normally survive, and this death requires the core apoptotic pathway of C. elegans. Recent studies have implicated two BH3-only proteins, Noxa and PUMA, in p53-induced apoptosis in mammals. Our studies suggest that in addition to the BH3-only protein EGL-1, CED-13 might also promote apoptosis in the C. elegans germ line in response to p53 activation. We propose that an evolutionarily conserved pathway exists in which p53 promotes cell death by inducing expression of two BH3-only genes.
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