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Journal of Business To Business Marketing
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The Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy: Communications Training in
Business-to-Business Personal Selling Persuasion Efforts
Robin T. Peterson a; Yam Limbu a
a Department of Marketing, College of Business, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces
Online Publication Date: 01 July 2009
To cite this Article Peterson, Robin T. and Limbu, Yam(2009)'The Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy: Communications Training in
Business-to-Business Personal Selling Persuasion Efforts',Journal of Business To Business Marketing,16:3,193 — 219
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/10517120802484551
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193
Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 16:193–219, 2009
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1051-712X print/1547-0628 online
DOI: 10.1080/10517120802484551
WBBM1051-712X1547-0628Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, Vol. 16, No. 3, July 2009: pp. 1–48Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing The Convergence of Mirroring and
Empathy: Communications Training
in Business-to-Business Personal
Selling Persuasion Efforts
Convergence of Mirroring and EmpathyR. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu ROBIN T. PETERSON and YAM LIMBU
Department of Marketing, College of Business,
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces
Purpose: This study assessed the value of training in mirroring
combined with training in empathy in a personal-selling setting
when these two supplement training in more conventional areas.
To a large extent, this investigation is exploratory. Previous
attempts to probe into this topic do not appear in the literature.
Methodology: Students in personal-selling classes acted as sales
representatives in an attempt to sell a service (attendance at a sem-
inar) to small retailers. One group was trained in mirroring and
another in empathy. Yet another received instruction in both
mirroring and empathy. Finally, control-group members received
neither mirroring nor empathy training. Chi-square tests, t tests,
Tukey k tests, and an analysis of variance were used. The hypothe-
ses were that mirroring and empathy training, and especially
mirroring combined with empathy, would perform better than no
training in these areas.
Findings: The analysis revealed that those who were trained in
mirroring were more successful in obtaining intent to purchase
than were control-group members. Likewise, trainees in empathy
were more successful than those without training. Both of these
experimental groups performed at levels that did not diverge sig-
nificantly. Members of the group with instruction in both mirror-
ing and empathy contributed more effectively than any other
group.
Address correspondence to Robin T. Peterson, is professor in the Department of Marketing,
College of Business, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003. E-mail: Ropeters@
nmsu.edu
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194 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
Originality, Value, and Contribution: This is the first published
study that systematically examined the effectiveness of both mir-
roring and empathy training in a personal-selling setting. Previ-
ous writings have presented research relating to nonselling
functions. Others have discussed the value of mirroring and empa-
thy in narrative that was not supported by data. The findings of
this study suggest that both of these topics of coverage have merit
when acting as a supplement to more conventional training con-
tent. They reveal that sales managers may be more successful in
training members of the sales force if mirroring and empathy
training is employed. The investigation supplies support for the
proposition that this form of instruction can be useful in both aca-
demic and practical applications.
Today’s marketplace is becoming progressively more competitive at the
business-to-business level. Of course, one approach to meeting rivals is to
improve the productivity of the sales force.
This improvement in productivity can spring from sales training, where
old methods can be refined and innovations introduced. Are there cutting-
edge tools that sales managers might put into practice to upgrade their pro-
grams? This article suggests several avenues that appear to have strong
potential for superior sales training.
Both practitioners and academics in the business-to-business personal
selling field are keenly interested in approaches to improve communica-
tions with target customers. They have attempted to train sales representa-
tives in fields that might significantly advance their ability. In this regard,
they have devoted considerable attention to improving verbal discussion. In
addition, they have made efforts to enhance communication effectiveness
through training in nonverbal communication or body language. This has
been described as “messages without words” or “silent messages” (Manning
and Reece 1992). Further, the literature makes frequent references to the
value of empathy—an attitudinal and behavior construct that has been
linked to sales productivity. Hence, empathy often is recommended as a
desirable practice. But mirroring and empathy training in personal selling
have never been quantitatively assessed. The essentials of mirroring and
empathy are outlined, in turn, in this section.
Consider first the construct of mirroring. Nonverbal communication,
of which mirroring is part, encompasses conduct such as sales represen-
tative posture, facial expressions, arm and hand movements, and eye
contact. Conventional wisdom has it that although this pursuit is more
an art than a science, it still has significant worth. In addition, mirroring
consists of a framework that can be learned and taught (Schwebel and
Schwebel 2002) so its advantages can be gained by those who do not
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 195
possess inborn talent. One of the advantages of personal selling is that it
can make use of body language—a major shortcoming of online commu-
nications (Walther, Loh, and Granka 2005). Hence, it may be a desirable
training topic.
Business-to-business sales personnel who depend entirely on the
spoken word to communicate with prospects may be overlooking an
influential instrument for carrying their thoughts and positions. Undeni-
ably, nonverbal communication is neither grounded on pure science nor it
is it able to guarantee the achievement of desired results. Nevertheless,
those who learn and apply this method may find it helpful in upgrading
their communications.
This article considers only one portion of nonverbal communication—
mirroring. In turn, mirroring is frequently covered in personal-selling text-
books and trade journal articles. But is training in this activity really effective
in a business-to-business selling context? Can sales representatives who are
trained in this function significantly increase their productivity? Many
sources say yes, based on their opinions and feelings. But research into
these questions is in short supply. Accordingly, this article reports on an
investigation, largely exploratory, into the effectiveness of mirroring training
in enhancing personal-selling productivity. A review of the literature that
pertains to mirroring is presented. The authors were unable to uncover
recently conducted academic studies on the effectiveness of mirroring train-
ing in the marketing, personal-selling, or other business discipline literature.
However numerous nonacademic references to the subject were found in
the trade, textbook, and popular literature.
In addition, the study examined the impact of training in empathy on
selling productivity. Various personal-selling and sales management texts
and articles argue in support of the contribution of empathy. These texts
view this construct as useful in the selling and relationship-building func-
tions. In turn, they see empathy as the ability to understand, experience,
and share the personal perspectives and background of other persons with
whom they come into contact. But can sales representatives actually benefit
materially from training in empathy? Can they profit further through training
in both mirroring and empathy? Research to date does not answer these
questions. This article addresses these points. To a large extent, the study is
exploratory. Hopefully, it will pave the way for further research into the
topic.
