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The Movement Kinematics and Learning Strategies Associated with Adopting Different Foci of Attention during Both Acquisition and Anxious Performance

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Research suggests that implicit strategies adopted during learning help prevent breakdown of automatic processes and subsequent performance decrements associated with the presence of pressure. According to the Constrained Action Hypothesis, automaticity of movement is promoted when adopting an external focus of attention. The purpose of the current experiment was to investigate if learning with an external focus of attention can enhance performance under subsequent pressure situations through promoting implicit learning and automaticity. Since previous research has generally used outcome measures of performance, the current study adopted measures of movement production. Specifically, we calculated within-subject variability in trajectory velocity and distance traveled every 10% of movement time. This detailed kinematic analysis allowed investigation into some of the previously unexplored mechanisms responsible for the benefits of adopting an external focus of attention. Novice participants performed a 2.5 m golf putt. Following a pre-test, participants were randomly assigned to one of three focus groups (internal, external, control). Participants then completed 400 acquisition trials over two consecutive days before being subjected to both a low anxiety and high anxiety (HA) transfer test. Dependent variables included variability, number of successful putts and mean radial error. Results revealed that variability was greater in the internal compared to the external and control groups. Putting performance revealed that all groups increased performance following acquisition. However, only the control group demonstrated a decrement in performance in the HA transfer test. These findings suggest that adopting an appropriate focus of attention during learning can prevent choking; with an external focus inhibiting the breakdown of automatic processes and an internal focus acting as a self-focus learning strategy and thus desensitizing individuals to anxiety effects.
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
published: 02 November 2012
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00468
The movement kinematics and learning strategies
associated with adopting different foci of attention during
both acquisition and anxious performance
Gavin P. Lawrence1*, Victoria M. Gottwald1, Michael A. Khan2and Robin S. S. Kramer 3
1Institute for the Psychology of Elite Performance, School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
2Department of Kinesiology, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University ofWindsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
3School of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
Edited by:
David Marchant, Edge Hill University,
UK
Reviewed by:
David Sherwood, University of
Colorado, USA
Norbert Hagemann, University of
Kassel, Germany
*Correspondence:
Gavin P. Lawrence, Institute for the
Psychology of Elite Performance,
School of Sport, Health and Exercise
Science, Bangor University, George
Building, Holyhead Road, Gwynedd,
Bangor LL57 2PX, UK.
e-mail: g.p.lawrence@bangor.ac.uk
Research suggests that implicit strategies adopted during learning help prevent break-
down of automatic processes and subsequent performance decrements associated with
the presence of pressure. According to the Constrained Action Hypothesis, automaticity of
movement is promoted when adopting an external focus of attention. The purpose of the
current experiment was to investigate if learning with an external focus of attention can
enhance performance under subsequent pressure situations through promoting implicit
learning and automaticity. Since previous research has generally used outcome measures
of performance, the current study adopted measures of movement production. Specif-
ically, we calculated within-subject variability in trajectory velocity and distance traveled
every 10% of movement time. This detailed kinematic analysis allowed investigation into
some of the previously unexplored mechanisms responsible for the benefits of adopting
an external focus of attention. Novice participants performed a 2.5 m golf putt. Following
a pre-test, participants were randomly assigned to one of three focus groups (internal,
external, control). Participants then completed 400 acquisition trials over two consecutive
days before being subjected to both a low anxiety and high anxiety (HA) transfer test.
Dependent variables included variability, number of successful putts and mean radial error.
Results revealed that variability was greater in the internal compared to the external and
control groups. Putting performance revealed that all groups increased performance follow-
ing acquisition. However, only the control group demonstrated a decrement in performance
in the HA transfer test.These findings suggest that adopting an appropriate focus of atten-
tion during learning can prevent choking; with an external focus inhibiting the breakdown
of automatic processes and an internal focus acting as a self-focus learning strategy and
thus desensitizing individuals to anxiety effects.
Keywords: attentional focus, performance pressure, novice performers, motor skills, explicit learning
INTRODUCTION
Previous research suggests that strategies adopted during learn-
ing which direct a performer’s focus of attention away from their
movements can help alleviate performance decrements typically
associated with the presence of pressure (Masters, 1992;Hardy
et al., 1996;Jackson et al., 2006). Performing under pressure is an
integral part of any athlete’s sporting experience, and an inabil-
ity to cope with this can often result in an athlete choking, i.e.,
“performing more poorly than expected, given one’s level of skill”
(Beilock and Carr, 2001, p. 701). The current investigation endeav-
ored to inhibit the undesirable effects of choking during anxious
performance through manipulating attentional focus during the
learning of a golf putt and measuring both movement production
and movement outcome.
Atypical performance under pressure has been accounted for
with both distraction and self-focus theories. Distraction theo-
ries (Eysenck, 1992) suggest that the detrimental effect of anx-
iety on performance is due to worry consuming the central
executive component of working memory, which would normally
be used in information processing. Alternatively, self-focus the-
ories (Baumeister, 1984;Lewis and Linder, 1997) suggest that
stress can cause performers to become self-conscious and focus
on skill mechanics, which can impede performance by disrupting
normally automatic response programming and execution. Early
research by Fitts and Posner (1967) supports this notion, ascer-
taining that conscious control is redundant once skills reach the
autonomous phase of learning and according to Masters (1992)
conscious processing hypothesis (CPH) can in fact be detrimental
to performance.
Conscious processing hypothesis (Masters, 1992) accounts for
the stress performance relationship by suggesting that stress can
mediate the reinvestment of conscious control over movements
and interfere with normally automatic response programming,
thus disrupting performance. Masters reasons, that under pres-
sure, self-consciousness initiates the breakdown of larger, inte-
grated chunks of information into separate, smaller units, thus
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Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
prolonging information processing. Furthermore, Masters pro-
poses that if automatic processes are encouraged during learning,
through the development of implicit knowledge, then reinvest-
ment of conscious explicit knowledge cannot occur and con-
sequently the breakdown of information units as associated
with the presence of anxiety is less likely to transpire. Previous
research exploring ways of preventing this breakdown in auto-
matic processes, as a means of maintaining performance under
pressure, advocates analogy learning as a successful method of
reducing acquisition of explicit knowledge (Masters, 1992). Holis-
tic imagery, holistic process goals, and modeling are advocated as
ways to encourage automatic processes,through the development
of conceptual representations of skills during learning (Hardy
et al., 1996).
Similarly,the Constrained Action Hypothesis (CAH; Wulf et al.,
2001) suggests the adoption of external focus of attention as
an alternative strategy to reduce the breakdown of automatic
processes. This involves directing attention to movement effects
such as the swinging motion of the club in golf, as opposed to
directing focus to body movements, such as the swinging motion
of the arms (internal focus of attention). Wulf (2007) suggest
that focusing on movements themselves,as opposed to movement
effects, reduces the congruence between planning and action and
disrupts the usually automatic control process. Focusing on the
effects of one’s movement by adopting an external focus, pre-
vents this process, and serves to enhance performance (Wulf et al.,
1998). Support for this hypothesis has been demonstrated across
a variety of domains and populations (for a review, see Wulf,
2007).
