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Conceptualizing a Meaningful Definition of Hazing in Sport
Abstract
Administrators, coaches, athletes and parents struggle to understand the definition of hazing. Athletes at all levels of competition continue to subject themselves and their team-mates to harmful behaviors. In particular, college athletes seem willing to do anything that veteran players demand in order to be part of the team's “inner circle”. The behaviors related to hazing exploit a person's basic desire to be part of athletic teams, and continue to persist at high rates within various levels of sport. This paper critically examines how sport hazing has been conceptualized by student-athletes, coaches and sport administrators. Through a review of literature and focus group research, multiple issues related to the understanding of hazing and its subsequent definition arose. The confusion surrounding the various acts of hazing and the definition of hazing versus team initiation may be precipitating the problem in collegiate sport. The authors will elaborate on this issue and the paper will culminate in a proposed new definition of sport hazing intended to help develop a better understanding among stakeholders.
... Future research examining NCAA Division III athletics should strive for greater epistemological diversity (Miranda, 2009). Crow and MacIntosh (2009) claim that as scholarly inquiry on hazing in college athletics has increased, disagreement about how to define hazing within the context of sport has surfaced. ...
... According to Messner (2002) sports exemplifying traditional masculine characteristics (e.g., aggressiveness, toughness, strength) are the "institutional center of sport," holding the greatest power in society and having the most visibility. Related to this power is the belief that male athletes participating in these centered sports (e.g., football, men's basketball, baseball) engage in more severe hazing than female athletes and male athletes participating in less centered and powerful sporting cultures (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009;Waldron & Kowalski, 2009). Many researchers who have examined hazing have focused on men's experiences, drawing connections between hazing and the social construction of masculinity and positioning intercollegiate sport as fertile ground for illustrating these connections and privileges (e.g., Allan, 2003;Allan & DeAngelis, 2004;Anderson et al., 2012). ...
... Coaches might create an environment where hazing persists by: (a) not believing hazing is an issue within their teams or only being concerned with major, dangerous incidents; (b) feeling as though they cannot address hazing on their teams due to a lack of skills, lack of time, or their own socialization in an athletic environment that normalized hazing; and (c) claiming that it is the sole responsibility of athletes to deal with issues of hazing (Caperchione & Holman, 2004;Crow & MacIntosh, 2009;Holman, 2004;Johnson & Donnelly, 2004;Kowalski & Waldron, 2010). McGlone (2010) found that athletic directors tended to view hazing as a minor problem within their own athletic departments and were uncertain of the extent of the problem throughout collegiate sport. ...
Hazing is a concern throughout postsecondary education, with students experiencing psychological, emotional, and physical harm. Although several scholars have identified college athletes to be an at-risk group for hazing and Division III is the largest division of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), there is a lack of research focused on hazing in this context. Utilizing a critical quantitative research paradigm and considering limitations of the extant literature focused on NCAA Division III, I examined the nature and extent of varsity athlete and non-athlete hazing and factors predictive of hazing experiences for students and varsity athletes at five NCAA Division III institutions. This investigation followed a non-experimental, quantitative research design, with descriptive statistics, chi-square analyses, and logistic regression analyses informing my findings. For all students, findings suggest: (a) varsity athletes and fraternity and sorority members were more likely to experience hazing than their peers belonging to other groups, (b) varsity athletes were more likely to experience harassment hazing than their peers, (c) there were individual and campus level factors that predicted student hazing experiences, (d) experiences with more normalized and frequently occurring hazing behaviors were predictive of students experiencing less normalized and less frequently occurring hazing behaviors, and (e) types of hazing experiences were predictive of students identifying there were hazed. For varsity athletes, findings suggest: (a) there were significant institutional differences in varsity athlete hazing, (b) there were individual and campus level factors that predicted varsity athlete hazing experiences, (c) experiences with more normalized and frequently occurring hazing behaviors were predictive of varsity athletes experiencing less normalized and less frequently occurring hazing behaviors, and (d) experiences with intimidation hazing were not predictive of varsity athletes identifying they were hazed. Overall, these findings expand upon the work of scholars who have examined postsecondary and college athlete hazing and this investigation contributes to the literature by establishing the Hazing Attitudes and Perceptions Scale as a predictor of hazing and examining findings considering the spectrum of hazing. Given these findings and contributions, implications for prevention, practice, and future research are subsequently considered.
... The phenomenon of what in British English is known as initiation ceremonies and in US English as hazingrituals, challenges and other activities involving harassment, abuse or humiliation to initiate people into groups, clubs or teamsillustrates this 'dilemma', as do the challenges of intervention or violence prevention in a sport context. Even though research has shown that initiation rituals or hazing can weaken a team's cohesion, they are nevertheless quite common in sport (Crow & Macintosh, 2009), as is the over consumption of alcohol. In their study, Crow and Macintosh (2009) identify a grey zone of violence, where student-athletes and coaches/administrators have difficulty agreeing on a common definition of the problem of 'hazing', because what is perceived as harmless to some could be perceived as physically threatening or emotionally damaging to others. ...
... Even though research has shown that initiation rituals or hazing can weaken a team's cohesion, they are nevertheless quite common in sport (Crow & Macintosh, 2009), as is the over consumption of alcohol. In their study, Crow and Macintosh (2009) identify a grey zone of violence, where student-athletes and coaches/administrators have difficulty agreeing on a common definition of the problem of 'hazing', because what is perceived as harmless to some could be perceived as physically threatening or emotionally damaging to others. It has also been found that male athletes appear to be more involved in physical initiation rituals, while female athletes seem to be more engaged in emotional acts (Crow & Macintosh, 2009). ...
... In their study, Crow and Macintosh (2009) identify a grey zone of violence, where student-athletes and coaches/administrators have difficulty agreeing on a common definition of the problem of 'hazing', because what is perceived as harmless to some could be perceived as physically threatening or emotionally damaging to others. It has also been found that male athletes appear to be more involved in physical initiation rituals, while female athletes seem to be more engaged in emotional acts (Crow & Macintosh, 2009). ...
Research question: Research has shown that male team sports can nurture aggressive and sexist attitudes and behaviour. Against a background of identified sports and ice hockey masculinities and how they relate to violence norms, the aim of this article is to identify masculinity ideals in need of interventions.
Research method: As part of a larger project on masculinity ideals and violence norms in Swedish ice hockey, this case study is based on a thematic analysis of interviews with five Swedish ice hockey coaches. Theoretically, the analysis is inspired by work on hegemonic masculinity and violence prevention.
Results and Findings: The findings derived from the interviews are discussed under three thematic headings: ‘The dual functions of sexism and group dynamics’, ‘Aggression and violence as problematic and progressive’ and ‘The stabilising and transformative role of a competitive environment’. In these, core values of the construction of hegemonic masculinity are identified and discussed.
Implications: The article contributes knowledge about risk factors in team sports and how attitudes and behaviour in a team or club can be both progressive and destructive at the same time. Based on the study's findings, work on violence prevention and the results of previous research, three preventive actions are suggested: 1. To erase sexist and derogative attitudes and actions so that they do not escalate, 2. Zero tolerance of alcohol consumption and drugs and 3. Change the rules in order to eliminate hard and reckless play.
... In a groundbreaking study on hazing among intercollegiate athletes, more than half of participants recounted their involvement in alcohol-related initiation activities (Hoover & Pollard, 1999). A decade later, Crow and MacIntosh (2009) identified alcohol consumption as an unacceptable hazing activity in a study where they categorized hazing activities as (a) alcoholrelated initiation; no other unacceptable activities; and, (b) unacceptable initiation activities, other than alcohol-related. In addition, and according to findings published in Hazing in View, the report of the national study of student hazing (Allan & Madden, 2008), college students reported unacceptable, high-risk, and potentially illegal hazing behaviors that included high percentages of alcohol consumption. ...