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Brownell (1999), mirroring is behaving or conducting oneself
in a manner that offers a reflection back to the observer of themselves. In
turn, it can include any or all of the following:
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196 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
Similar clothing
Similar facial expressions
Similar head position
Similar eye expression
Similar body position
Similar stance/posture
Similar voice tone
Similar vocabulary
Similar energy
Some authorities report that even imitating another’s rate of breathing
falls into this category (Heskell 2003). In turn, mirroring is based on the
assumption is that we tend to feel comfortable with people who communi-
cate nonverbally the same way we do. In other words, we are drawn to
people when their body language is similar to our own (Mowatt 2006). This
process shows that you understand what the speaker is saying and the
speaker knows that you do (Anonymous 2005). Some experts provide a
warning, however: There is a thin line between mirroring and mocking and
“if you go out and try blinking when they blink, nodding when they nod,
and talking with their accent, people will think you’re making fun of them”
(Carter 2001).
Lee (1999) reports that, in Jung’s and other psychoanalytic psycholo-
gists’ terms, mirroring is a confirmation of or reflection back to individuals
of the appropriateness of their own identity. Further, it provides an emo-
tional basis for the identity they are seeking to develop.
People seek out those who have similarities to themselves to confirm
their own personal identity and environments that support who they are and
what they wish to become. Examples are ethnic clubs, teenagers who dress
exactly like their friends, or professionals in business suits (Schwartz-Salant
1982). There is always a tension between oneself and the “other” (individuals,
society, organizations, etc.) that represents whether one’s self-definition feels
verified (or mirrored). When it does not, tension more or less is dependent on
the “goodness of fit” between the two (Lerner and Tubman 1989).
Some applications of mirroring theory and practice are relevant for
business administration practices. Much of the writing in this sphere tends
to be clinical and based more on personal experience, observation, and
reflection than on research. It has been reported that many managers fail in
adequately training their front-line employees on how to establish rapport
with customers and that performance could be upgraded through mirroring
training (Mowatt 2000). Another observation is that sales representatives at
trade shows may increase their effectiveness through mirroring (Chang
2004). In this regard, it is reported that sales representatives might make
superior impressions on customers through mirroring customer nonverbal
communication and dress code (Boardman 1995).
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 197
Gadberry (1993) suggests that financial analysts should assume the pos-
ture of the person being addressed when attempting to create a favorable
impression. Another source advocates the idea that human resource depart-
ments should encourage the use of mirroring by employees of the organiza-
tion in order to reduce staff conflicts (Murphy 1987). Another proposes that
leaders should practice mirroring when dealing with employees in order to
bring about motivation (de Vries and Kets 1989). This is particularly impor-
tant when leaders are involved in supervisory tasks (Pisani et al. 2006) or
when the organization is in the process of change (Carr 2002).
In summary, there is frequent mention of the promise of mirroring in
various business-related writings. However, none of these assess the effec-
tiveness of such training in a sales context through an analytic approach—
the objective of the present study.
In addition to mirroring, this article addresses training in empathy. In
turn, the empathy possessed and used by sales representatives in their work
may combine with mirroring to produce a joint effect.
For some individuals, perhaps because of past education and experi-
ences, empathy may be a practice that comes naturally. These individuals
have learned this concept without specific training in its practice. On the
other hand, the following discussion suggests that empathy often is not
inborn and can be learned through well-constructed training programs. In
this case, logic suggests that empathy is more a philosophy and corollary set
of practices than a personality trait.
Empathy, the ability to mentally position oneself in the place of
another person, has been reported to have four ingredients (Hakansson and
Montgomery 2003).
1. The empathizer understands the target’s situation and emotions.
2. The target experiences one or more emotions.
3. The empathizer perceives a similarity between what the target is experi-
encing and something the empathizer has experienced previously.
4. The empathizer is concerned for the target’s well-being.
According to Smith (2006), two types of empathy exist: cognitive empa-
thy (mental perspective taking) and emotional empathy (the vicarious shar-
ing of emotion). In turn, cognitive empathy enables humans to understand
and predict the behavior of others in terms of attributed mental states. It
facilitates conversation and social expertise. Conversely, emotional empathy
motivates humans to behave altruistically toward others—it promotions
social bonding. Essentially, “true” empathy integrates cognitive and emo-
tional empathy (Kerem, Fishman, and Josselson 2001). But empathy should
not be confused with sympathy. The former entails both affective (feeling)
and cognitive (thinking) responding, whereas the latter primarily involves
affective responses (Martz 2001).
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198 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
HYPOTHESES
There is some indication, somewhat theoretical and somewhat empirical,
that training in mirroring could be a useful tool in promoting sales repre-
sentative productivity. One study has revealed that behavioral mirroring
can influence the judgments individuals make about a person’s character
and behavior (Manusov 1993). An underlying rationale for this is that
cooperative thinking best happens because individuals prefer similarities
(Barwick 2004). Another inquiry has indicated that the perceived persua-
siveness of an individual who employs mirroring in a group discussion is
significantly greater than that of one who neglects this process (Van Swol
2003).
On a more concrete level, various references have uncovered
support for mirroring use in particular applications and circumstances.
Waiters who mirror the behavior of their customers have been found to
receive larger tips than those who do not and customers report greater
satisfaction in conversing with waiters who mirror the customer’s non-
verbal behavior (Diksterhurt et al. 2005). Married couples have been
found to collaborate indirectly in the development of self-identity by
mirroring (Golen 2002). British brand design company (Williams Murray
Hamm) employees have found that they can best convince clients to
accept package designs produced by the company by mirroring the
behavior and ideas of the clients (Dowdy 2006).
There are indications that well-conceived training programs can effec-
tively teach individuals to improve their performance in mirroring. One
source suggests that this technique consists of a set of skills that can be
learned and taught (Schwebel and Schwebel 2002). Social workers who
have experienced in-classroom education in mirroring have been found to
be more effective communicators with their clients than are those who lack
this training (Preston-Shoot, Taylor, and Lishman 1999). Research indicates
that therapists who receive instruction in mirroring tend to become more
proficient in their work (Pisani et al. 2006; Thomasgard, Boreman, and Metz
2004). Even actors who are trained in mirroring have been found to
improve their coherence with those with whom they interact (Dobel et al.
2007).