However, preceding research has typically adopted outcome
measures of performance such as speed and accuracy and thus
neglected to investigate what specific adjustments may occur in
movement production as a result of adopting differing foci of
attention (Wulf, 2007;Lawrence et al., 2011). One study which has
examined performance kinematics under internal and external
focus conditions is that of Lohse et al. (2010). Here researchers
revealed that shoulder variability at the point of release in a
dart throw was greater under an external compared to internal
focus. Since findings also revealed that the accuracy of the dart
throws were greater in the external compared to internal group,
the researchers suggested that the effect was due to “functional
variability” (see Müller and Loosch, 1999). The suggestion here
is that when a motor skill is performed repeatedly over time,
even to the point of expertise, clear deviations in movement kine-
matics occur regardless of what becomes an extremely consistent
movement outcome. Since performance is consistently high, the
kinematic variability during movement execution is described
as functional as it facilitates consistent and accurate movement
outcomes. This concept is consistent with the work of Bern-
stein (1967) who studied the number of different ways a unit
of control (for example joints, muscles, motor units) is capable
of moving, i.e., “degrees of freedom.” These degrees of freedom
are thought to freeze and release depending on what stage of
learning a performer has reached. For example, in early cog-
nitive stages of learning Fitts and Posner (1967) observe how
movements are often rigid and constrained, where degrees of free-
dom are frozen. Through extensive practice performers are able
to release degrees of freedom, resulting in more fluid and effec-
tive movement execution as observed in the Associative stage of
learning. Once the performer reaches the Autonomous stage of
learning, degrees of freedom are once again re-organized for opti-
mal performance. This economizing of degrees of freedom in both
early and late phases of learning serves two different functions.
During novice performance, degrees of freedom are highly con-
strained because learners are simply unable to control too many
reactive forces. This is in contrast to experts who constrain degrees
of freedom in order to ensure muscles, joints, and motor units
function as an effective and efficient synergy to produce optimal
performance (for a review see Rose and Christina, 2006). The cur-
rent study investigated the effect of differing foci of attention of
movement variability further by utilizing Vicon motion analysis
together with a novel methodology previously designed to inves-
tigate the role of vision in adjusting limb trajectories in upper
body target-directed aiming movements (for a review see Khan
et al., 2006). This method allows researchers to examine the vari-
ability in both distance traveled and velocity at various percentiles
of overall movement time. In line with Lohse et al. (2010) and
Müller and Loosch’s (1999) notion of functional variability, it was
hypothesized that participants who adopted an external focus of
attention during learning would exhibit more consistent move-
ments than those who learned under an internal focus of attention
condition.
Current focus of attention literature (Wulf, 2007) would suggest
that attaining explicit knowledge regarding movement produc-
tion (i.e., internal information), would be more detrimental to
performance comparative to explicit knowledge regarding move-
ment effects (i.e., external information). As such, a secondary
aim of the current study was to investigate this further in an
attempt to understand if it is the acquisition of explicit knowl-
edge in general, which governs anxious performance or whether
it is a specific type of explicit knowledge (i.e., explicit knowl-
edge regarding ones movements or the effects of one’s movements
on the environment). To achieve this participants learnt a golf
putting task under either internal, external, or control conditions
and were then subjected to an anxious performance condition. If
the choking phenomenon is reduced in the external compared
to internal focus of attention condition then one can propose
that reinvestment in explicit knowledge is only detrimental to
performance if that knowledge is centered around movement
mechanics.
Beilock and Carr (2001) analyzed attention during skill execu-
tion by examining the quantity of episodic memories for both
experts and novices and revealed that automaticity of expert
performance results in fewer episodic memories. In addition,
Poolton et al. (2006) suggested that participants who adopt
an internal focus of attention tend to acquire more internal
rules regarding their movements. Thus, it was expected that
those participants who learned under an external focus of
attention conditions would develop fewer explicit rules regard-
ing the movement itself (internal rules) compared to those
who adopted an internal focus of attention and would thus
be less likely to choke under pressure as breakdowns in auto-
matic programming would not occur in the absence of these
rules.
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Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
If we consider the underlying theoretical foundations which
underpin both the CAH and CPH, it is surprising that researchers
have not previously considered the two lines of research in
conjunction to a greater extent prior to this investigation. A
principle study by Bell and Hardy (2009), which did examine the
focus of attention literature in line with anxiety literature revealed
that expert performance of golf chipping was enhanced by an
external focus of attention under both low and high anxiety con-
ditions. The current research elected to adopt a learning paradigm
to investigate the effects of anxiety on golf putting performance
when participants have acquired a skill under different attentional
foci conditions. It was hypothesized that learning under an exter-
nal focus of attention would lead to more permanent (learnt)
behaviors that promote action production and execution without
movement centered knowledge, which would result in consis-
tent performance between low and high anxious situations (i.e.,
eliminate the choking phenomenon).
The aim of the current investigation was to fill some of the
more pertinent gaps in the focus of attention and anxiety literature.
Specifically,to examine if explicit learning (regarding movements)
can be minimized through adopting an external focus of attention
during learning and thus prevent performance breakdown under
subsequent anxious conditions. Additionally, a novel variability
methodology was utilized to investigate the effects of different foci
of attention on the entire movement trajectory. Thus, allowing
detailed investigation into the motor production mechanisms that
might account for the outcome performance differences associated
with adopting different foci of attention. To achieve these aims,
performance (as measured by both movement production and
movement outcome) was investigated whilst participants learnt
a golf putting task under either an external focus of attention,
an internal focus of attention or control (no focus), and when
participants were subsequently transferred to both a low anxiety
(LA) and high anxiety (HA) transfer tests.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
PARTICIPANTS
Twenty nine participants mean age 22.1 years (SD =4.3); mean
mass 69.3 kg (SD =13.0); mean height 171.2 cm (SD =8.6) with
no previous experience in golf, volunteered to participate1. All
were naïve to the research hypotheses being tested and gave their
informed consent prior to taking part in the investigation. The
experiment was conducted in accordance with the institutions
ethical guidelines for research involving human participants.
TASK AND APPARATUS
The task was a 2.5 m golf putt performed on a Huxley Premier Pro
turf putting green (80×120). The green was set up with a stan-
dard “Huxley incliner” placed under the surface of the green 1m
from the start and positioned just left of the line of the putt. This
created a convex half-sphere with an incline rising to 4.5 cm result-
ing in a left to right breaking putt (see Figure 1D). Participants
putted toward a 10.5 cm hole, consistent with standardized PGA
requirements, using a standard KT25 Prosimmon golf putter and
1Initially 30 participants volunteered to partake in the investigation. However, one
participant dropped out of the internal focus of attention group during testing due
to random reasons. As such, the investigation was completed with unequal group
sizes; N=9 for the internal focus group, and 10 for both the external and control
focus groups.
START POSITION
HOLE
GOLF GREEN
2.5 m
2 m
A
D
21cm
4.5cm
BREAK
29.7cm
C
BREAK
FIGURE 1 | (A) Twelve camera Vicon system and putting surface; (B) example screen shot of Nexus software; (C) retro-reflective marker placement on
club-head; (D) schematic of the putting set up and breaker placement.
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Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
Slazenger Raw Distance 432 dimple pattern golf ball. A 12 cam-
era Vicon Nexus system (see Figures 1A,B) sampling at 100 Hz
was used to track co-ordinates of three retro-reflective markers
(14 mm diameter). Two markers were placed on the head of the
golf club and the final marker was placed at the lower end of the
shaft (see Figure 1C). The Vicon Nexus system utilized marker
movements in the XYZ plane in order to calculate and plot move-
ments in 3D space. A heart rate monitor (Polar T31 chest strap
model) was placed on the participant and HR (bpm) data was
recorded.