... In the Hoover study, she described initiation rites as ''comprised of pro-social behaviors that build social relationships, understanding, empathy, civility, altruism, and moral decision-making'' (Hoover, 1999. p.3) and espoused that when conducted properly, they have a place in sport and society (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009). Similarly, 100% of athletes responding to a nationwide survey on hazing practices were involved in some form of initiation when joining their athletic teams, yet only 12 percent reported the initiation as hazing (Hoover, 1999). ...
... Several authors have chronicled the frequent occurrence of hazing in athletic settings and have confirmed that the number of reported hazing incidents on athletic teams at all levels (e.g., high school, university, amateur, and professional) has continued to increase (Allan & Madden, 2008;Crow & MacIntosh, 2009;Hoover & Pollard, 1999;Saunders & Bente, 2013;Thomas, 2003;Zeigler, 2006). ...
The case study is an examination of “community readiness” for a cohort of U.S. universities participating in a three-year research initiative to develop evidence-based hazing prevention strategies. Drawing on the Community Readiness Model (CRM), this study assessed community readiness, the relative level of acceptance of a program, action, or other form of decision-making that is locality-based (Donnermeyer et al., 1997). More specifically, this research examined and measured the institutional readiness of universities involved in a comprehensive approach to hazing prevention in higher education and deepened understanding about the role of institutional readiness in broadening engagement and ensuring commitment for sustainable hazing prevention outcomes in higher education.
... On the relational level, it is evident that an imbalance of power between one person and another or a group is directly related to increased risks of victimization in the context of sport. Interpersonal violence therefore occurs in relationships between coaches and athletes (Mountjoy et al., 2016;Owton & Sparkes, 2017;Pinheiro et al., 2014;Stirling, 2011), between recruits and veterans (Crow & Macintosh, 2009), or between athletes, some of whom may not meet the social or cultural standards of that particular sports culture (Demers, 2006;Jarvie, 2003). In sum, situations where asymmetric power relations exist are of great importance in the analysis of violence in sport. ...
... Even if some places have laws regarding hazing, it is often difficult to counteract and prevent the phenomenon when there is little, if any, control of these activities by the authorities of that given sport (e.g., coaches, sports administrators, etc.), or if there are few preestablished rules and sanctions outlined by the sports organizations and academic institutions (Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Diamond, Callahan, Chain, & Solomon, 2016;Fields et al., 2007). Also, the majority of athletes are not aware of the anti-hazing statutes (Crow & Macintosh, 2009). ...
... Even if some places have laws regarding hazing, it is often difficult to counteract and prevent the phenomenon when there is little, if any, control of these activities by the authorities of that given sport (e.g., coaches, sports administrators, etc.), or if there are few preestablished rules and sanctions outlined by the sports organizations and academic institutions (Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Diamond, Callahan, Chain, & Solomon, 2016;Fields et al., 2007). Also, the majority of athletes are not aware of the anti-hazing statutes (Crow & Macintosh, 2009). ...
The problem of violence against athletes is of growing concern. However, the scientific literature in this field tends to be specific to certain forms of violence and does not always provide a clear portrayal of the problem. To better understand issues concerning violence against athletes in sport and to identify needs in this area of research, we must look at violence in a more inclusive way and see violence against athlete as a global problem. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the problem of interpersonal violence against athletes in the sport context. We discuss definitions of violence in sport through the lens of athletes’ victimization. We also look at the various manifestations of interpersonal violence against athletes, the perpetrators involved, the factors associated to the risk of victimization, and the possible consequences of this violence on the mental and physical health of athletes. Finally, future directions for research on this topic are discussed.
... We define initiation rituals as: activities whereby senior members put incoming athletes through challenges in order to assimilate them into the team culture. These events are an important part of university life for student athletes, as this is the process by which senior members come into contact with junior members (freshers), before they are welcomed to the club (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009;McDonald & Sylvester, 2014). This study considers initiation rituals as a point of departure for the analysis of group development in university sporting teams, and diverges from previous investigations, which propose a staged process with predictable development and outcome (McGrath, 1991;Tuckman, 1965). ...
... However, chaos theory is suited to an investigation of initiation rituals, as these activities are often portrayed as unpredictable events for incoming students where individuals are placed in an unfamiliar environment to conduct tasks they have little experience with (Keating et al., 2005). Attempting to analyse the group development of sport teams undergoing initiation activities through a staged, sequential model would take away from anarchic and tumultuous nature of these activities (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009). Therefore, this contribution to group development theory furthers our understanding of how teams develop in periods of immense uncertainty (or chaos), where norms are constantly changing, and outcomes are unpredictable (Schneider & Somers, 2006), such as the experience of an initiation in a university sporting context (Keating et al., 2005). ...
... Group development research investigates how a set of individuals (a group), change their patterns of behaviour over time, and aims to understand how individuals become committed to one another, achieve shared purpose, and accomplish collective goals (as a team) (Miller, 2003). However, Carroll, Connaughton, Spengler, and Zhang (2009) assert that initiation and hazing activities are doing reputational damage to sporting institutions, and at American colleges, in particular, hazing is increasingly placing a financial burden on sport (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009). Further, hazing is considered to have a significant impact on student physical, physiological, and psychological wellbeing (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009), and with studies suggesting over 80% of student athletes are 'hazed' (Carroll et al., 2009), these activities require increased empirical investigation to understand their impact on student teams. ...
Research question: This study investigates the impact of initiation rituals on group development. Through the application of chaos theory, we examine how the trajectory of team development is inherently unpredictable due to the complex nature and uncertainty of initiation rituals.
Research methods: The paper draws upon 42 interviews with student athletes from a UK university. The UK context provides a new perspective on initiation activities that are currently dominated by studies in a US setting.
Results and findings: From our coding of interview data four themes emerge: Forced assimilation, Dejection, Commitment, and Performance. The results find initiation rituals force sport teams into a period of chaos where outcomes can vary from improved performance to dejection. Thus, sports teams can experience any, or all of the themes present in our findings, and previous group cohesion is an unreliable predictor for successful group development post-initiation.
Implications: Theoretically, we further understanding of group development as an unpredictable system due to the nuances and complexities associated with initiations that stimulate periods of chaos. Practically we find administration of bureaucratic control is an ineffective mechanism for constraining initiation activities, and instead it is team leaders and captains who should guide behaviour towards constructive and enjoyable initiations associated with improved commitment and performance of sporting teams.
... Sporda zorbalığı tarif ederken daha çok taciz kavramı ön plana çıkartılmaktadır ancak tacizi zorbalık olarak tanımlamak doğru bir yaklaşım olmadığı gibi taciz kavramı spordaki zorbalığın tanımını da zorlaştırmaktadır. Taciz büyük ölçüde bir kişinin bir gruba üyeliğe kabul edilirken bireye zarar vermeyi amaçlayan anti sosyal davranışların alt kümesi olarak kabul edilebilir (Crow ve Macintosh, 2009). Nitekim taciz kelimesi; taciz etmek, uğraşmak, canından bezdirmek ve dayak atmak anlamlarını içinde barındırmaktadır. ...
... Taciz bir gruba katılan birinden, kişinin katılma isteğine bakılmaksızın aşağılayan, kötüleyen ve tehlikeye atan herhangi bir etkinlik beklenmesi şeklinde anlaşılmaktadır (Kentel, 2014). Bir gruba dâhil olmak tacizin temel bileşenleri arasında yer almaktadır (Crow ve Macintosh, 2009). Zorbalığın amacı parçalamak ve dışlamakla beraber tacizin amacı bir uyum ve içerme yaratmak için bir gruba veya takıma katılan bireye dayatılan bir ritüeldir. ...