Of course, the discussion above does not suggest that mirroring
training should replace coverage of traditional topics, such as prospect-
ing, the preapproach, and answering objections. Rather, there is evi-
dence that mirroring instruction may improve the progress of the
trainees beyond that which they achieve through the more conventional
training coverage.
Despite support in the literature for the effectiveness of mirroring and
mirroring training in personal selling, the impact has yet to be assessed
quantitatively. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is posited:
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 199
H1: Sales representatives who are trained in mirroring will be more effec-
tive in producing intentions to purchase among business target custom-
ers than will those who do not receive this training. Hence, mirroring
training may supplement instruction covering traditional topics.
Some support for the contribution of empathy to personal selling effec-
tiveness is available. Thus, empathy may be a candidate for inclusion in
training programs. According to a recent review of the literature, four posi-
tive emotions were singled out as important for salesperson–customer rela-
tions: pride, attachment, empathy, and emotional wisdom (Bagozzi 2006).
In turn, empathy has been found to be one of the characteristics of top
salespeople, as measured by customer satisfaction (Rasmusson 2000).
At the retail stage, empathy is reported to be a contributor to relation-
ship quality at both the employee and company levels (Wong and Sohal
2002). Further, empathy appears to be useful in integrating customer-ori-
ented attitudes and customer-oriented behavior (Stock and Hoyer 2005).
There is documentation that suggests that empathy can be taught and
this training can improve performance. College students who are trained in
this field have been shown to possess more empathy than those who are not
and have been shown to increase their verbalization skills, understand
situations more precisely, and make more accurate insights on the thoughts of
others (Brems, Fromme, and Johnson 1992). Counselors with this training
have improved their listening abilities and counseling practices (Nerdrum and
Ronnestad 2003; Pearson 1999). Psychotherapists have found that empathy
training can improve their ability to communicate with their clients (Rand 2006).
Empathy training has assisted “normal” children in teaching physical
education to peers with physical difficulties (Lockhart, French, and Gench
1998). Couples in marriage and romantic relationships who have received
empathy training have demonstrated advances in the quality of their rela-
tionships (Angera and Long 2005). Finally, it has been suggested that for
professionals working with other people, a systematic training for the ability
to show empathy should be a valuable and necessary part of their educa-
tion (Erera 1997; Holm 1997).
Despite support in the literature for the effectiveness of empathy and
empathy training, the effect has yet to be assessed quantitatively in a per-
sonal-selling context. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is posited:
H2: Sales representatives who are trained in empathy will be more effective
in producing intentions to purchase among business target customers
than will those who do not receive this training. Hence, empathy train-
ing may supplement instruction that includes traditional topics.
There are indications that, for sales representatives, a combination of
mirroring accompanied by empathy may be more effective than either of
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200 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
these practices alone. It can be construed that the two are natural comple-
ments that are capable of producing desirable synergistic effects. The fol-
lowing examination of various elements of learning and communications
theories supports this argument.
According to Batson and colleagues (2005): “What accounts for variation
in empathy? Currently, one of the most popular explanations among person-
ality and social psychologists is perceived similarity. We feel sympathy and
compassion for others to the degree that we perceive them to be like us.”
Other researchers have found strong relationships between perceived
similarity and empathy (Coulter and Coulter 2003; Gill, Flaschner, and Shachar
2006). The point is that when one practices mirroring, he or she enters into
a condition of behavioral similarity. And, because similarity and empathy
have been shown to be linked (Gill, Flaschner, and Shachar 2006), there is a
strong possibility of a positive synergistic effect. As expressed by Persson,
Laaksolahti, and Lonnqvist (2001) “Expectations on visual appearance and
behavior of others explains a great deal about empathy.” When sales repre-
sentatives engage in successful mirroring, they may create the impression
on the part of the prospect that the two are both members of the same or
similar groups because their behavior is in concert. And empathy is a stron-
ger predictor of communication effectiveness when the communicator and
the recipient appear to be members of identical groups, thereby increasing
the probability of attraction between the two parties (Sturmer, Snyder, and
Omoto 2005).
Further indications of the possible link between mirroring and empathy
are available through an examination of research on listening theory. There
is evidence that from the customer’s point of view, listening may be the sin-
gle most important skill that salespeople can possess (Moore, Eckrich, and
Carlson 1986). And a study of salespeople found that failure to listen is one
of the most important reasons that salespeople are unsuccessful (Ingram,
Schwepker, and Hutson 1992). There is some indication that empathy may
be useful in increasing the probability of success derived by sales represen-
tatives through active listening (Fracaro 2006). As a result of listening, con-
gruence (similar views) can be achieved between the thought processes of
sales representatives and prospects, and research indicates that congruence
is closely related with empathy (West 2006). In addition, agreeableness,
another possible outcome resulting from listening, is significantly correlated
with empathy (Lin, Chiu, and Hsieh 2001).
It is apparent that when salespeople mirror they become involved in
listening and observing both verbal and nonverbal signals. In turn, the most
effective level of listening combines empathy with the techniques of active
listening (Comer and Drollinger 1999). Empathy and listening are two sepa-
rate constructs and empathy is a salesperson practice that has the potential
for manifesting itself in superior listening skills (Aggarwal et al. 2005). Sensing
in listening goes beyond verbal signals by including nonverbal signals such
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 201
as body language and facial expressions. Understanding refers to an indi-
vidual’s ability to accurately ascribe meaning to incoming messages, both
verbal and nonverbal (Nicols and Stevens 1957). Also, an element in listen-
ing consists of responding—sending messages back to speakers indicating
that their messages have been received correctly. This ensures to the cus-
tomer that accurate listening has taken place and encourages continuation
of communication.
Comer and Drollinger (1999) describe the process of combining empa-
thy and listening, which they call active-empathetic listening (AEL). This is
defined as:
a process whereby the listener receives verbal and non-verbal messages,
processes them cognitively, responds to them verbally and non-verbally,
and attempts to assess their underlying meaning intuitively by putting
themselves in the customer’s place throughout. While active listening is
desirable in the sales setting, it can appear to be contrived or empty.
Active listeners try quite hard to appear attentive to verbal and non-verbal
cues, but may seem to be listening mechanically and fail to project a
genuine level of concern for what is actually being said. We contend
that for communication to be effective, genuine concern is requisite.