PROCEDURE
At the start of testing, participants were informed that the purpose
of the investigation was to examine the accuracy of golf putting
over a period of practice trials. It was explained that the goal of
the task was to putt the ball as accurately as possible and that task
performance would be assessed by both the number of successful
putts (NSP) and the distance from the hole the ball terminated
on unsuccessful putts. Participants completed a 25-trial pre-test
before being randomized into either an internal focus of attention
group (N=9), an external focus of attention group (N=10),
or a control group (N=10). Participants in the internal focus
group were instructed to putt whilst simultaneously focusing on
the “swinging motion of their arms, those in the external focus
group were instructed to focus on the “swinging motion of the
golf club” whilst those in the control group were given no focus
of attention instructions. Focus instructions were adopted from
Wulf and Su (2007) and directed participants on “what” to attend
to but not “where” to look. Participants performed 400 acqui-
sition trials which were split into four blocks of 50 trials and
performed over two consecutive days (blocks one and two on
day one and blocks three and four on day two). For all partic-
ipants, their relevant attentional focus instructions were clearly
posted on the laboratory room wall and provided verbally at the
start and mid-point of every block of trials. A simple focus ques-
tion, devised according to each group, was asked following every
trial and served to reinforce focus reminders (see Lawrence et al.,
2011).
At the end of the acquisition trials participants were asked to
leave the testing room and given a short break. Following this, par-
ticipants completed 25 trials under LA before finally completing a
further 25 trials under HA. Participants were not given any atten-
tional focus instructions or reminders during the transfer tests.
After completing the HA test participants reported their episodic
memories. Specifically, participants were asked to describe the last
putt they had taken in enough detail so that a friend would be able
to replicate it (adopted from Beilock and Carr, 2001).
A single (combined) post manipulation questionnaire was car-
ried out at the end of day two following both transfer conditions2.
Participants were asked to state the intensity of their focus on
internal and external foci, revealing the extent to which they were
able to adopt the appropriate focus of attention and also to what
extent they adopted an inappropriate focus of attention.
2Similar to Lawrence et al. (2011), it was decided that administering this manipula-
tion check immediately following the LA transfer condition might act as a reminder
of the focus instructions prior to the HA transfer condition.
ANXIETY MANIPULATION
Anxiety was manipulated by a combination of ego threat and
social evaluation, which has previously been utilized successfully
(Masters, 1992;Beilock et al., 2002). Specifically, participants were
asked to leave the room for a short duration, and informed that
during this time their performance would be discussed by the
two researchers present during testing. Upon their return partic-
ipants were informed that they had been paired randomly with
another participant and that if they both improved their putting
performance by 20% then they would both receive £10. They
were then informed that their partner had already improved their
performance by the required 20% and thus they would need to
do the same in order for both them and their partner to receive
the money. In addition,they were told “if you fail to improve your
performance by the required 20%, your partner will be informed
of your identity and told that you had been unsuccessful and thus
neither of you can now receive the prize money.” Finally, partici-
pants were informed that this final block of trials would be video
recorded and then sent off to an expert golfer for analysis and that if
they missed 75% or more of their putts their name would be added
to a loser-board, posted around the sports science department.
DEPENDENT MEASURES AND ANALYSES
Performance data
The primary measure of performance was the NSP and the sec-
ondary, less dichotomous measure of outcome performance was
Mean Radial Error (MRE). MRE was calculated as the distance
from the ball to the hole, using the following formula:
x2+y20.5
where xis the distance from the hole perpendicular to the direction
of the putt and ythe distance from the hole in the same direction
of the putt.
To ensure there were no significant differences between the
performance of groups prior to testing, the means of pre-test
NSP and MRE performance data were submitted to separate one
way (group) ANOVAs. In order to assess performance from pre-
test to transfer separate 3 group [control (Con), internal (Int),
external (Ext) ×3 block pre-test (Pre), LA, HA] mixed model
ANOVAs were performed on the mean NSP and MRE data. Sig-
nificant between-subject effects were broken down using Tukeys
HSD post hoc tests while significant within-subject effects were
broken down into their simple main effects.
Episodic memory
Measurements of episodic memory were taken to determine both
the number of explicit knowledge/rules acquired, as well as the
qualitative content of this knowledge. A one way ANOVA was
performed on the total number of episodic memories for each
group. To analyze the qualitative content, memories were subjec-
tively categorized as being either internal (e.g., swinging of the
arms; kept arms straight) or external (e.g., lining the club up with
the ball and hole; swinging of the club). This categorization was
performed by two independent researchers and a 3 group (Con,
Int, Ext) ×2 type (internal/external) ANOVA was then performed
on this data.
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Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
Motion analysis and variability
Vicon motion analysis was used to calculate co-ordinates of mark-
ers in the x,y, and zplanes of movement. Researchers then
calculated both velocity and distance traveled every 10th percentile
of each trial’s movement time. The within-subject SD of this data
was then calculated and the means of this data provided a mea-
sure of variability throughout movement trajectory. This process
was completed for both the back-swing and forward-swing of the
golf putt up until ball contact and then again for the swing post
ball contact (i.e., the follow through of the club). Thus, we calcu-
lated separate measures of variability in both velocity and distance
traveled every 10% of the movement time for these three putting
phases. To analyze the data, separate 3 group (Con, Int, Ext) ×3
experimental phase (Pre, LA,HA) ×10 position (10, 20, . . ., 100%)
mixed model ANOVAs were performed on resultant XYZ data for
both velocity and distance traveled; these analyses were conducted
for each of the three previously described putting phases result-
ing in a total of six 3 group ×3 experimental phase ×10 position
mixed model ANOVAs.
Anxiety data
The Mental Readiness Form-3 (MRF-3; Krane, 1994) was used to
determine competitive anxiety and was administered prior to both
LA transfer and HA transfer conditions. Additionally, HR gave a
physiological indicator of anxiety and was recorded throughout
LA and HA transfer conditions. This data was submitted to a three
group (Con, Int, Ext) ×2 experimental phase (LA, HA) ANOVA.
RESULTS
ANXIETY (MRF-3 AND HR)
Results of the MRF-3 data revealed a significant main effect
for experimental phase (F1,26 =19.35, p<0.01, η2=0.43) with
anxiety scores significantly increasing from LA to HA transfer
(LA =10.03, SD =4.14; HA =13.76, SD =6.63). The results of
the self-reported anxiety scores were supported by the HR data,
which revealed a significant main effect for experimental phase
(F1,26 =9.68, p<0.01, η2=0.27) with a significant increase in
HR from LA to HA transfer (LA =83.95, SD =9.57; HA =86.66,
SD =10.76). For both variables, main effects for group and
group ×experimental phase interactions were non-significant
(p>0.05).
PERFORMANCE (NSP)
Pre-test
Results at pre-test revealed no significant difference between
the NSP of participants in different conditions (F2,26 =3.24,
p>0.05; internal =3.67, SD =0.83; external =2.70, SD =1.34;
control =4.70, SD =1.25). Thus, any performance differences
cannot be attributed to differences prior to the investigation.
Pre-test, LA, and HA
Results revealed a significant main effect for experimental
phase (F2,52 =16.45, p<0.01, η2=0.39) and a significant
group ×experimental phase interaction (F4,52 =2.80, p<0.05,
η2=0.18). Breakdown of this revealed a significant decrease
in NSP from LA to HA for participants in the control group,
a significant increase in NSP from LA to HA for partici-
pants in the external focus group and no change in NSP from
LA to HA for participants in the internal focus group (see
Figure 2).
PERFORMANCE (MRE)
Pre-test
Results at pre-test revealed no significant difference between the
NSP of participants in different conditions (F2,26 =0.05, p>0.05;
internal =601.67, SD =169.98; external =575.33, SD =130.13;
control =586.11, SD =203.20). Thus, any performance dif-
ferences cannot be attributed to differences prior to the
investigation.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Pre
LA
HA
Number of Successful Putts
Experimental phase
Con
Int
Ext
FIGURE 2 | Performance (NSP) as a function of attentional focus (Con, control; Int, internal; Ext, external) and experimental phase (Pre, pre-test; LA,
low anxiety; HA, high anxiety).