... In addition, hazing behaviors are typically repeated from year to year as a means of carrying on traditions within a group. Furthermore, there is a clear power imbalance between the perpetrators and the victims as perpetrators in college, for example, are most often upperclassmen, while victims are often underclassmen (Crow and Macintosh 2009;Hamilton et al. 2016). What remains unclear in a conceptual comparison between bullying and hazing is whether perpetrators of hazing intend to cause harm. ...
... Because of variability in how hazing is defined across studies, the definition of hazing provided to participants in the current study represented a compilation of definitions in existing research (Campo et al. 2005;Crow and Macintosh 2009;Hoover 1999;Hoover and Pollard 2000): ...
Using the Olweus’ (1993, 2013) model of bullying as a framework, hazing and bullying were compared along the dimensions of aggression, intent to cause harm or distress, power imbalance, and repetition. The relationship of the two behaviors to moral disengagement was also examined. One hundred ninety-nine workers on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk completed a survey examining their experiences as hazing and bullying victims, perpetrators, and witnesses; they also completed Bandura et al.’s (J Pers Soc Psychol 71:364–374, 1996) moral disengagement scale. Participants were more likely to evaluate bullying than hazing as an act of aggression, as intended to cause harm or distress, and as repetitive in nature. The two behaviors did not differ in perceived power imbalance. Whereas only bullying perpetration positively correlated with moral disengagement, both hazing perpetration and victimization were positively related to moral disengagement. The high prevalence rate of both behaviors highlights the need for prevention and intervention programs.
... Sporda zorbalığı tarif ederken daha çok taciz kavramı ön plana çıkartılmaktadır ancak tacizi zorbalık olarak tanımlamak doğru bir yaklaşım olmadığı gibi taciz kavramı spordaki zorbalığın tanımını da zorlaştırmaktadır. Taciz büyük ölçüde bir kişinin bir gruba üyeliğe kabul edilirken bireye zarar vermeyi amaçlayan anti sosyal davranışların alt kümesi olarak kabul edilebilir (Crow ve Macintosh, 2009). Nitekim taciz kelimesi; taciz etmek, uğraşmak, canından bezdirmek ve dayak atmak anlamlarını içinde barındırmaktadır. ...
... Taciz bir gruba katılan birinden, kişinin katılma isteğine bakılmaksızın aşağılayan, kötüleyen ve tehlikeye atan herhangi bir etkinlik beklenmesi şeklinde anlaşılmaktadır (Kentel, 2014). Bir gruba dâhil olmak tacizin temel bileşenleri arasında yer almaktadır (Crow ve Macintosh, 2009). Zorbalığın amacı parçalamak ve dışlamakla beraber tacizin amacı bir uyum ve içerme yaratmak için bir gruba veya takıma katılan bireye dayatılan bir ritüeldir. ...
... For instance, when dealing with imagistic practices, researchers and practitioners must be mindful of the abusive nature of these acts in team sports. Initiation rituals (or hazing) are particularly concerning because of their prevalence in elite sport (Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Hinkle, Smith, & Stellino, 2007;Hoover & Pollard, 2000). Hazing entails any degrading and/or dangerous activity incoming group members are expected to take part in, sometimes even against their will (Hoover & Pollard, 2000). ...
... These behaviours are considered to be a form of social bullying (Stirling, 2009;Stirling, Bridges, Cruz, & Mountjoy, 2011), or even sexual abuse (Kirby & Wintrup, 2002) when taken to the extreme and can result in depression, anxiety, or posttraumatic stress (LaFerney, 2016). Yet despite efforts to discourage the practice, hazing remains persistent in sports (Crow & Macintosh, 2009). ...
Many sports teams engage in collective rituals ( e.g. , the New Zealand All Blacks’ haka). While the concept has been studied extensively in other fields ( e.g. , social psychology and cultural anthropology), literature on collective rituals specific to sport is limited. Leveraging theoretical positions and empirical findings from across the human and social sciences, the application of an existing definition of collective ritual in team sports is explored. Complementary research is suggestive of a potential link between collective rituals and two growing topics of interest in group dynamics, namely, team resilience and communal coping. Collective rituals can bolster team resilience by strengthening the group structure and increasing a team’s social capital. They can also serve as communal coping strategies, helping to manage team stressors as they arise. However, at the extremes, collective rituals can become problematic. Over-reliance and abusive rites of passage ( i.e. , hazing) are considered. Potential applied implications and future research directions in sport psychology are then discussed.
... Thus, this is not an exhaustive review of hazing definitions, but a targeted critique of those definitions most likely to have broad impacts on organizational policies and student education. (For more on hazing definitions, see Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Ellsworth, 2004;Hinkle, 2006.) ...
... Hazing means an act that, as an explicit or implicit condition for initiation to, admission into, affiliation with, or continued membership in a group or organization, (1) could be seen by a reasonable person as endangering the physical health of an individual or as causing mental distress to an individual through, for example, humiliating, intimidating, or demeaning treatment, (2) destroys or removes public or private property, (3) involves the consumption of alcohol or drugs, or the consumption of other substances to excess, or (4) To be fair, not all definitions of hazing are problematic. Consider Crow and Macintosh's (2009) proposed definition of athletic hazing: ...
This paper examines the nature of predatory publishing and the responses being developed by the academic community to guard itself and its profession against fraud.
... Sur le plan relationnel, il semble qu'une position de pouvoir d'une personne envers une autre soit au coeur du risque de victimisation en contexte sportif. La violence interpersonnelle peut ainsi se manifester au sein de la relation entre les entraîneurs et les athlètes [23,89,99,100], entre les recrues et les vétérans [17,101] ou encore entre athlètes dont certains ne correspondent pas aux normes sociales et culturelles du sport de façon générale ou du sport pratiqué en particulier [93][94][95]. Bref, les situations où il existe des relations de pouvoir asymétriques revêtent une grande importance dans l'analyse de la violence exercée en contexte sportif. ...
... Sur le plan du bizutage, il semble difficile de contrer et d'empêcher le phénomène lorsqu'il y a peu de contrôle des activités d'initiation par les acteurs du système sportif (entraîneurs, administrateurs sportifs, etc.), ou encore s'il y a peu de règles et de sanctions préétablies dans les organisations sportives et les institutions académiques [17,118,119]. ...
... This means that, in the university sport context, it could also be possible that varsity athletes are at risk of being exposed to sexual violence within these relationships. For example, abusive team cohesion events intended to initiate rookies (namely "hazing") are situations where sexual violence and other forms of violence are reported (Crow and Macintosh, 2009). Also, situations of sexual abuse from coaches are reported in many studies (Toftegaard Nielsen, 2001;Sanderson and Weathers, 2020;Wilinsky and McCabe, 2021). ...
Some studies report that the sport context increases the risk of exposure to sexual violence for athletes. In contrast, others indicate a protective effect of sport participation against sexual violence, particularly among varsity athletes. Studies of sexual violence towards varsity athletes are limited by their failure to include control groups and various known risk factors such as age, graduate level, gender and sexual identity, disability status, international and Indigenous student status, and childhood sexual abuse. The purpose of the present study is to fill in these gaps to determine whether varsity athletes are at greater risk than non-athletes of sexual violence towards them or whether, on the contrary, involvement in a varsity sport is coherent with the Sport Protection Hypothesis. Data for this article come from the ESSIMU study (Enquête sur la Sexualité, la Sécurité et les Interactions en Milieu Universitaire), a broad survey of students, professors, and other employees at six francophone universities regarding sexual violence on university campuses. A total of 6,485 students with complete data on sexual violence, athlete status, and gender were included in the study. From this total, 267 participants identified themselves as varsity athletes. Data were analyzed using a series of logistic regressions on each form of violence using athlete status as a predictor and characteristics associated with sexual violence victimization or distinguishing between varsity athletes and non-athletes as confounding variables. When considering all confounding variables in the regression analyses on four yearly incidence rates of sexual violence, the results revealed that being a varsity athlete did not significantly increase the risk of exposure to sexual violence at university. All considered other variables were more significant predictors of the past year’s risk of sexual violence victimization than athlete status was.