The previous discussion provides rationale for a third hypothesis that
combines mirroring and empathy training. But, despite support in the litera-
ture for the effectiveness of mirroring and mirroring training, the impact of
this technique has yet to be assessed quantitatively in a personal-selling
context. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is posited:
H3: Sales representatives who are trained in both mirroring and empathy
will be more effective in producing intentions to purchase among busi-
ness target customers than will those who do not receive this training
or who are trained in empathy but not mirroring or mirroring but not
empathy. Hence, mirroring training combined with empathy training
may supplement instruction that covers traditional content only.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The subjects in the study were the students who were enrolled in the
authors’ personal selling classes throughout the course of two academic
years and two summer sessions. Each of 12 separate classes was divided
into four groups. In turn every one of the groups was assigned to one of
four research groups (three of which were treatment and one of which
was control). All research groups consisted of the same number of students
(n = 53) selected randomly from the class rolls for a total sample size of 636.
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202 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
In addition to conventional lecture and discussion, case analysis, role
play, and textbook reading assignments, the members of each research
group were exposed to specific training or lack of training experiences.
These experiences took place two weeks before the final examination
week. Group One members received training in mirroring. Those in Group
Two obtained training in empathy. The subjects in Group Three acquired
training in both mirroring and empathy. Finally, Group Four (control group)
participants did not secure training in either mirroring or empathy. All
group members received training that covered traditional topics throughout
the semester.
The students in each class were randomly assigned to the groups by
the instructor. In order to mitigate contamination of the results, sections of
the required textbook that dealt with mirroring or empathy were not
assigned to the class and the instructor did not cover these topics in the reg-
ular classroom lectures.
The members of Group One were required to attend two sessions
(made up of 50 minutes each) of training in mirroring. Research indicates
that training periods of this length can be effective in imparting useful
insights and perspectives in nonverbal communication (Schwebel 2002).
Appendix A provides an overview of the training coverage that was involved.
Related training insights are available in several sources (Anonymous 2005;
Boardman 1995; Brownell 1999; L’Herisson 1981; Mowatt 2006).
In the first mirroring training session, each student was provided a writ-
ten copy of the document set forth in Appendix A and was told to study it
briefly. Then the instructor lectured for 25 minutes, covering each of the
segments in the document. Following this, a student (not a subject in
the study) who had been briefed by the instructor acted as a prospect in a
role-playing situation where the instructor demonstrated each item in the
document. The role-playing procedure lasted for 20 minutes. In the second
training session the instructor and the role-playing student demonstrated
each of the segments in the document during a span of 25 minutes. During
the next 20 minutes of the session, the students practiced each of the sug-
gestions, using another student as a prospect. The second training session
concluded with a five-minute review of the material that was previously
covered.
Group Two members were exposed to two sessions (made up of
50 minutes each) of training in empathy. Appendix B sets forth an overview
of the training coverage that was involved in the first session. Related train-
ing insights are available in several sources (Aggarwal et al. 2005; Comer
and Drollinger 1999; Edwards 2006; Martz 2001; Mayer and Greenberg 2006;
Smith 2006).
In the first empathy training session, each student was provided a writ-
ten copy of the document presented in Appendix B and was told to study it
briefly. Then the instructor lectured for 25 minutes, covering each of the
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 203
segments in the document. Following this, a student (not a subject in the
study) who had been briefed by the instructor acted as in a role-playing sit-
uation where the instructor demonstrated each item in the document. The
role-playing procedure lasted for 20 minutes.
In the second training session in empathy the students were provided
with a written copy of the document presented in Appendix C. The document
contained exercises to be performed in the classroom. In turn, the exercises
were designed to assist the student in developing self-awareness and in
becoming aware of the cognitive and affective differences among individu-
als. These two qualities are normally included in programs designed to train
personnel for medical and counseling roles (Smith 2006). They have been
employed successfully by the author in empathy training programs for per-
sonal-selling students and professional sales representatives. Each of the
exercises was performed by the students in 10 minutes. The last 10 minutes
of the training session concluded with a review of the material that was pre-
viously covered in the two empathy training sessions.
The members of Group Three received both the mirroring and the
empathy training sessions, as previously described. The objective was to
determine the joint outcome of the two training topics. Finally, those in
Group Four collectively made up a control group. They were not required
to participate in either mirroring or empathy training.
There were time periods when members of Groups One, Two, and
Four were not involved in classroom instruction or training but members of
other groups were involved. When parts of the class (members of specific
groups) were occupied with training, the remainder of the class was moved
to an adjoining classroom and given neutral instructions, namely: “Part of
the class will be involved in a small research study. You are not required to
do this, so you can use the time as you wish.”
An attempt was made to standardize the nature of the training that was
experienced by each of the groups. That is, insofar as possible, each group
received training that was delivered in the same manner and with the same
degree of positive support on the part of the instructor. In short, an attempt
was made to eliminate or at least moderate bias engendered by the predis-
positions of the trainer.
On the next to the last week of the semester (after the students had
received the training undertaken in the study), each student was required to
make a sales call on an assigned small retailer. In turn, that retailer was not
assigned to any other students (to avoid research contamination that might
result from more than one sales call). The retailers were selected randomly
from the yellow pages of the local telephone book and were assigned to
students in a random fashion—a systematic sample from the telephone
book. The author contacted each retailer on the list and asked if he or she
would be willing to serve as a prospect for a student sales presentation. The
objective of each student was to make a sales call with the purpose of
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204 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
attempting to convince the retailer to attend a free “effective selling tech-
niques” seminar conducted by the author/professor on campus. The stu-
dents were instructed to employ in their persuasion efforts the materials that
they had learned in regularly scheduled classes, in the training sessions pre-
scribed by the research, and in the textbook. Further, they were required to
avoid collaborating with each other prior to the sales call, as a means of
evading contamination of the study results from this source.
It might be argued that the prior education and past experience of the
student/salesperson might contaminate the results of the study in that some
might have previous instruction, reading, or experience in mirroring or the
use of empathy. However, this was not suspected to be a major contami-
nant. The only prerequisite course for the personal-selling offering is princi-
ples of marketing. As it is now taught at the university in question, it does
not cover these topics. In turn, the personal-selling course used in the study
is introductory in nature and is described and promoted to students as an
approach to the field that is made available to novices who have little or no
exposure to personal selling. As such, it is unlikely that past exposure to
mirroring or empathy utilization took place. If it did, it is even more
unlikely that the students received the degree of training that they did in the
study.