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Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Pre
LA
HA
MRE (mm)
Experimental Phase
Con
Int
Ext
FIGURE 3 | Performance (MRE) as a function of attentional focus (Con, control; Int, internal; Ext, external) and experimental phase (Pre, pre-test; LA,
low anxiety; HA, high anxiety).
Pre-test, LA, and HA
Results revealed significant main effects for experimental phase
(F1.65,42.81 =33.34, p<0.01, η2=0.56) and group (F2,26 =3.38,
p<0.05, η2=0.21) but no significant group ×experimental
phase interaction (F4,52 =0.97, p=0.43, η2=0.07). Specifically,
MRE significantly decreased as a function of experimental phase
and the control group exhibited significantly greater MRE com-
parative to the external focus group (see Figure 3).
EPISODIC MEMORY: TOTAL NUMBER AND TYPE OF MEMORIES/RULES
Details of the both the number and type of memories reported
are presented in Table 1. Results for the analysis of number
of memories reported revealed no significant group differences
(F2,28 =0.40, p>0.05; mean rules; Control =4.1, SD =3.21;
Internal =5.2, SD =2.10; External =4.3, SD =2.87).
Results of the analysis on the type of memories revealed a signif-
icant group ×type interaction (F2,27 =5.01, p<0.05, η2=0.27).
Breakdown of which confirmed that participants in the internal
focus of attention group acquired a significantly higher number
of internal memories than participants in the control and external
focus of attention groups. Similarly, participants in the external
focus of attention group acquired a significantly higher number
of external memories compared to participants in the control
and internal focus of attention groups. There was no difference
between the amount of internal and external memories reported
by the control group.
VARIABILITY PRE BALL CONTACT
Distance traveled XYZ
Back-swing. Results revealed a significant main effect
for experimental phase (F2,52 =22.70, p<0.01, η2=0.47),
Table 1 | Episodic memories reported; categorized as internal or
external.
Internal External
Feet shoulder width apart Looked at the ball
Bent knees Looked at the hole
Leant forward Lined up putter with target
Right hand below left Putter head square to target
Wrist action Slowly pulled putter back
Straight arms Swing of the club
Pendulum motion of arms Followed through the ball
position (%; F9,234 =269.81, p<0.01, η=0.91), and group
(F2,26 =4.05, p<0.05, η2=0.24). There were also experimen-
tal phase ×position (F18,468 =5.32, p<0.01, η2=0.17), posi-
tion ×group (F18,234 =3.72, p<0.01, η2=0.22), and exper-
imental phase ×position ×group interactions (F36,468 =1.64,
p<0.05, η2=0.11). Specifically,breakdowns confirmed that vari-
ability was greater during the pre-test, and more so during
the second half of the back-swing. This increase in variability
throughout the back-swing was significantly greater for the inter-
nal group compared to the external and control group with this
effect being greater in pre-test and HA compared to the LA (see
Figure 4).
Forward-swing. Results revealed a significant main effect for
experimental phase (F2,52 =19.65, p<0.01, η2=0.43), with vari-
ability significantly decreasing from pre-test to LA and from pre-
test to HA, a main effect for position (F9,234 =518.37, p<0.01,
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Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
0
10
20
30
40
50
20
40
60
80
100
Con
Int
Ext
0
10
20
30
40
50
20
40
60
80
100
Con
Int
Ext
0
10
20
30
40
50
20
40
60
80
100
Con
Int
Ext
Variability
Distance
Travelled (mm)
Variability
Distance
Travelled (mm)
MT (%)
Pre-test
LA
HA
MT (%)
MT (%)
Variability
Distance
Travelled (mm)
FIGURE 4 | Variability in distance traveled at every 10% of MT for the back-swing as a function of group (Con, control; Int, internal; Ext, external) and
experimental phase (Pre, pre-test; LA, low anxiety; HA, high anxiety).
η2=0.95), with variability significantly decreasing as a function
of MT percentage, and a main effect for group (F2,26 =4.89,
p<0.05, η2=0.27), with the internal group being significantly
more variable than the control group. Additionally there were sig-
nificant experimental phase ×position (F18,468 =13.69, p<0.01,
η2=0.35) and position ×group interactions (F18,234 =4.38,
www.frontiersin.org November 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 468 | 7
Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
p<0.01, η2=0.25). Breakdowns confirmed that pre-test variabil-
ity was greatest at the start of the forward-swing and that this
effect was significantly greater for the internal group compared to
the external and control groups.
Velocity XYZ
Back-swing. Results revealed a significant main effect for
experimental phase (F2,52 =31.53, p<0.01, η2=0.56) with
variability decreasing from pre-test to LA and again from LA
to HA and a main effect for position (F9,234 =191.47, p<0.01,
η2=0.88) with variability increasing during the first 50% of
the back-swing before decreasing during the second 50% of
the back-swing. Additionally there were significant experimental
phase ×position (F18,468 =18.43, p<0.01, η2=0.42) and exper-
imental phase ×position ×group interactions (F36,468 =2.06,
p<0.01, η2=0.14). Breakdowns revealed that variability was sig-
nificantly greater at the mid-point of the back-swing during the
pre-test and that this effect was significantly greater for the internal
and external groups compared to the control group.
Forward-swing. Results revealed a significant main effect
for experimental phase (F2,52 =60.36, p<0.01, η2=0.70)
and position (F9,234 =250.81, p<0.01, η2=0.91), together
with significant experimental phase ×position (F18,468 =26.31,
p<0.01, η2=0.50) and experimental phase ×group interactions
(F4,52 =3.00, p<0.05, η2=0.19). Breakdowns confirmed that
variability was greatest during pre-test for the second half of the
forward-swing and that the external group was significantly more
variable than either the control or internal group at pre-test.
VARIABILITY POST BALL CONTACT
MT XYZ
Results revealed a significant main effect for position
(F9,243 =109.39, p<0.01, η2=0.80). There were also signif-
icant experimental phase ×position (F18,486 =5.00, p<0.01,
η2=0.16) and position ×group interactions (F18,243 =3.21,
p<0.01, η2=0.19). Specifically,variability significantly increased
throughout the forward-swing with this effect being significantly
more pronounced during the pre-test compared to either transfer
test and for the internal group compared to both the external and
control group.
Velocity XYZ
Results revealed significant main effects for experimental phase
(F2,54 =17.62, p<0.01, η2=0.40) and position (F9,243 =81.78,
p<0.01, η2=0.75). There were also significant experimental
phase ×group (F4,54 =3.87, p<0.01, η2=0.22), experimental
phase ×position (F18,486 =15.97, p<0.01, η2=0.37), and exper-
imental phase ×position ×group interactions (F36,486 =2.50,
p<0.01, η2=0.16). Breakdowns revealed a decreasing variability
throughout the forward-swing and over time. Furthermore, vari-
ability of the control group was significantly more pronounced
than either the internal or external groups at pre-test during the
first half of the forward-swing.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of the current study was three fold; 1, to investigate
the effects of learning under different attentional focus conditions
on subsequent anxious performance; 2, to determine if the positive
effects of learning with an external focus of attention on anxious
performance could be explained by the nature of the explicit rules
generated during learning; 3, to adopt dependent measures that
allowed investigation into the effects of the different attentional
foci on movement kinematics (a previously neglected performance
variable within the attentional focus literature). Findings revealed
that participants who adopted an external focus of attention
throughout acquisition continued to improve performance (NSP)
when subjected to pressure whereas participants devoid of focus
instructions displayed classic choking behaviors. The results sur-
rounding the explicit rules generated during learning suggested
that the protective effect of practicing under an external focus
of attention can be explained, in part, by the development of
explicit skill rather than movement centered rules. Finally, the
above effects were not represented clearly within the movement
kinematics of the learnt action, since results of the variability pro-
files for both velocity and distance traveled during all phases of the
golf putt (back-swing, forward-swing to ball contact and forward-
swing post ball contact) did not clearly account for why the control
group demonstrated performance decrements under pressure and
the internal and external focus groups did not.