... Thus, screening for disordered eating should include all athletes, not just females or those in lean/aesthetic sports. Furthermore, focussing efforts on creating a social environment for all types of athletes that is supportive for wellbeing may be an important aspect of prevention efforts [55,56]. This finding reiterates that athletes do not exist in a sporting bubble that goes untouched by society's expectations, and furthermore it suggests that interventions developed and tested in nonathlete samples may be able to be adapted for athletes [57]. ...
Disordered eating and eating disorders have huge impact on athletic health and performance. Understanding risk factors for disordered eating development is paramount to protecting the health and performance of these athletes. This project tested a model longitudinally to test whether body dissatisfaction (mediated by negative affect) and societal pressures (mediated by internalisation) predicted bulimic symptomatology at 1 year. The study recruited 1017 male and female athletes in a range of sports at three time points over a year. Cross-lag meditation modelling in MPLUS was utilised to test the hypothesised model. Results indicated that societal pressures mediated by general internalisation led to bulimic symptomatology and that gender and sport type do moderate the relationships. However, measurement issues indicate that scales not originally created for athletes may not reliably measure athletes’ experience. This research highlights how understanding how to better assess risk factors and disordered eating related concepts in athletes is a key next step. The study is unique in its longitudinal design and in its sampling of a wide range of sports in both male and female athletes.
... Screening for disordered eating should include all athletes, not just females or those in lean/aesthetic sports. Furthermore, focussing efforts on creating a social environment for all types of athletes that is supportive for wellbeing may be an important aspect of prevention efforts (Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Mountjoy et al., 2016). This finding reiterates the applied implications in previous chapters: athletes do not exist in a sporting bubble that goes untouched by society's expectations. ...
Background: This research focusses on disordered eating and eating disorders (DE/ED) in athletes. DE/ED negatively impact athletes’ physical and mental health and performance. Hence, understanding their development is key. Petrie and Greenleaf’s (2007) model is specific to athletes and served as a theoretical basis for this work. This model posits that initial predictors of disordered eating are sport pressure and societal pressure and describes several moderators and mediators. Aims and Methods: The thesis aimed to improve understanding of the development of DE/ED in athletes and develop a new model to predict DE/ED in athletes. The first task was to systematically review the evidence for Petrie and Greenleaf’s (2007) model. The next was to test the model’s applicability in a large cross-sectional sample. A qualitative study was undertaken to better understand the experiences of the athletes in the sample. Finally, a longitudinal study was conducted to test the model over time, using structural equation modelling and cross-lag mediation. Results: The systematic review yielded inconsistent findings, providing further support for the need to test Petrie and Greenleaf’s theoretical model. Testing their model in a large athlete sample revealed that it does not adequately explain DE/ED in athletes and a new model was developed that better fit the sample. This new model was then used in a longitudinal study, where it showed that societal pressures, mediated by internalisation, predicted later bulimic symptomatology. The qualitative study highlighted the complex interaction between societal expectations, social comparisons, and sport pressures that contribute to the development of disordered eating. Conclusions: These findings suggest that development and prevention of DE/ED in athletes may align with principles already established in research and practice for nonathlete populations. A key limitation was that the scales used were not reliable for athletes across time. Future research should include scales specifically designed for athletes.
... The closed-off and ritualistic aspects of hockey culture often fosters the adoption of hazing practices. Crow and Macintosh (2009) define hazing as "any potentially humiliating, degrading, abusive, or dangerous activity expected of a junior-ranking athlete by a more senior team-mate, which does not contribute to either athlete's positive development, but is required to be accepted as part of a team, regardless of the junior-ranking athlete's willingness to participate" (p. 449). ...
Athletes who make it to the upper echelons of professional ice hockey in North America are indoctrinated into the beliefs, norms, and rituals of the sport from an early age. These practices are often highly restrictive, and can eventually lead to reduced autonomy and eventual commoditization—defined as the extraction of economic and performance value to the point where athletes become indistinct and interchangeable. Using the commoditization framework developed by Hirschman and Hill (2000 Hirschman, E. C. , and R. P.Hill . 2000. “On Human Commoditization and Resistance: A Model Based upon Buchenwald Concentration Camp.” Psychology and Marketing 17 (6): 469–491. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6793(200006)17:6 < 469::aid-mar3 > 3.0.co;2-3.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), we analyse how these processes de-humanize, control, and silence athletes and the role that institutions play in its enactment. Through an examination of these processes, this paper substantiates the concept of athlete commoditization and explores the influence of cultural and technological changes on our future conceptualization of the construct.
... Parents of younger athletes are given socialization in advance about the sports culture aimed to accept emotionally abusive training behavior as a practice expected for their children' development (G. A. Kerr & Stirling, 2012). Crow & Macintosh (2009) defines any potentially embarrassing, degrading, abusive, or dangerous activity to a junior ranked athlete by a more senior teammate is required in order to be accepted as part of a team. This can be defined as a form of intimidation in sports, especially in sports teams consisted of athletes of different ages. ...
Rough and harsh trainings often occur in sports training, one of which is in the martial arts sport where athletes often received more intimidation from the trainer than in other sports. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the form of intimidations occur in the trainer-athlete relationship as an attempt to increase the training motivation. The method used in this research was a grounded theory approach. Observations and interviews were conducted to collect data. The result of this study found that intimidation needs to be done by trainers. However, trainers must be able to choose when to intimidate the athletes and have to understand the athletes’ acceptance whether it has a positive or a negative impact.
... Coaches studied by Vveinhardt, Fominiene, and Andriukaitiene (2019) referred to pranks of this nature as 'mischief'. These mischievous acts bear some relation to the hazing actions mentioned by Mishna et al. (2019), although hazing is more specific to humiliating, abusive, and dangerous actions inflicted by veterans on younger athletes (Crow and Macintosh 2009). ...
Objetives: To explore perceptions of bullying in children’s football (8-13 years) based on the experiences of players, families, and coaches. Method: We conducted a multiple case study. Participants from four football clubs and one coaching academy in Catalonia (Spain) were selected to take part in nine focus group sessions (three for each group: players, families and coaches). Data from the sessions were analyzed by content analysis.
Findings: Four main categories were identified: (1) type of bullying, (2) causes, (3) sites of occurrence, and (4) feelings and emotions towards bullying. These have included a series of direct quotes to reflect the main contributions made by the three sets of participants (players, parents, and coaches) based on their most significant experiences. Conclusions: The accounts of the participants show the existence of a wide range of bullying situations and experiences and highlight the need for immediate action towards the prevention and eradication of bullying in children’s football.
... Although these initial studies have identified bullying and hazing practices among student athletes, other research has identified a lack of correspondence between students' experiences of hazing and their willingness to use the term hazing to describe those experiences [127]. One possible explanation for this gap between rates of hazing and reports of experiencing hazing is that students may ascribe to a narrow definition of hazing that emphasizes extreme forms of these behaviors [128]. ...
Purpose of review:
The goal of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of mental health concerns in young athletes, with a focus on common disorders, as well as population-specific risk factors.
Recent findings:
Athletes experience similar mental health concerns as non-athlete peers, such as anxiety, depression and suicidal ideation, ADHD, eating disorders, and substance abuse. However, they also experience unique stressors that put them at risk for the development or exacerbation of mental health disorders. Student athletes have to balance academics with rigorous training regimens while focusing on optimal performance and managing high expectations. Physical injuries, overtraining, concussion, sleep disorders, and social identity are some of the factors that also impact the mental health of student athletes. Existing literature highlights the need to develop proactive mental health and wellness education for young athletes, and to develop services that recognize the unique needs of this population.