The objective of the study was to compare the performance of the four
groups in producing favorable results. Three dependent variables were
employed to achieve this end. One was the number of successful sales
(verbal intentions expressed by the retailers to attend the seminar). An alter-
native dependent variable—actual attendance at the retailer seminar—might
have been utilized. However, the researcher avoided this option because
variables other than the persuasiveness of the student (such as the retailers’
personal time schedules, contingencies arising in their business operations,
travel plans, prior obligations, and time conflicts) could impact their atten-
dance at the seminar. Another dependent variable was self-reporting
measures prepared by the students relating to their perceived effectiveness
of the education/training they received throughout the entire semester (this
includes mirroring, empathy, and regularly scheduled instruction covering
traditional topics). The third dependent variable was self-reporting by
the students on the usefulness of the mirroring and empathy training in
particular.
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Data on the number of retailers indicating an intention to attend the seminar
appear in Table 1. After each sales presentation was completed the student/
sales representative asked the retailer/prospect to complete a one-question
questionnaire while the student was not present in the room. The question
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 205
asked: “Please indicate on this form with an X, your intentions to attend the
seminar.” The possible responses were: “Definitely will attend,” “Probably
will attend,” “Don’t know,” “Probably will not attend,” and “Definitely will
not attend.” A chi-square test on the frequencies reveals that there are
significant differences among the groups at the .05 level. In this case, the
calculated value of chi-square was 24.838, which exceeds the critical value
(21.026) with 12 degrees of freedom.
The table identifies those groups with statistically significant percent-
ages, according to t tests at the .05 level. There is some support for hypoth-
esis 1. It produced a larger percentage than the control group for “Definitely
will attend” and a significantly large percentage for “Probably will attend.”
This group’s percentages for “Probably will not attend,” and “Definitely
will not attend” are considerably lower than that of the control group.
These results suggest that training in mirroring has some merit for sales
representatives.
Further, there is some support for hypothesis 2. Group Two received
higher proportions than the control group for “Definitely will attend” and
“Probably will attend” and a significantly large percentage for “Definitely
will attend.” The “Probably will not attend” and “Definitely will not attend”
values were substantially lower than those of the control group. There is
support, then, for the proposition that training in empathy has some merit
for sales representatives.
In addition, there is support for hypothesis 3. Group Two has statisti-
cally significant percentages for “Definitely will attend” and “Probably will
attend” and its percentages for “Probably will not attend” and “Definitely
will not attend” are low, compared to the other groups. It appears that train-
ing in mirroring and empathy may produce desirable synergistic effects for
sales representatives.
The analysis reported here was reinforced through an analysis of vari-
ance. Each of the frequencies set forth in Table 1 were multiplied by an
T
ABLE 1 Retailer Intentions to Attend the Seminar
Expressed intention
Definitely
will attend
Probably
will attend
Don’t
know
Probably will
not attend
Definitely will
not attend Totals
Group # % # % # % # % # % # %
One 33 20.8 39 24.4* 27 17.0 33 20.8 27 17.0 159 100.0
Two 36 22.6* 33 20.8 24 15.1 30 18.9 36 22.6 159 100.0
Three 42 26.4* 45 28.3* 18 11.3 27 17.0 27 17.0 159 100.0
Four 24 15.1 12 7.5 33 20.8* 48 30.2* 42 26.4* 159 100.0
Totals 135 21.2 129 20.3 102 16.0 138 21.7 132 20.8 636 100.0
*Identifies a percent that is significantly greater than the percent of the groups in the column that have a
smaller value, according to a t test at the .05 level.
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206 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
integral scale value ranging from “Definitely will attend” (5) to “Definitely
will not attend” (1). The resulting figures were subjected to an analysis of
variance. Table 2 reports the results of the analysis. It is apparent that the
differences between the groups are significant. The analysis of variance was
not conducted across rows because a Tukey k test was carried out across
rows, and this test would duplicate the findings of an analysis of variance.
To determine which groups produced results that differed from others,
a Tukey k test was utilized. Table 3 lists the values for each group. In turn,
the test requires evaluating the differences between the scores for each
group. The most relevant data (means for each group) appear in the last
column of Table 3. According to the tests, this is support for all three
hypotheses. Both the Group One and Group Two values are significantly
greater than the critical value of k (3.44), indicating substantial contributions
from mirroring and empathy. Further, Group Three (mirroring and empathy)
produced a value that is significantly larger than that of any other group.
The sample members were asked to self-report on their perceived
effectiveness of the preparation that they received throughout the semester
in taking the class. A simple metric was employed to achieve this end. Spe-
cifically, the students were asked “We want to measure the extent to which
you feel that the training that you received in class this semester prepared
you for conducting your selling task. On a scale of one to seven, where one
T
ABLE 2 ANOVA Summary Results
Level Sum of squares df Mean square FCritical F value
Between groups 37.22 3 12.41 5.99 5.29*
W
ithin groups 33.12 16 2.07
*Signifies statistical significance at the .01 level, according to a table of F.
T
ABLE 3 Adjusted Data: Retailer Intentions to Attend the Seminar
Expressed intention
Group
Definitely
will attend
Probably
will attend
Don’t
know
Probably will
not attend
Definitely will
not attend Totals Means
One 165 156*†81 66†27 495 99
Two 180*†132†72 60†36 480 96*
Three 210*†180*†54†54†27 525 105*
Four 120†48 99 96†42 405 81
Totals 675†516†306†276†132 1,905 95
Means 169†129†77†69†33 477 95
*Signifies a mean score that is significantly greater than the next highest mean score in the column,
according to a Tukey k test at the .05 level.
†Signifies a mean score that is significantly greater than the next highest mean score in the row, according
to a Tukey k test at the .05 level.
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 207
signifies “Prepared me very well” and seven signifies “Did not prepare me
very well,” how would you rate the training that you received in class?” The
mean scores for the groups appear in Table 4.