There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that adopt-
ing differential attentional foci results in performance differences
at retention (Wulf et al., 1999, 2002;McNevin et al., 2003). How-
ever, results of the current investigation revealed no performance
differences following acquisition trials. Nevertheless it is plausible
that there may have been discrepancies in performance earlier in
the acquisition process. For example, previous research revealing
acquisition differences between internal,external, and control foci
of attention conditions have been conducted with notably fewer
acquisition trials (e.g., Wulf and Su, 2007 incorporated just 60
acquisition trials in a novice golf putting task), thus it is reason-
able to suggest that these differences may have been extinguished
after the 400 acquisition trials adopted in the present investigation.
Indeed, Poolton et al. (2006) incorporated a substantial 300 acqui-
sition trial protocol and, similar to that of the current investigation,
found no performance differences at retention.
Despite the null findings in retention, differences in
performance were certainly evident once pressure was induced.
Although relatively low compared to genuine competition anx-
iety, the anxiety manipulation was successful in raising both
self-reported anxiety scores (MRF-3) and HR, between the LA
and HA transfer. Consistent with CPH (Masters, 1992) the con-
trol group’s performance deteriorated as a consequence of ele-
vated performance pressure. CPH accounts for this by proposing
that anxiety instigates the reinvestment of conscious control over
actions, which inhibits normally automatic response program-
ming and thus impedes performance. Hence, performance of the
control group deteriorated to a level similar to early in learning.
However, when adopting an external focus of attention this neg-
ative effect of anxiety on performance was negated. Whilst these
findings are consistent with research by Bell and Hardy (2009),
who illustrated the benefits of an external focus of attention on
expert golf chipping performance under pressure, the theoret-
ical explanations offered for the current findings are different.
The rationale for this is twofold, firstly, the skill levels of par-
ticipants and consequential performance or learning paradigms
Frontiers in Psychology | Movement Science and Sport Psychology November 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 468 | 8
Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
adopted by both investigations are very different: Bell and Hardy
utilized expert performers and a performance paradigm whereas
the current investigation utilized novice participants and a learn-
ing paradigm. Secondly, only the current investigation included a
measure to investigate explicit rule generation during skill execu-
tion. The exclusion of this in Bell and Hardy’s research meant
that the CPH and the theory of reinvestment (Masters, 1992)
could not be fully investigated as a plausible explanation for their
findings. Consequently, Bell and Hardy account for their findings
with the distraction hypothesis (Wine, 1971). They suggested that
since skill execution consumes less attentional capacity under an
external focus of attention comparative to an internal focus of
attention (Wulf et al., 2001), the attentional threshold is less likely
to be exceeded when anxiety is present and thus performance is
maintained or even enhanced. If one looks at performance data
alone, distraction is a plausible explanation for the findings of
the current investigation. However, if one looks at these in con-
junction with the results surrounding the amount and type of
explicit rules utilized during transfer, it is more likely that bene-
fits of learning with an external focus of attention on subsequent
anxious performance are due to a learning strategy which pre-
vented reinvestment. Poolton et al. (2006) previously revealed that
participants adopting an external focus of attention accumulate
significantly fewer rules regarding their movements comparative
to those adopting an internal focus of attention. The results of
the current investigation supported these findings, revealing a sig-
nificant difference in the nature but not the number of explicit
rules developed during learning under either the internal or exter-
nal focus of attention groups. Specifically, the external focus of
attention group reported less explicit knowledge regarding move-
ments of their body than both the internal focus of attention
and control groups. As such, when placed into the HA transfer
test the golf putting skill of these participants were less likely to
breakdown as explicit knowledge regarding skill movement was
reduced (Masters, 1992). It should be noted here that whilst the
external focus of attention group reported less explicit knowledge
surrounding the mechanics of their movements compared to the
internal focus of attention or control group, they did not actu-
ally report generating fewer explicit rules during learning. These
results are in line with our second hypothesis suggesting that it is
the type and not the number of explicit rules performers generate
that govern reinvestment under anxious conditions. Consequently,
reinvestment theory should be extended to clarify that tasks are
more likely to break down under anxiety if performers have accu-
mulated accessible and conscious task-relevant knowledge that is
centered around body movements (i.e., the swing of the arms)
and not necessarily around skill movements (i.e., the swing of
the club).
Contrary to expectations, participants adopting internal focus
instructions during learning were able to maintain performance
under pressure. According to the CPH (Masters, 1992) the internal
focus of attention group should have invested explicit movement
knowledge under pressure, resulting in performance decrements.
However, previous research by Beilock and Carr (2001) deter-
mined that self-consciousness training can protect against the
debilitative effects of choking under pressure. Beilock and Carr
had participants practice golf putting under self-focus conditions
and revealed that when these participants were subjected to an
anxiety test they were able to maintain performance, suggesting
that training under conditions of self-consciousness can lead to a
reduction in the choking phenomenon. Similarly, in the current
study, participants adopted an internal focus of attention during
learning and so became familiarized with consciously controlling
movements and thus it is possible that the self-focus induced by
the presence of anxiety did not disrupt performance since par-
ticipants were accustomed to performing under these conditions.
This notion is consistent with Henry’s(1968) sp ecificity of learning
principle, whereby practice conditions that most closely approx-
imate the movements of the target skill and the environmental
conditions of the target context result in the best learning experi-
ences. Thus, if anxiety induces a self-focus then learning conditions
that also prompt a self-focus or internal focus should facilitate
optimal performance in anxiety inducing situations.
In order to further investigate the effects of different foci of
attention on both LA and HA performance, we examined the vari-
ability of both the velocity and the distance traveled throughout
the movement trajectory. This allowed for insights into func-
tional variability (Müller and Loosch, 1999) and how external
and internal foci of attention affect the kinematics of movements,
something that until the current investigation has received lit-
tle research attention. In line with Lohse et al. (2010) it was
expected that movements in the external focus of attention group
would be more variable and result in greater outcome accuracy
(i.e., participants would be releasing degrees of freedom with the
function of allowing exploration of the perceptual-motor work-
space to achieve the most effective and accurate trajectories), than
those in the internal focus of attention group. The rationale was
that adopting an internal focus of attention would constrain nor-
mally automatic movement control leading to less effective actions
and lower movement variability compared to situations where an
external FOA is adopted. Furthermore, in line with the CAH (Wulf
et al., 2001) and the CPH (Masters, 1992) it was expected that
both the internal focus of attention and control groups would
suffer a similar constraining of the action when participants were
subjected to the anxiety transfer test. That is, through the adop-
tion of either a self-focus or through the reinvestment of explicit
movement centered knowledge, normally automatic or procedu-
ralized skills would be constrained and/or broken down into step
by step processes. This over-analysis and breakdown of automatic
movement would manifest itself in ineffective actions and result
in reduced kinematic variability.