... However, there are also many negative aspects of sport participation to be leery of, including injury, harassment, and the topic of this article-hazing. Crow and MacIntosh (2009) conceptualized hazing in sport as: ...
... Mental well-being can be adversely affected by underperformance, pressure and expectations, burnout, and the development of maladaptive psychological symptoms and disorders [5]. Social well-being is threatened by an unsupportive environment, controlling practices, discrimination, harassment, bullying, hazing, abuse, conflict, and isolation [6][7][8]. ...
The importance of optimal well-being and mental health in elite athletes has received increasing attention and debate in both the academic and public discourse. Despite the number of challenges and risk factors for mental health and well-being recognised within the performance lifestyle of elite athletes, the evidence base for intervention is limited by a number of methodological and conceptual issues. Notably, there exists an increasing emphasis on the development of appropriate sport-specific measures of athlete well-being, which are required to underpin strategies targeted at the protection and enhancement of psychosocial functioning. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to review psychometric issues in well-being research and discuss the implications for the measurement of well-being in sport psychology research. Drawing on the broader literature in related disciplines of psychology, the narrative discusses four key areas in the scale development process: conceptual and theoretical issues, item development issues, measurement and scoring issues, and analytical and statistical issues. To conclude, a summary of the key implications for sport psychology researchers seeking to develop a measure of well-being is presented.
... The sub-category of old-timers and newcomers in athletes' interpersonal relationships, which revealed itself in our study, is a self-evident norm. According to [39], college athletes seem willing to do anything that veteran players demand in order to be part of the team's "inner circle". Socialized athletes form closed groups that enjoy broad privileges, defending them and organizing bullying referred to as a "joke" against newcomers and younger athletes. ...
In recent years, the problem of bullying, existing in sport and arising in athletes’ relationships, is increasingly emphasized. The aim of this research was to reveal the specificity of bullying in athletes’ interrelationships by elaborating on causes of its emergence, nature of actions, and its consequences. To achieve the research aim, a qualitative research paradigm was chosen. The theoretical part of the research was prepared by applying the methods of scientific literature analysis and analogy. The empirical study involved seven organized sports athletes representing individual, duel, and team sports branches, belonging to the young adult age category. The survey was conducted using the semi-structured interview method. Data were analyzed employing the conceptual content analysis. Emic and etic perspectives were used for data processing. Research results revealed that the specificity of manifestation of bullying in sport unfolded through three generalized categories: intolerable perception of behavior, nature of bullying, and bipolarity of consequences. Every category was detailed by sub-categories, highlighting the nature, causes, and consequences of bullying accepted by athletes in the contexts of their emotional state and career. We found that the factors falling into these categories were interrelated and supplemented each other; therefore, they should be analyzed in a complex way, as bullying is determined not by some single factor but by the totality of them, functioning as a kind of well-established flawed tradition supported by the cultures of the sports organization and the sport.
... Hazing is considered an issue in both high school and post-secondary contexts; however, scholarship on this problem has historically concentrated on college settings (Allan & Madden, 2012). Specifically, research focused on college hazing has examined attitudes regarding hazing behavior, rationales as to why hazing persists, and the components of hazing (Campo, Poulos, & Sipple, 2005;Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Drout & Corsoro, 2003). While studies suggest that hazing occurs in higher education, scholars argue that hazing might commence before students even enter college (Allan & Madden, 2008;Hoover & Pollard, 2000). ...
Researchers argue that hazing can contribute to an abusive school climate and interfere with a positive learning environment for students. National efforts exist for establishing policies, protocols, evaluation, and education for students, administrators, and staff to prevent hazing at the college level, but this work has yet to be applied broadly in a high school context. In response to this gap, researchers implemented a pilot project at two high schools in Maine that consisted of hazing prevention training and assessment. This paper discusses the design, methods, and lessons learned through this collaborative, utilization-focused, and mixed-method training and evaluation with school personnel and high school student participants.
... Other adverse peer-to-peer behaviours, such as hazing, are often found in organized sport settings and have received significant research attention (Stirling, 2009). Hazing is defined (Crow & MacIntosh, 2009) as follows: ...
Given the limited research on bullying among post-secondary students and within settings outside of school, this exploratory study investigated the bullying and cyber bullying experiences of post-secondary student athletes in intercollegiate athletic contexts. An online exploratory survey assessed experiences of victimization, perpetration, and witnessing in the context of sport. Respondents included 122 student athletes (64% female, 35% male) across 24 sports. The sample self-reported 48% victimization, 31% perpetration, and 62% witnessing for bullying. For cyber bullying, the sample self-reported 7% victimization, 9% perpetration, and 15% witnessing. Other findings included: types, timing, and locations of bullying; reasons for bullying; and responses to these experiences. Findings are interpreted in light of existing sport literature and directions for future research are proposed.
... Hazing is considered an issue in both high school and post-secondary contexts; however, scholarship on this problem has historically concentrated on college settings (Allan & Madden, 2012). Specifically, research focused on college hazing has examined attitudes regarding hazing behavior, rationales as to why hazing persists, and the components of hazing (Campo, Poulos, & Sipple, 2005;Crow & Macintosh, 2009;Drout & Corsoro, 2003). While studies suggest that hazing occurs in higher education, scholars argue that hazing might commence before students even enter college (Allan & Madden, 2008;Hoover & Pollard, 2000). ...
Policy discourse analysis (PDA) draws from critical and poststructural theories to provide researchers with an approach to identifying dominant discourses shaping policy problems and solutions. Such analyses reveal how discourse contributes to shaping subject positions, or roles, with implications for practice. This chapter defines PDA, describes the conceptual principles of the approach, and details the research methods for the implementation of a PDA study. Examples of studies employing PDA are shared to illustrate the utility of the approach.
... Campo et al. (2005) indicated that a possible explanation for the reported gap between experience of hazing and self-reports of hazing is that students ascribe to a narrow definition of hazing that emphasizes extreme forms, including being tied up, beaten, or raped. Crow and Macintosh (2009) found a number of disagreements among student-athletes about what is considered hazing and what is acceptable for a team initiation. It is commonly believed students discount the potential for harm related to a wider range of hazing activities and this likely contributes to its prevalence. ...
This investigation reports findings from survey data collected from 5,880 students enrolled at seven U.S. research universities. Building on previous studies, this investigation found that hazing occurred across a range of student groups and included high-risk drinking, social isolation, personal servitude, and humiliation. Although students tended to have pro-social attitudes and did not believe hazing was beneficial to their organizations, some reported positive outcomes. Research-informed recommendations for campus hazing prevention are provided.
... However, given the potential seriousness of hazing, it is crucial to focus on why individuals engage in this type of behavior in hopes of preventing future incidents. Athletes of all levels may engage in and/or be subjected to hazing for a variety of reasons (Crow and Macintosh 2009). Campo et al. (2005) and Robinson (1998) found that group cohesion, the desire to belong, and wanting to be part of something bigger were all contributing factors of hazing. ...
The present article is a preliminary study using textual analysis of 35 news articles regarding media portrayals of hazing. In an effort to better understand how the media defines and portrays hazing explanations and the types of injuries victims sustain, we introduce the TAIR Model. Results indicate that the TAIR model provides hazing motivations as being the result of tradition, acceptance, initiation, or ritual and that victims of hazing often sustain physical, psychological, and sexual harm. Furthermore, many “hazing acts” are really crimes that happen to be perpetrated by members of sports teams rather than a sports hazing event. The impact of this analysis suggests that due to media portrayals of hazing, the ways in which we think and speak about hazing, as well as the subsequent “solutions”, are counterproductive and distort our understandings of the causes of “hazing”.