A Tukey k test reveals that the Group One mean is significantly greater
than that of Group Four, providing support for hypothesis 1. Further, the
Group Two mean is significantly greater than that of Group Four, support-
ing hypothesis 2. In addition, the Group Three mean value is significantly
larger than all of the other group means, which is in accordance with
hypothesis 3.
The members of the three experimental groups were asked to evaluate
the training beyond the regularly scheduled instruction that they had
received. This evaluation took place after they had completed their sales
presentations. They received a questionnaire that asked them to evaluate
this training in terms of: (1) How much did I learn from this training? (2)
What is the practical value of this training to me for my future job success?
and (3) What was the value of this training in motivating me to achieve in
selling? These particular dimensions have been employed in prior research
studies to assess the usefulness of particular pedagogies (Peterson 1995).
Each of the three constructs was assessed on a seven-point scale ranging
from “Very little” to “Very much.” The results appear in Table 5. According
to the table, Group Three received the highest mean score. In turn, this
score is significantly greater than corresponding values for Groups One and
TABLE 4 Perceived Effectiveness of Training
Group Mean score
One 5.9*
Two 5.6*
Three 6.4*
Four 5.1
Total 5.8
*Signifies a mean score that is significantly greater
than the next highest mean score, according to a
Tukey k test at the .05 level.
TABLE 5 Perceived Value of Training
Group Mean score
One 6.0
Two 5.8
Three 6.5*
Total 6.1
*Signifies a mean score that is significantly
greater than the next highest mean score,
according to a Tukey k test at the .05 level.
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208 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
Two, providing support for hypothesis 3. The values for Groups One and
Two were not statistically different from each other.
DISCUSSION
Personal selling, as a field of practice and academic research, is dynamic
and witnesses the introduction of novel strategies, tactics, concepts, philoso-
phies, and relationships on a continuing basis. On the other hand, some
topics of coverage are sometimes taken for granted or neglected by both
researchers and sales operatives. Two such processes are training in mirror-
ing and empathy.
This article has examined the potential contributions of training in mir-
roring and empathy and their joint contribution to business-to-business
sales representatives’ generation of intention to purchase. The study that
was reported indicated that both mirroring and empathy training have
potential value, particularly when they are both brought into play. It is not
presumed that these two subjects should replace or lead to the deemphasis
of more traditional and more widely utilized content. But they can perform
a useful supportive and reinforcing function.
Interestingly, neither training in mirroring nor empathy was found to
be substantially more effective than the other, as revealed by the dependent
variable measurements included in the study. Rather, both were evaluated
as operating on approximately the same level as the other. The educational
experience and training that the two produced did not bring about demon-
strable variations in performance. The similarity may be simply a matter of
coincidence, as theory, experimental error, and logic do not seem to predict
consistent levels of achievement across the experimental groups. Con-
versely, the employment of other dependent variables might have brought
about larger differences.
The data analysis produced evidence of substantial mirroring and
empathy training effects on intention to purchase. This is despite the fact
that the training time devoted to these subjects was much less than the time
allocated to traditional topics. This difference in the extent of coverage sug-
gests that mirroring and empathy training may be very useful components
of the sales training program.
The study is subject to certain limitations. The sales representatives
in the study were students enrolled in personal-selling classes in one
university setting, and they were selling a service that did not have a
monetary price (the only expenses to the prospects were the time and
effort that they would expend in attending the seminar). Hence the set-
ting was somewhat removed from real-world applications and can not
be generalized to all business-to-business efforts without reservation.
Further, the dependent variables were somewhat subjective and cannot
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 209
be interpreted as entirely precise and comprehensive measures of selling
effectiveness.
A potential limitation of the research is that the makeup of the experi-
mental and control groups could have differed in such a way that their per-
sonal backgrounds, experience, and education confronted the results in a
meaningful manner. In this regard, between-group differences could have
existed in such variables as grade point average, gender, age, ethnicity,
major, tenure in the university, intelligence, personality, prior training or
experience, and so on. It is difficult to control for all of these and other
potentially disrupting variables. The authors elected to assign students to
the groups in a random manner in an attempt to minimize possible con-
founding from these and other sources.
It might be argued that the study is contaminated by the fact that some
subjects, that is, the members of the control group and Groups One and
Two, received a lesser amount of training than did those in Group Three.
This factor could have contaminated the results. However, the hypotheses
posited that mirroring and empathy training in addition to training that cov-
ered traditional topics would enhance the effectiveness of the sales effort.
The hypotheses did not suggest that mirroring and empathy instruction
would substitute for coverage of traditional topics. A complimentary, rather
than a substitute effect, was suggested. Hence, it is the belief of the authors
that what might appear to be contamination was not actually the case.
Possible contamination brought about by different amounts of training
should be mitigated by the volume of training received. Throughout the
semester all of the subjects received extensive lecturing that covered tradi-
tional topics. Further, they studied the textbook, which covered traditional
topics in depth. They were tested on this material. Thus, their exposure to
traditional topics was substantial. On the other hand, the mirroring and
empathy instruction that they received was much less extensive and covered
considerably less time. Yet, the mirroring and empathy coverage produced
statistically significant results.
Some degree of bias may have arisen from the wording of the introduc-
tion to the mirroring training. In turn, the introduction stated that “you are
going to learn a skill that can be very effective in personal selling.” The sug-
gested promise of benefit may have been unduly suggestive of expected
positive results. On the other hand, it might be expected that most students
believe that those who have designed the training expect favorable results
regardless of whether this was explicitly stated in the introduction. Thus,
this limitation may be relatively minor.
A further possible limitation is that the study did not explicitly measure
if the students actually used the training material on mirroring and empathy
during the presentations that they were required to make. However, the
very positive responses by Groups One, Two, and Three students on how
much they learned about mirroring and empathy and the practical value of
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210 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
this training (the second two measures assessed in the study) suggests that
these techniques were employed in their efforts. Further, informal conversa-
tions held with members of the experimental groups after the study had
been conducted indicated that the techniques were actually brought into
play in the presentations.
This study is largely exploratory. Hopefully other inquiries into the
topic will provide further insights. It is recommended that further studies be
conducted in settings that more exactly describe realistic selling situations,
employing dependent variables that may be expected to more accurately
measure effectiveness in personal selling and that control for possible extra-
neous variables, such as those previously mentioned. Further, additional
research could concentrate on the most effective pedagogy for mirroring
and empathy training. Comparisons could be made, for instance, of the
relative effectiveness of lecture, role playing, demonstrations, coaching,
online programs, and other avenues for imparting knowledge, attitudes, and
insights.