The analysis of the variability profiles for both the velocity and
the distance traveled data only revealed significant group differ-
ences at the LA and HA transfer tests in the distance traveled
during the back-swing of the golf putt. Specifically,variability was
greater in the internal focus of attention group compared to both
the external and control groups at the LA and HA tests. Whilst
this finding is not supportive of the above hypothesis, the authors
suggest that the increase in variability is because the internal focus
of attention encourages participants to over analyze movements
which resulted in maladaptive corrections that produced trial to
trial variability. That is, participants were making both online (i.e.,
during action) and offline (i.e., between trials) adjustments to
movements as a result of focusing solely on the internal aspects
www.frontiersin.org November 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 468 | 9
Lawrence et al. Attentional focus, variability and anxiety
of the movement during action (see Lai and Shea, 1999). How-
ever,the NSP data does not suggest that this increase in variability
during the back-swing of the movement trajectory was sufficient
to alter overall performance. Indeed there were no group differ-
ences in NSP at retention (LA test) and only the control group
experienced a decrease in putting performance during the HA
test despite not demonstrating any alterations in the variability
of the movement trajectory. Although the internal focus of atten-
tion group increased variability it is possible that the null effect
of this on putting performance was as a result of the previous
discussed specificity of learning principle. That is, training under
the self-focus condition resulted in a development of a variable
action that at the end of 400 acquisition trials was able to effec-
tively meet the requirements of the task goal. When, conditions
then changed to include anxiety the effect this emotional state
had on the control of movement was similar to that of training
(i.e., movements were performed under self-focus conditions in
both acquisition and anxiety transfer). Thus, both the movement
trajectory and movement outcome performance was comparable
between the acquisition and the HA transfer conditions. In addi-
tion, it seems likely that the adopted markers of variability (i.e.,
variability in the back-swing and forward-swing of the golf club-
head) of the current investigation may not be the most pertinent
predictor of outcome performance. For example, Mullen (2000)
revealed that wrist kinematics significantly predicted outcome
performance in a high anxiety situation. Specifically, individuals
that experienced a decrement in performance as a result of anxiety
displayed reduced variability at the wrist compared to those who
maintained performance levels under anxiety. Thus, in the cur-
rent investigation, it is possible that the movement variability of
the internal focus of attention group was constrained outside the
movement of the golf club. Future research should investigate this
possibility further by exploring variability throughout the action
over the entire body.
One possibility to account for the non-significant change in the
variability of the control group between the LA and HA transfer,
despite the decrement in NSP, may be that trajectories were con-
sistently inaccurate in terms of the line of the putt when under
pressure. This proposal would account for why the variability pro-
files between the control and external focus groups did not differ at
the HA transfer test. That is, whilst the external focus of attention
group produced consistent putts of an accurate nature, the con-
trol group produced consistent putting actions with an inaccurate
outcome. This would result in variability remaining relatively sta-
ble regardless of a decline in performance between LA and HA
retention.
In conclusion, the present investigation demonstrated that
adopting an external focus of attention during learning is ben-
eficial for maintaining performance under subsequent anxiety
conditions. We propose that the protective effect of acquiring
skills under an external focus of attention is due to the nature
of the explicit knowledge developed under these conditions not
being centered around the mechanics of body movements. In
addition and contrary to expectations, it appears that learning
under an internal focus of attention also prevents decrements in
performance typically associated with the presence of anxiety. We
suggest that these effects are due to the specificity of learning
principle, in that acquiring skills under an internal focus pre-
pares individuals for the self-focus conditions that are induced as
a result of the presence of anxiety. Finally, results demonstrated
that if learners are given no explicit focus instructions during
learning they are susceptible to choking under anxious condi-
tions. As such, coaches should endeavor to either minimize the
acquisition of explicit movement knowledge during the learn-
ing process by encouraging an external focus of attention, or
apply the principles of specificity to prevent choking by instruct-
ing participants to adopt a self-focus during long periods of
learning.
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The
authors declare that the research was
conducted in the absence of any com-
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Received: 04 July 2012; accepted: 15 Octo-
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Citation: Lawrence GP, Gottwald
VM, Khan MA and Kramer RSS
(2012) The movement kinematics and
learning strategies associated with
adopting different foci of attention
during both acquisition and anxious
performance. Front. Psychology 3:468.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00468
This article was submitted to Frontiers in
Movement Science and Sport Psychology,
a specialty of Frontiers in Psychology.
Copyright © 2012 Lawrence, Gottwald ,
Khan and Kramer. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits use, distribution
and reproduction in other forums, pro-
vided the original authors and source
are credited and subject to any copy-
right notices concerning any third-party
graphics etc.
www.frontiersin.org November 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 468 | 11
... An internal focus of attention directs attention during movement execution toward the movements of the involved bodily parts, whereas an external focus of attention directs attention toward the movement outcomes (88). Similar to the majority of studies we have discussed so far, putting was used in 5 out of 12 studies that examined the effect of attentional foci (57,(59)(60)(61)63). Brocken et al. (57), Land et al. (59) and Munzert et al. (61) were able to show the advantages of an external focus of attention (even though Land and colleagues only compared it to an irrelevant focus of attention and a control group). ...
... Brocken et al. (57), Land et al. (59) and Munzert et al. (61) were able to show the advantages of an external focus of attention (even though Land and colleagues only compared it to an irrelevant focus of attention and a control group). Lawrence et al. (60) showed mixed results, whereas Poolton et al. (63) did not see any differences between the two methods, except for a decrease in performance for an internal focus of attention at transfer testing. ...
... Lawrence et al. (60) examined the different foci of attention together with induced anxiety. They hereby distinguished between the number of successful putts and the mean radial error as outcome parameters. ...
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Golf is a sport that consists of complex movement skills that need to be executed with utmost precision. Consequently, motor skill learning plays a crucial role in golf, and large numbers of studies address various methods of motor learning. In the present review, we give a systematic overview of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on motor learning of golf-specific motor skills. Three electronic databases were searched for RCTs looking at the effect of at least one learning method on performance in a golf-specific motor task. We grouped the studies depending on the learning strategies “cognitive training”, “practice scheduling”, “augmented feedback”, “implicit and explicit learning” and “focus of attention”. Fifty-two RCTs met the eligibility criteria and were included in the systematic review. Superior methods within their respective strategies were an external focus of attention and increasing contextual interference, as well as errorless learning. For “cognitive training” and “augmented feedback”, no single method can be considered the most favorable. The overall biggest limitations were the lack of statistical power for more than half of the RCTs, and the fact that most studies of the present review investigated simple putting tasks in novices only. Although we have shown superiority of specific learning methods, transferability of the recommendations that can be derived from simple golf tasks in novices to sport-specific tasks in advanced players still has to be demonstrated and require study designs with the intention to provide practical recommendations for coaches and athletes in the sport of golf.
... For example, Bell and Hardy 8 (2009) investigated the effects of adopting an EFOA on pressured performance and hypothesized that 9 the benefits were due to mechanisms within attentional control theory i.e., via increased automaticity 10 and reduced cognitive demands. A study by Lawrence, Gottwald, Khan and Kramer (2012), showed 11 that participants adopting an EFOA were prevented from developing a bank of movement-centred 12 explicit information during learning. These findings were interpreted in line with self-focus 13 mechanisms whereby adopting an EFOA resulted in a reduction in the type of information that could 14 be reinvested to disrupt performance when participants were anxious. ...
... As per Lawrence et al., (2012Lawrence et al., ( , 2014 ...
... Anxiety 18 levels were not significantly different between the EFOA or IFOA groups at either the pre-test, 19 acquisition, or transfer. The method of pressure manipulation in our transfer test has been 20 successfully used in previous literature (Allsop, Lawrence, Khan, & Gray, 2017;Cassell, Beattie, & 21 Lawrence, 2017;Lawrence et al., 2012;2014) and the values reported are similar to those of previous 22 2 The use of a single judge means there is no measure of intra-or inter-judge relatability. However, participants were judged according to the consistent and recognised World Surf League (WSL) criteria, and scored by an experienced surfing judge (ISA qualified with 6 years of experience) who was blind to experimental hypotheses and focus conditions. ...
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... In a similar vein, learning either with concentration toward the skill (Beilock & Carr, 2001;cf. Masters, 1992;Mullen, Faull, Jones, & Kingston, 2012) or under performance-related stress (Cassell, Beattie, & Lawrence, 2018;Lawrence, Gottwald, Khan, & Kramer, 2012;Lawrence et al., 2014;Oudejans & Pijpers, 2009Alder, Ford, Williams, & Causer, 2016) can help learners to positively transfer to a stressful situation. ...