... For educational institutions, the risks include athlete attrition, abusive team climates, loss of human and performance potential, negative publicity, and, in the most extreme cases, student death. [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] Further, harassment literature has shown abusive behavior can interfere with social relationships and team cohesion, create an emotional and psychological disruption, and interfere with physical and technical improvement. [12][13][14][15] Our study is on the surface, a detailing of how situations unfold in local sports contexts. ...
According to Allan and Madden, for over half of our youth entering high school, the hazing process can start as young as 12. Upon entry to university, students are commonly exposed to hazing events during Frosh Week, as they pledge to join a fraternity or sorority, move in to their dormitories, and join campus clubs and groups, including marching band and varsity sport teams. As Hoover elucidated in his comprehensive study of NCAA athletes, 80% of that population took part in some form of hazing on their varsity team, of which only 20% were identified as being a “positive” experience. Furthermore, by the time athletes enter university, it is conceivable that up until that point, they will have been involved in no less than five hazing ceremonies. This qualitative study introduced adventure-based alternative orientations that included activities such as rock climbing and canoe tripping to men's and women's collegiate varsity athletic teams. These teams had previously been identified as using traditional hazing ceremonies involving, for example, sexualized games and alcohol. Themes that emerged from the interviews with athletes and coaches focused on the transformative effects of the alternative orientations, facilitating a greater sense of cohesion, diminishing team hierarchies, and shifting power relations, effectively democratizing the event and humanizing first year athletes. Participants also shared ways in which alternative orientations played a role in fostering deeper interpersonal relationships rooted in communication and shared identity which they described as facilitating team success.
... Sport is an effective and powerful tool to promote health and well-being for youth (Holt, 2008). Despite potential negative outcomes such as injuries (Khan et al., 2012) or hazing (Crow & Macintosh, 2009; Edelman, 2004; Rosner & Crow, 2002), most scholars agree that the positive outcomes surpass these negative effects, and have specifically highlighted the effectiveness of promoting physical activity (Alfano, Kleges, Murray, Beech, & McClananhan, 2002; Barber, Eccles, & Stone, 2001; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003; Larson, 2000; Mahoney, Larson, & Eccles, 2005; Peretti-Watel et al., 2003; Perkins, Jacobs, Barber, & Eccles, 2004). In addition, previous research indicates positive outcomes can also include: 1) positive youth development (Barber et al., 2001; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003; Larson, 2000; Mahoney et al., 2005; PerettiWatel et al., 2003), 2) learning skills to develop identity and emotion (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003), 3) increased academic achievement (Marsh & Kleitman, 2003), 4) increased levels of intrinsic motivation and concentration (Lowe Vandell, Shernoff, Pierce, Bolt, Dadisman, & Brown, 2005), 5) decreased likelihood of risky behavior such as smoking (AudrainMcGovern, Rodriquez, Wileyto, Schmitz, & Shields, 2006), and 6) decreased depression and suicidal behavior (Brown & Blanton, 2002; Sabo, Miller, Melnick, Farrell, & Barnes, 2005). ...
Organized youth sports programs (YSP) provide opportunities for participation in physical activity, and represent an important part of the broader public health agenda in the U.S. YSP not only provide physiological health benefits through active participation, but also promote social relationships within communities. In this study, we (1) investigated participants’ travel to access YSP located in neighborhoods historically delineated by an over/under-representation of socio-economic and/or racial diversity; and (2) examined the neighborhood demographics for those YSP participants who traveled the most/least to participate. Five years of demographic and GIS visualization data from participants in a publically-provisioned youth sport league network were analyzed. Significant differences were found between the travel distances of participants in different sports, and between the travel distances of participants from neighborhoods with different racial and/or socio-economic composition. This research expands understanding of the potential segregation effects of community-based YSP for various stakeholder groups.
Research question
The research considers the organisational socialisation process for volunteers in associational golf clubs.
Research methods
Constructivist grounded theory method was used, with qualitative data collected through 28 semi-structured interviews with volunteers at English associational golf clubs.
Results and Findings
The article develops a model for the organisational socialisation of golf club volunteers. The model highlights an extended period of organisational socialisation, which locates assimilation during club membership before volunteering begins. This prior period of assimilation allows individuals to acquire organisational knowledge and make informed decisions about whether to volunteer. It also shapes their actions as volunteers and the meanings they derive from volunteering. Our findings emphasise the importance of participation among members as a precursor to volunteering. They also highlight how, in the absence of orientation support from the club, movement through the socialisation process depends on individuals’ biographical assets.
Implications
The model should help golf clubs, and potentially other voluntary sports clubs, manage their organisational socialisation process to develop established members, improve volunteer recruitment and produce long-term volunteers. Improved management of this process could also enhance the diversity of both members and volunteers.
Sport is considered a positive, health enhancing lifestyle choice. However, there is considerable evidence that many athletes, particularly those at university, engage in harmful levels of alcohol use. Despite decades of research showing student athletes consume alcohol at high levels, there have been no substantial in-roads into reducing consumption. At present, there is a need to better understand the social, cultural, and personal factors that drive athletes to consume harmful levels of alcohol. This study aimed to address this gap in literature by investigating the group level dynamics which may be driving heavy alcohol use and jeopardising attempts to reduce drinking. Over the course of one academic year, male (n = 9) and female (n = 6) rugby union athletes were recruited to take part in semi-structured interviews. Three overarching themes were identified that best represented the research findings, these were 1) social hierarchy, where alcohol use was used to create and sustain a social hierarchy, 2) status, where alcohol use was used to gain a reputation, and 3) reciprocity, where experienced athletes felt novices needed to go through the same (often painful and degrading) experiences they had. This study suggests that past approaches to reduce alcohol use among student athletes have substantially over-simplified the relationship and have over-focussed on the psychological contributors to this complex phenomena.
In research, various reasons have been proposed to be able to understand the occurrence of sexual violence in sport. This article examines the relationships between conformity to the sport ethic norms and sexual violence among young athletes, according to sex and type of sport (individual and team). Athletes (N=1140) from Quebec, Canada aged 13 to 18 years responded to an online questionnaire, which included two validated tools: a measure of conformity to the sport ethic norms (i.e. striving for distinction, self-sacrifice and refusing to accept limits) and a measure of experiences of sexual violence (i.e. by teammates and coaches). Relationships between variables were examined using logistic regression analysis. The results show that increasing conformity to the striving for distinction norm contributes to an increase in the probability of being victim of sexual violence from teammates. Conformity to this norm is also associated with sexual violence by the coach, depending on the type of sport. Finally, increasing conformity to the norm of self-sacrifice increases the likelihood of experiencing sexual violence from the coach in individual sport. These results may lead to the establishment of collective actions to influence conformity to the sport ethic norms and may pave the way for other studies to examine the factors influencing sexual violence, since the phenomenon is multifactorial and little of the variance is explain by sport ethic.
Bu yazıda, yeni gelen sporcuların takıma dâhil edilmesinde kullanılan kabul sınaması ritüellerinin erkek eş-toplumsal spor ortamında nasıl bir işleyişi olduğu incelenmiştir. Takım sporlarının incelendiği çalışmada, kabul sınaması, eş-toplumsallık ve erkeklik literatürünün değerlendirilmesi ve kavramsal çerçevenin tartışılması amaçlanmıştır. Bu çerçevede, eş-toplumsal ortamda takım arkadaşlarının arasındaki eril şiddet kültürünün kabul sınaması yoluyla nasıl gerçekleştiği konusu ortaya koyulacak ve bu sayede, iktidar, güç, statü, hiyerarşi, performans/sonuç odaklılık gibi eşitsizliği yaratan dinamikler aracılığıyla meydana gelen kabul sınaması döngüsü açıklanacaktır. Böylece, erkeklerin bulundukları hiyerarşik pozisyonlara göre birbirlerini nasıl yönlendirdikleri ve kontrol ettikleri anlaşılabilir olacaktır. Erkekler arası ilişki incelenirken aynı zamanda hegemonik erkekliğe bağlılığın ve spor ortamının eş-toplumsal doğasının bir takıma dahil olurken kabul sınaması gibi bir ritüelin uygulanmasına nasıl zemin hazırladığının tartışıldığı metinde, böylesi bir ortamda uygulanan kabul sınamasının eril spor kültürünün inşasındaki hızlandırıcı etkisi ele alınmıştır.