The measures on intentions to attend the seminar and those that
involved self-reporting on the part of the student/sales representatives pro-
vided evaluations on the short-run impact of mirroring and empathy on
sales performance and the value of the educational experience. Sales
managers, such as those who seek extensive relationship building with cus-
tomers, might desire measures of more enduring effects through the analy-
sis of variables such as attitude change, perceptions, and relationship
quality. Further, academic instructors of sales and sales management
courses might desire the assessment of more enduring variables. This being
the case, research efforts that include measures of more long-run results
could be brought into play.
IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS MARKETING PRACTICE
The material covered in this article has relevance for a number of business
marketing managers. The study provides evidence to the effect that mirror-
ing and empathy training may logically be considered for meaningful roles
in the educational and training programs conducted in various industry
settings. There is an indication that such programs are capable of yielding
positive results that might not be available through efforts that focus prima-
rily on the sole use of more conventional widely used training programs
that do not emphasize these particular topics.
As was indicated earlier, training in mirroring may be most effective
when it is utilized in consensus with empathy and as a complement to
instruction in topics that are already treated in existing programs and are
more widely utilized. In the inquiry reported here, the experimental group
that was subjected to both topics performed significantly better on all three
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 211
of the dependent variables than did either the groups receiving coverage of
only one of the two or the group that was not trained in either of the topics.
The data indicate that education in the two areas can be undertaken
through a synthesis approach where it can be shown that the two can oper-
ate closely together and reinforce each other. It may be a mistake to assume
that one can serve as a substitute for the other.
Learning the practice of empathy can be particularly challenging
because it is more a philosophy, set of attitudes, and state of mind than it is
a set of specific procedures that can be employed in a mechanistic fashion.
Lectures and readings can be helpful in the beginning stages, but in order to
fully master the technique, trainees must be highly involved and experience
sessions where they are participative, rather than passive, recipients of
descriptive materials. Techniques that may be useful are role playing, group
discussion, script analysis, life history analysis, and case analysis. Sometimes
a combination of two or more of these may be advantageous for sales
managers who desire to stress the mastery of using empathy.
Individual firms, and companies that operate within particular indus-
tries of course, may vary in the degree to which mirroring and empathy are
incorporated as a component of their training programs. Rather, variations
in the focus on these areas can be expected, and probably are justified in
specific cases. Those with very tight budgets may decide that they are well-
advised to focus primarily on more traditional conveyance modes and
restrict or exclude instruction in the two fields. It is recommended, however,
that an attempt be made to provide at least some cursory treatment of these
matters in their programs. This is especially the case when the sales force is
expected to concentrate their efforts primarily on order getting, rather than
order taking, and where there is a strong commitment to sustaining and
enhancing the performance of the sales force.
The research described in this article has indicated that training in
mirroring and empathy need not be unduly time consuming in order to
produce positive results for most sales representatives. Thus, even moderate
focus on these topics may be worthwhile. The subjects in the study received
only 100 minutes of training (in both mirroring and empathy). Yet, there is
substantial evidence that this training had a favorable impact on their mea-
sured performance. This is not to say that extensive and continuing training
is never needed, of course, but only to suggest that limited training efforts
can be sufficient when time and/or monetary resources are not in abun-
dance. The research indicated that the experimental groups who were
trained in either mirroring or empathy produced more positive results than
the control group. In instances where training time is very constrained
and it is not possible to cover both topics, it may be desirable to include
only one.
Even very small companies that lack specialized training staff and bud-
gets can, for all practical purposes, effectively utilize mirroring and empathy
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212 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
schooling. These organizations may be in a position to employ role playing
and on-the-job programs to provide sufficient insights on these areas.
Expensive trainers, consultants, and software are not necessarily required to
implement the two subjects and may, in some instances, be replaced by
more concrete and practical methods of approach.
Sales managers who are actively engaged in recruiting new members of
their sales forces may find that the results of the study suggest means of
achieving results that are in accord with their objectives. Recruits who have
training and experience in mirroring and empathy in academic or industry
settings may have capabilities that set them apart from others who do not
have the same training and experience. Further, knowledgeable recruits
may require only moderate or even no further training in these fields. Of
course, training in these techniques is only a part of the desired background
for new employees, but may it be of significance in acquiring desirable can-
didates and furthering their performance in the field.
It is possible that marketing executives who are not sales managers
could find that some of their subordinates could further their effectiveness
as a result of mirroring and/or empathy instruction. Generalization of the
results of the study to other functions may be possible, in some instances,
although this extension is beyond the scope of the research reported in
this article. Numerous marketing personnel, including those in advertising,
customer service, and product management, are responsible for convinc-
ing other individuals, both within and outside of the company, to accept,
reject, or modify their views, attitudes, and behavior. Brand managers, for
example, often possess very limited authority over others outside of their
departments and in the ranks of important constituencies and must
depend heavily on their persuasive abilities to accomplish their major
goals. Merchandising managers or other executives who supervise the
work of brand managers and assistant brand managers may find that such
training is constructive. Virtually all marketing executives need persuasion
in order to justify their organizational budgets to top management. In fact,
few marketing positions are not, at least to some extent, in need of some
persuasive activity in dealing with subordinates, peers, and superiors.
Hence, the training may be merited and well worth the resources that are
devoted to this activity.
The recruiting, selection, and education of trainers are important
functions. In turn, the trainers should be committed to the processes of
mirroring and empathy and ideally have schooling and/or practical experi-
ence in these areas. Some professionals have only limited insights that
bear upon mirroring and empathy and may require further instruction if
they are to have credibility and useful contributions. For many firms, this
is not an insurmountable burden because most sales managers probably
realize that their trainers require additional instruction with the passage
of time.
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 213
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APPENDIX A. MIRRORING INSTRUCTIONS
You are going to learn the practice of mirroring, which can be very effective
in personal selling. In turn, mirroring is repeating back what you see and
hear. It is based on the fact that we feel drawn to individuals who express
themselves (both verbally and nonverbally) similarly to us. We are attracted
to others when their nonverbal and verbal expressions (facial expressions,
dress, eye contact, gestures, and tone of voice) take after ours. And we are
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often not impressed by those whose communications are different from
those that we use.