... With this in mind, we incorporated additional transfer tests that would more directly examine these psycho-motor processes including a distracting dual-task requiring more automatic control (Beilock et al., 2004;Beilock et al., 2002;Gray, 2004;, and stress situation causing greater reinvestment (Baumeister, 1984;Beilock & Carr, 2001;Masters, 1992;Masters & Maxwell, 2008). Because there is an advantage when growing accustomed to the psycho-motor processes engaged within practice providing they are consistent with those required in transfer (e.g., Beilock & Carr, 2001;Cassell et al., 2018;Lawrence et al., 2012;Lawrence et al., 2014), then it was predicted that there would be an advantage for the enhanced compared to reduced expectancies within the dual-task, although the reverse would unfold when placed under stress. ...
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Motor learning can benefit from practice under enhanced expectancies; that is, the belief one can generate an intended positive outcome. According to the OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory, this benefit manifests from a greater coupling between action and its external consequences, which potentially coincides with a more automatic mode of control. The aim of the study was to examine this possibility, and in so doing, understand more about the psycho-motor processes underpinning the influence of expectancies. On Day 1, novice participants practiced a dart-throwing task under enhanced (EE) (n=11), reduced (RE) (n=12) or no (control; CTL) (n=12) expectancies. Enhanced and reduced expectancies were indirectly manipulated by positively reinforcing shots that landed within the large or small circle on the dartboard, respectively. On Day 2, participants transferred to a dual-task (i.e., tone-counting) or stress (i.e., social-comparative threat, false feedback) setting. While there was no evidence of improvement across practice, RE was significantly worse than CTL for the dual-task, but EE was significantly worse than RE and CTL under stress (ps < .05). Therefore, the ability of EE to retain performance within the dual-task, but decline under stress, suggests a more automatic mode of control was adopted. Both theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... Based on the knowledge that even small changes in habitual shoes' properties can influence the maintenance of leg stiffness 53 , alter performance 54 and could deeply modify the intricate muscle-tendon mechanics of running 55 , leg stiffness control should also increase away from habitual conditions. However, we found that during touch-down phase (K1) of FFS there was a tendency for system entropy to reduce when the shoe assistance was reduced (Fig. 3A, Table 2); this was unexpected because reduced footwear assistance (high MI index) was expected to expand system dimensionality and expression of complexity 56,57 . Nevertheless, compared to RFS that kept a constant level of DFAα, FFS adapted the control of k leg as they changed shoe. ...
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Leg stiffness plays a key role in the storage and release of elastic energy during stance. However, the extent to which a runner is able to reuse stored energy remains a limiting factor in determining their running effectiveness. In this study, ten habitual rearfoot strikers and ten habitual forefoot strikers were asked to run on a treadmill in three footwear conditions: traditional, neutral, and minimal running shoes. We examined the effect of habitual foot strike pattern and footwear on leg stiffness control within three task-relevant phases of stance (i.e. touch-down, loading, unloading). Control was quantified using stride-to-stride leg stiffness time-series and the coefficient of variability and detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA). The results are interpreted within a theoretical framework that blends dynamic systems theory and optimal feedback control. Results indicate that leg stiffness control is tightly regulated by an active control process during the loading period of stance. In contrast, the touch-down and unloading phases are driven mostly by passive allometric control mechanisms. The effect of footwear on leg stiffness control was inconclusive due to inconsistent trends across three shoe types. However, stiffness control was affected by landing technique. Habitual rearfoot strike runners have reduced DFA values during the touch-down and unloading phases. These sub-phases are associated with an allometric control process and suggests that rearfoot strike runners express a reduction in system complexity for leg stiffness control and hence, a less adaptable system.
... To examine the anxiety manipulation, participants completed the Mental Readiness Form-3 (MRF-3; Krane, 1994), which required a rating from 1 to 11 regarding how worried (cognitive sub-scale; (1) not worried -(11) worried), tense (somatic sub-scale; (1) not tense -(11) tense) and confident (confidence sub-scale; (1) confident -(11) not confident) they felt going into the upcoming motor task. The sum of these three sub-scales was calculated to arrive at a single score (Goddard & Roberts, 2020;Lawrence, Gottwald, Khan, & Kramer, 2012). The form was issued both before the first (trial 1) and second half (trial 54) of each block of trials, which generated two sets of ratings for both the low-and high-anxiety conditions. ...
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Attentional Control Theory states that anxiety can cause attention to be allocated to irrelevant sources of information by hindering the ability to control attention and focus on the information that matters. In a separate line of inquiry, action-centred views of attention state that non-target distractors involuntarily activate response codes that may cause interference with target-directed movements (distractor interference effect). Due to the proposed negative effects of anxiety on attentional control, we examined whether anxiety could also modulate distractor interference. Participants executed target-directed aiming movements to one of three targets with the potential of a distractor being presented at near or far locations. Distractors were presented at different times with respect to the target presentation in order to explore the excitatory (0, -100 ms) and inhibitory (-850 ms) processing of the distractor. As a broad indication of the effect of anxiety, the analysis of no distractor trials indicated a lower proportion of time and displacement to reach peak velocity under high compared to low anxiety conditions. Meanwhile, the typical excitatory influence of the distractors located near, compared to far, at a short distractor-onset asynchrony was found in movement time and overall response time. However, this distractor excitation was even greater under high compared to low anxiety in the reaction time component of the response. These findings broadly implicate the attentional control perspective, but they further indicate an influence of anxiety on the excitation rather than inhibition of responses.
... Contextual factors that can influence the pressure to perform may be classified into two main categories, outcome-pressure and monitoring-pressure (DeCaro et al., 2011). Outcome pressure is associated with offering an incentive to perform at a certain level (typically very high) in order to receive an award (DeCaro et al., 2011;Gray, 2004a;Lawrence, Gottwald, Khan, & Kramer, 2012). The pressure placed on achieving high outcomes may shift the performer's attention to the negative consequences of failure (lack of award) and thereby lead to a performance breakdown. ...
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The influence of monitoring-pressure and verbal feedback on the performance of the intrinsically stable bimanual coordination patterns of in-phase and anti-phase was examined. The two bimanual patterns were produced under three conditions: 1) no-monitoring, 2) monitoring-pressure (viewed by experts), and 3) monitoring-pressure (viewed by experts) combined with verbal feedback emphasizing poor performance. The bimanual patterns were produced at self-paced movement frequencies. Anti-phase coordination was always less stable than in-phase coordination across all three conditions. When performed under conditions 2 and 3, both bimanual patterns were performed with less variability in relative phase across a wide range of self-paced movement frequencies compared to the no-monitoring condition. Thus, monitoring-pressure resulted in performance stabilization rather than degradation and the presence of verbal feedback had no impact on the influence of monitoring pressure. The current findings are inconsistent with the predictions of explicit monitoring theory; however, the findings are consistent with studies that have revealed increased stability for the system's intrinsic dynamics as a result of attentional focus and intentional control. The results are discussed within the contexts of the dynamic pattern theory of coordination, explicit monitoring theory, and action-focused theories as explanations for choking under pressure.