Hazing rituals in sport commonly involve coercive sexual acts. However, sexually violent hazing is rarely taken seriously by law enforcement and the criminal justice system in Canada. This paper examines sexually violent hazing in Canadian sport within the broader context of Canadian criminal sexual assault law. Using unobtrusive methods, the paper examines 12 cases of sexually violent hazing in Canadian sport to reveal what it can entail, who it commonly involves, and how sport leagues and the Canadian legal system often fail to adequately respond. Through an abductive analysis of this unobtrusive data, and drawing on theoretical work on masculinities and Erving Goffman’s concept of total institutions, the paper argues that sexually violent hazing occurs in sport not purely for the purposes of teambuilding, as it is commonly understood, but also to establish and reaffirm hierarchies of masculinity within the total institution of sport.
Building on the work of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s initiative to investigate the links between multiple forms of violence, this study used a “review-of-reviews” qualitative approach, a form of meta-analysis, to illuminate the intersections of sexual violence and hazing. Data were analyzed to uncover the risk and protective factors for hazing. These findings were then compared to the risk and protective factors for sexual violence to investigate any intersections, broadening the research about the intersecting forms of interpersonal violence. Eleven risk factors for hazing were identified, four of which intersect with previously identified risk factors for sexual violence. Nine protective factors for hazing were also identified. Identifying the interconnectedness of multiple forms of interpersonal violence can help college campus professionals strengthen prevention of all forms of violence simultaneously.
This chapter aims at covering simple sport manipulations that do not include dysfunctions, distortions, corruption and naked economic crime. Some of them are not directly linked to making money out of the manipulation or taking an economic advantage from it such as hazing, sabotage, goading, diving, playing against the rules, gamesmanship, refereeing biases, health-compromising practices, naked violence and hooliganism. Then comes those rule violations that enable the guilty ones to gain a competitive or economic advantage which eventually translates into pocketing money streams such as cheating to make money, technological manipulations in sport, tanking and sandbagging.
This study is an examination of the role of alcohol and its central place in university sport hazing rituals, whereby veteran team members require new team members to participate in a rite of passage to gain full access to team membership. Academic research studies as well as media reports on sport hazing reveal the significant extent to which alcohol is closely tied to dangerous behaviors in team initiation rituals. Data was collected using in-depth interviews with varsity athletes, coaches and athletic directors at Canadian universities. The participants discussed their experiences with hazing and provided their perspective on the role of alcohol in university team hazing activities. In our analysis, we applied a sociological lens informed by the work of Theodor Adorno, using a negative dialectic approach to highlight the gap between the actual undesirable impact of team hazing and alcohol in collegiate sport and the potential of collegiate sport to provide a positive contribution to the lives of student-athletes; this negative dialectic approach reveals the social and institutional structures in place which promote the harmful incorporation of alcohol (abuse) in sport, while revealing how change within those very structures can lead to positive change. These data can thus be used to inform programs and policies aimed at improving the transitional experiences of varsity student-athletes, subsequently enhancing the overall culture of university sport.
Abstract
Background: Military hazing is one of most serious problems affecting suicidal ideation (SI) among active duty personnel, but has received limited research attention. Studies on hazing and SI indicate anger and depressive symptoms as mediators for SI.
Methods: A sample of active duty military personnel (N=944) completed an offline survey, consisting of the revised Conflict Tactics Scale-2, Composite International Diagnostic Interview Screening Scale, and revised Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale. Frequency, bivariate correlation, and serial mediation analyses were conducted to assess the serial effects of military hazing on SI, mediated via anger and depressive symptoms.
Results: Military hazing, anger, depressive symptoms, and SI were positively related to each other in bivariate analyses. In serial mediation analyses, hazing was found to be a significant predictor of higher levels of anger, consequently triggering depressive symptoms, which, in turn, were associated with greater SI.
Limitations: Study limitations included the use of cross-sectional data with the use of retrospective self-report.
Conclusion: Hazing in the military is prevalent (17.6%), and SI is associated with serial effects of hazing, anger, and depressive symptoms with full mediation path. Findings suggest that policies that address reducing hazing and implementing clinical interventions specifically focused on symptoms of anger and depression may be important for decreasing SI in military personnel.
The objective of the current systematic review was to investigate the organisational factors that enable and motivate non-accidental violence towards athletes in the sport context. The authors identified and reviewed 43 qualitative studies investigating psychological, physical, and sexual abuse of athletes, and developed a framework of organisational factors (i.e., structural, social, and stress factors) related to non-accidental violence. Athletes were the key informants, yet some studies included athletes’ entourages. The authors independently coded the findings sections of the primary research, using the developed framework. Organisational tolerance for abuse and conformity to dominant values within sports were related to all three types of non-accidental violence. Power imbalance appeared as a relevant factor in both psychological and sexual abuse, while isolation was also relevant in sexual abuse. Believing that non-accidental violence had instrumental effects appeared related to both psychological and physical abuse, whereas a winner-take-all reward system was related to physical abuse. Based on this systematic review, the authors proposed an integrated perspective of the organisational factors driving non-accidental violence in sport and conclude by proposing a whole-of-system approach to the prevention and management of non-accidental violence. © 2019 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand
Tennis is an individual sport branch which is played today by millions of players at all levels of society and at all ages. The early origins of the game date back to the 12th century, while the origins of the modern games go back to the end of the 19th century.
On January 1, 1924, The International Lawn Tennis Federation (later the ITF) first adopted the Rules of Tennis. Although tennis was one of the original sports at Athens 1896, the first modern Olympics, it withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games. Sixty years later, tennis returned to the Olympic Games, and as a result of efforts and support from the ITF and IOC executives, tennis was finally reinstated as a medal sport at Seoul 1988.
Sponsorship can be defined as a relationship between the sponsor and sponsored person or organization, which occurs as an investment, in cash or in kind, in an activity, person, venue or event, in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with that entity. Sponsorship is a great opportunity for many companies, since it enables them to reach consumers through their hearts and minds, while allowing them a valuable opportunity to promote themselves and their brands. Since sport has proven its potential as a marketing vehicle by delivering revenue to many companies, sponsorship is currently one of the most utilized marketing strategies in sport. As a result of globalization and new media, sport is able to reach more people than ever.
The Formula One (Formula 1, F1) Championship is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is recognized by the international governing body of motorsports, the FIA (Federation Internationale de l'Automobile). The term "Formula" refers to the unique set of rules and regulations governing the cars. All participants' cars must comply with these rules and regulations. On the other hand, the "1" denotes the status of the championships as the highest level of motorsport race in the world. Today, the Formula One world championship is arguably the pinnacle of motor racing and the most prestigious annual motorsports event on a global scale. Nevertheless, the business of Formula One has faced and is still facing various challenges and shifts.