Fortunately, we can regulate what we say and do. In order to gain har-
mony with others right away, we mirror their messages. If the prospect uses
short words, you use short words. If he or she uses good posture, you also
do this. If the person talks slowly, you do the same. In short, you copy the
prospect’s body language and voice. However, mirroring does not necessi-
tate mimicking. If the other person is sitting with the fingers of both hands
interlaced, you may simply place one hand on top of the other. Avoid mir-
roring prospects exactly, just similarly, so that they do not know they are
being imitated.
You do not have to mirror prospects during the entire sales presenta-
tion. Once they show signals of rapport, you can begin to channel the
direction. Once this has been accomplished they will start imitating you. If
you are speaking to someone who is nervous or anxious, you can begin the
presentation in a relaxed manner and after a short time raise the pace. The
prospect is likely to imitate your behavior.
Some of the ways in which you can mirror others in order to gain rapport
are listed here.
1. Body: Gradually adjust your body position to match that of the prospect.
Don’t rush into this—do it in a natural manner It is not necessary, how-
ever, to exactly imitate the prospect. If the prospect leans forward, do
this but not as much as the prospect. If he or she crosses arms, do the
same but in a slightly different way.
2. Head: Tilt your head in the same direction as the prospect—if he or she
tilts to the right, you do so to the left. If the prospect inclines his head
forward, over the chest, do the same. Do these things naturally and
slowly and not rigidly.
3. Eyes: If the prospect shows considerable eye movement from one side to
another or up and down, mirror this pattern. If the eyes remain fairly
fixed, copy this behavior. If he or she displays wide open or narrowed
eyes, do the same.
4. Posture: Copy the posture of the prospect. Posture includes standing
erect versus leaning forward or backward or to one side, folding arms
versus placing them at the sides or in front or in back, and holding the
shoulders forward or backward.
5. Facial expression: Attempt to keep your facial expression compatible
with that of the prospect. Smile when he or she does and show concern
when the prospect is showing frustration or anger.
6. Animation: If the prospect appears to be fast paced, on the move, vig-
orous, hyper, and energetic, you can copy this pattern. On the other
hand, the opposite strategy is appropriate if he or she has an easy
going style.
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 217
7. Voice: Attempt to adjust your talking pattern so that it matches that of
the prospect. This requires fine tuning the voice level, speed, tone,
pitch, and possible accents. Listen carefully for these qualities when the
prospect speaks.
8. Vocabulary: Match your vocabulary with that of the prospect. Use the
same word level (short or long), word usage (jargon or generic), sen-
tence length (short or long), and sentence sophistication (simple or
complex). Adjust your vocabulary to match the background of the
prospect. Your vocabulary used to speak to a construction worker
would probably be quite different than when you were visiting with
an advertising executive.
9. Breathing: Breath speed tends to be subconscious and is often not con-
sciously perceived by the prospect, but it can have a strong effect on
the harmony that develops. People sometimes hold their breath when
they experience pain and breathe more rapidly when they are aroused,
provoked, or stimulated. The prospect’s breathing patterns can be
watched and imitated.
10. Dress: A useful practice is to match but not duplicate the clothing of the
prospect. Before contacting a prospect, advance observation of custom-
ary clothing in the geographic area, neighborhood, company, industry,
or other group may reveal what clothing is proper—formal or casual,
expensive or inexpensive, conservative or flamboyant, colorful or neu-
tral, and so on.
Mirroring can be a very effective technique. It should be seen not as a
tricky method to persuade others to buy, but rather as a natural, spontane-
ous, and honest tool for improving communications with prospects. Before
attempting to employ mirroring in selling, practice it on coworkers, friends,
family members, new acquaintances, and social contacts. This practice will
enable you to gain expertise in the technique and eventually it will become
a habit in dealing with prospects and others.
APPENDIX B. EMPATHY INSTRUCTIONS
You are going to learn the process of empathy, which can be very effective
in personal selling.
Empathy involves seeing the world through the eyes of others, and
these others are customers. There are two kinds of empathy. The first is
cognitive, which means that you understand the situation and needs of the
customer on an objective level. The second is affective, which means that
you understand the feelings and emotions of the customer. Both are equally
important.
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218 R. T. Peterson and Y. Limbu
Some of the ways you can practice empathy are listed here.
1. Try to see the world from the eyes of the customer.
2. Put yourself (mentally) in the shoes of the customer.
3. Decide what information you want to get from the customer.
4. Try to imagine what the most important needs of the customer are.
5. Look at the world as though you were the customer.
6. Try to imagine the feelings and emotions that are now experienced by
the customer.
7. Try to understand why the customer feels the way he or she does.
8. Take a genuine interest in the customer.
9. Try to understand and be sensitive to what the customer thinks and
feels.
10. Be sensitive to both verbal and nonverbal (body language) signals.
11. Try to predict what the customer is likely to think and do.
12. Try to sense the reactions of the customer to what you say and do.
13. Keep an open mind—do not judge the customer’s actions or words.
14. Try to sense the client’s emotions, such as fear, anger, and confusion.
15. Do not become emotional (fearful, angry, or confused). Remain objective.
APPENDIX C. EMPATHY EXERCISES
1. It is often said that you must know yourself before you can know others.
Take five minutes to think about what kind of person you are. Then
write down five words that describe who you are in the following space.
Think about this question: “How do the things that make you what
you are differ from others?”
2. The instructor has brought a bamboo plant to class. What are your
thoughts about this plant? Write them in the space provided below. Ask
the person who is seated next to you for his or her thoughts on the plant.
You probably thought quite different things. Are you surprised as to how
different people perceive things in different ways?
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Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy 219
3. The College Dean has asked you to fire the instructor of this class.
Assume that you have just fired him or her. How does it feel to fire some-
one? Write your feelings in the space below. Ask the person who is
seated next to you for his or her thoughts on the firing. You probably felt
quite different things. Are you surprised as to how different people feel
things differently.
4. Assume that you are making a presentation to a customer and you have
10 minutes to uncover his or her major problems. What questions would
you ask the customer? Record your questions in the space below.
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