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Many athletes suffer from yips, which is defined as “a psycho-neuromuscular movement disorder, which affects sports in which fine motor precision skills (Clarke et al., 2015, p. 156).” Yips is one reason for significant performance decrements in sports. Several case studies, surveys, and experimental studies have been conducted to clarify this phenomenon. These studies can increase the understanding of yips and help athletes, coaches, and practitioners improve this problem during practice and competitions. Therefore, we reviewed 62 articles published from 1981 to 2021 reporting assessment, symptoms, and treatments of yips in sports. As a result, we identified four types of assessments: (1) self-assessments, (2) observations by others, (3) kinematic and physiological assessments using motion capture and electromyography, and (4) responding to assessment scales. The studies were also categorized in terms of symptoms, as psychological (e.g., anxiety, attention, and personality) and physio-behavioral (e.g., kinematics, muscular activity, and brain activity). The studies on yips treatment could be classified into imagery techniques, pharmacotherapy, and other psychological skills. Furthermore, specific studies indicated post-traumatic psychological growth through yips experiences. The implications of these studies for future research on yips are discussed based on this review.
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Skill increase in motor performance can be defined as explicitly measuring task success but also via more implicit measures of movement kinematics. Even though these measures are often related, there is evidence that they represent distinct concepts of learning. In the present study, the effect of multiple tDCS-sessions on both explicit and implicit measures of learning are investigated in a pointing task in 30 young adults (YA) between 27.07 ± 3.8 years and 30 old adults (OA) between 67.97 years ± 5.3 years. We hypothesized, that OA would show slower explicit skill learning indicated by higher movement times/lower accuracy and slower implicit learning indicated by higher spatial variability but profit more from anodal tDCS compared with YA. We found age-related differences in movement time but not in accuracy or spatial variability. TDCS did not skill learning facilitate learning neither in explicit nor implicit parameters. However, contrary to our hypotheses, we found tDCS-associated higher accuracy only in YA but not in spatial variability. Taken together, our data shows limited overlapping of tDCS effects in explicit and implicit skill parameters. Furthermore, it supports the assumption that tDCS is capable of producing a performance-enhancing brain state at least for explicit skill acquisition.
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Objectives: Research has consistently found that focus of attention (FOA) affects motor learning and performance. However, much of the previous work has used artificially manipulated FOA of novice participants performing laboratory tasks. There is a paucity of work that has tested transfer to more complex competition environments. We aimed to investigate the effects of smart phone video analysis, which commonly occurs in natural practice settings in golf, on skilled player’s FOA and performance in both practice and competition. Design: This study employed a mixed experimental design. The between participants factor was the use of video analysis (practice with video vs practice only) and the repeated measures factor was time point (pre-intervention vs post-intervention). Method: Altogether, 19 skilled golfers (handicap: M = 5.79, SD = 5.80) took part in a four-week practice intervention with (n = 10) or without (n = 9) the use of smart phone video analysis. Driving range performance and competition performance were measured pre- and post-intervention. Practice diaries provided measures of FOA during the intervention period. Results: The practice with video group displayed a significantly more internal FOA throughout the intervention period than the practice only group. This resulted in a significant time by group interaction for driving range performance that showed an increase in performance for the practice only group and a decrease for the practice with video group. However, the performance effects did not transfer to competition scores. Conclusions: Findings enhance our understanding of the effects of video analysis on FOA and question whether FOA effects transfer from on range practice to on course performance.
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Directing attention to the effect of one’s movement (external focus) has been shown to aid performance compared to directing attention to the movement itself (internal focus). This finding has been predominantly explained by an external focus promoting action planning and automatic movement control, while an internal focus acts to constrain movement (constrained action hypothesis [CAH]). In a separate line of research, the multiple control process model states that early movement phases involve anticipated and feedforward processes, while late movement phases explicitly incorporate external afferent information. We hypothesised that enhanced planning and automatic movement control would manifest from an external/distal focus compared to internal/proximal focus. The present study had participants execute fast and accurate movements to a single target using a digitizing graphics tablet that translated movements to a screen. Participants were instructed to focus on the end target location (external-distal), movement of the cursor (external-proximal), and movement of the limb (internal-proximal). It was found that the external-distal focus generated a shorter time to initiate and execute movements (indicating enhanced movement planning) compared to the external- and internal-proximal conditions. In addition, only the external proximal focus revealed a reduction in spatial variability between peak velocity and movement end (indicating greater online control). These findings indicate that advances in action planning and online control occur when adopting an external-distal focus. However, there were some benefits to online control when adopting an external-proximal focus. We propose that an external-distal focus promotes action-effect principles, where there is a greater contribution of anticipatory feedforward processes that limit the need for late online control.
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Wulf and colleagues (e.g., Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999) have demonstrated that the adoption of an external focus of attention is preferable for the learning of complex motor tasks. The present investigation extends the attention focus literature in two ways: (a) it compared the effectiveness of three different foci (internal, proximal external, and distal external) in a sample of skilled performers in a naturalistic environment, and (b) it examined the use of attentional foci under conditions of anxiety. Thirty-three skilled male golfers were assigned to one of three attentional focus groups and completed five blocks of ten pitch shots, three in neutral conditions and two in anxiety conditions. Results from two separate mixed model analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that regardless of anxiety condition, those assigned to a distal external focus of attention performed most accurately (p < 0.05), whereas assignment to an internal focus of attention was associated with the least accurate performance (p < 0.05). Findings offer support for the constrained action hypothesis and point to the importance of skilled performers adopting a distal external focus, especially in competition.
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Attentional processes governing skilled motor behavior were examined in two studies. In Experiment 1, fi eld hockey players performed a dribbling task under single-task, dual-task, and skill-focused conditions under both low and high pressure situations. In Experiment 2, skilled soccer players performed a dribbling task under single-task, skill-focused, and process-goal conditions, again under low and high pressure situations. Results replicated recent fi ndings regarding the detrimental effect of skill-focused attention and the facilitative effect of dual-task conditions on skilled performance. In addition, focusing on movement related process goals was found to adversely affect performance. Support for the predictive validity of the Reinvestment Scale was also found, with high reinvesters displaying greater susceptibility to skill failure under pressure. Results were consistent with explicit monitoring theories of choking and are further discussed in light of the conceptual distinction between explicit monitoring and reinvestment of conscious control.
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Over the past 15 years, research on focus of attention has consistently demonstrated that an external focus (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). This article provides a comprehensive review of the extant literature. Findings show that the performance and learning advantages through instructions or feedback inducing an external focus extend across different types of tasks, skill levels, and age groups. Benefits are seen in movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy, consistency, balance) as well as efficiency (e.g., muscular activity, force production, cardiovascular responses). Methodological issues that have arisen in the literature are discussed. Finally, our current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the attentional focus effect is outlined, and directions for future research are suggested.
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When pressure to perform is increased, individuals commonly perform worse than if there were no pressure ("choking under pressure'). Two mechanisms have been proposed to account for this effect-distraction (cognitive load), wherein pressure distracts attention from the task, and self focus, wherein attention shifts inward interfering with performance. To distinguish between these two competing explanations, the current experiment manipulated pressure by offering performance-contingent rewards. For half the participants, cognitive load was increased by requiring participants to count backward from 100. Additionally, adaptation to self awareness was manipulated by videotaping half the participants during practice trials. Results show that pressure caused choking when participants were not distracted and had not been adapted to self awareness. This effect was attenuated when cognitive load was increased or when self-awareness adaptation had occurred. These results support self focus mediated misregulation as the mechanism for choking and disconfirm the distraction hypothesis.
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Assessed the concurrent validity and social desirability of the Mental Readiness Form (MRF) and examined the appropriateness of the MRF as a potential alternative to the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). In Study 1, 192 college athletes completed the CSAI-2 and the original or modified MRF within 60 min prior to competition. In Study 2, 116 collegiate cross-country runners completed (1) 2 forms of the MRF with slightly different anchor terms, (2) the CSAI-2, (3) trait anxiety measures, and (4) a social desirability scale. Results indicate moderate to strong correlations between CSAI-2 subscales and corresponding MRF items, thus supporting the concurrent validity of the MRF. Social desirability bias did not influence the CSAI-2 or either version of the MRF. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)