The aim of this study was to explore female student athletes' participation in initiation activities, specifically to examine whether activities in the United Kingdom followed trends similar to those reported elsewhere. A sample of 8 female athletes representing both traditional and nontraditional team and individual sports (M age = 20 yr 3 mo, SD = 1 yr 3 mo) who met inclusion criteria of having taken part in an initiation ceremony consented to participate in a semistructured interview. Thematic content analysis resulted in the emergence of 6 higher order themes represented by 2 general dimensions: the initiation event and initiation outcomes. Findings indicated that female student athletes' initiation activities encompassed discrete stages as they moved from team newcomers to accepted team members. Of particular concern is the direct and indirect role of alcohol in these events and the health and behavioral risks.
Research on hazing in higher education has primarily focused on Greek-letter organizations and athletes, with little research beyond these two subsets of college students. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the attitudes of students from the general student population at a Canadian university with regard to hazing and identify how students justify and legitimate hazing activities. The theories of groupthink and cognitive dissonance are used to interpret the results which are presented in three themes: (a) It isn’t hazing or it doesn’t count as hazing, (b) It is hazing, but it’s okay, and (c) It happens, just not to me.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of an interactive, educational workshop on hazing knowledge, intentions to haze and intentions to prevent hazing. Components of the workshop included discussion on hazing definitions, prevalence, causes, consequences, and prevention. Nineteen sport club officers at a midsize university served as the intervention group and a convenience sample of 44 sport club student-athletes served as a control group. Hazing knowledge increased among workshop attendees and workshop attendees had greater hazing knowledge before and after the intervention in comparison with the control group who received no intervention. However, intentions to haze and the intentions to prevent hazing did not differ among groups. The intervention group increased their knowledge of where to report hazing acts and attitudes toward alternative activities to hazing. Recommendations for future research and hazing interventions for administrators are provided.
Despite the well-recognised benefits of sport, there are also negative influences on athlete health, well-being and integrity caused by non-accidental violence through harassment and abuse. All athletes have a right to engage in 'safe sport', defined as an athletic environment that is respectful, equitable and free from all forms of non-accidental violence to athletes. Yet, these issues represent a blind spot for many sport organisations through fear of reputational damage, ignorance, silence or collusion. This Consensus Statement extends the 2007 IOC Consensus Statement on Sexual Harassment and Abuse in Sport, presenting additional evidence of several other types of harassment and abuse-psychological, physical and neglect. All ages and types of athletes are susceptible to these problems but science confirms that elite, disabled, child and lesbian/gay/bisexual/trans-sexual (LGBT) athletes are at highest risk, that psychological abuse is at the core of all other forms and that athletes can also be perpetrators. Harassment and abuse arise from prejudices expressed through power differences. Perpetrators use a range of interpersonal mechanisms including contact, non-contact/verbal, cyber-based, negligence, bullying and hazing. Attention is paid to the particular risks facing child athletes, athletes with a disability and LGBT athletes. Impacts on the individual athlete and the organisation are discussed. Sport stakeholders are encouraged to consider the wider social parameters of these issues, including cultures of secrecy and deference that too often facilitate abuse, rather than focusing simply on psychopathological causes. The promotion of safe sport is an urgent task and part of the broader international imperative for good governance in sport. A systematic multiagency approach to prevention is most effective, involving athletes, entourage members, sport managers, medical and therapeutic practitioners, educators and criminal justice agencies. Structural and cultural remedies, as well as practical recommendations, are suggested for sport organisations, athletes, sports medicine and allied disciplines, sport scientists and researchers. The successful prevention and eradication of abuse and harassment against athletes rests on the effectiveness of leadership by the major international and national sport organisations.
In spite of the well-documented health and developmental benefits of sport participation for young people, negative outcomes such as injuries too often characterize children’s and adolescent sport. To-date, far less attention has been devoted to psychological as compared with physical injuries and yet the media are infused with accounts of maltreatment from coaches, parents, and teammates. The purpose of this chapter is to review the research on psychological harm experienced by young athletes in the important relationships within the sport context – namely, those with the coach(es), parent(s), and teammates. Using an athlete-centered perspective, research on harmful parental behaviors, emotionally abusive coaching behaviors, as well as hazing and bullying, will be reviewed with a focus on the psychological injuries caused for the young athlete. Recommendations are made for further research and applied interventions that focus on the cognitive and affective elements of empathy-building.
Hazing is any degrading or abusive behavior required to be socially accepted on a sports team. Theoretically, hazing is a symptom of the hierarchy and social dominance of the sport environment. The current study examined the influence of competitive level, gender, athletic identity, sport type, and team norms on participating in mild hazing, severe hazing, and positive initiations. High school (n = 126) and college athletes (n = 161) from a variety of sports completed an online survey. Approximately 50% of the sample participated in either a mild and/or severe hazing act. Three logistic regression analyses indicated that greater team norms and being a college student increased the odds of experiencing a mild hazing, severe hazing, or a positive initiation ritual. Sport psychology consultants and coaches need to proactively work to change degrading norms of hazing to joyful norms emphasizing respect and unity.
Hazing or inappropriate initiation activities are a well-documented occurrence within university sport team societies. This study examined the occurrence of initiation activities in relation to team cohesion. One hundred and fifty-four participants completed the Group Environment Questionnaire and the Team Cohesion Questionnaire in relation to initiation activities at their institution. Results revealed that athletes were more aware of appropriate than inappropriate initiation activities, with males being aware of a higher occurrence of inappropriate activities than females. Results were also analysed by sport type, revealing that interactive team sport players recorded higher hazing scores than co-acting players. With regard to cohesion, no significant relationship was found between hazing and cohesion suggesting the notion that initiations enhance cohesion in sport is untrue.
Youth sport participants frequently report social reasons for their involvement in sport such as wanting to be part of a team or to be with friends, and social sources of positive and negative affect such as social recognition and parental pressure. Although a social view of sport has been recognized, youth sport motivation researchers have emphasized approaches centered on constructs related to physical ability and have not examined the social aspect of motivation in detail. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the contribution that social goal orientations and perceptions of belonging make toward understanding youth sport motivation. Specifically, female adolescents' (N = 100) social motivational orientations, achievement goal orientations, perceived belonging, perceived physical ability, and interest in sport were assessed. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that social motivational constructs added to the explanation of adolescents' interest in sport.
When does sport initiation become sexual abuse? What can sport organisations do to ensure that the practice of sport is a safe and high quality experience for all? In this paper research on the initiation practices used by the military and North American universities and sport teams is used to explore links between such practices and physical and sexual abuse. In particular, the dynamics of peer abuse, consent and expressions of masculinity are examined. We question whether there can be acceptable initiation practices in sport (Hoover, 1999) and challenge the place of these ‘macho rituals’ (Weinstein et at, 1995) in sport. We make particular use of an expanded version of the continuum of sexual abuse (Brackenridge, 1997b) and of the sport imperatives identified by Kirby, Greaves and Hankivsky (2000). The paper concludes with recommendations for best practices in athlete-centred sport.
A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.
To examine university students' attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs related to hazing.
A random and representative sample of students completed a web-based survey regarding team-building and initiation behaviors (N=736).
Thirty-six percent of the respondents participated in hazing. Greeks, males, varsity athletes, leaders, and upperclassmen were more likely to engage in hazing. Students who engaged in hazing were more likely to engage in positive team-building activities.
Hazing is occurring on campus, although not always recognized as such by students. Various factors that would enable someone to stop a hazing situation are addressed.
Maintains that operational measures of cohesion based on attraction underrepresent the concept because goals and objectives relating to performance are also important in the study of cohesion. Measures based on attraction fail to explain cohesion in situations characterized by negative affect. Better ways to study cohesion might include the direct observation of group behavior (e.g., the number of passes exchanged between teammates as related to friendship choices) or the use of statistics of change and commonality. The linear structure of a conceptual model of cohesion is discussed with regard to factors that are environmental, personal, leadership-based, and team-based. It is noted that cohesion has been found to influence productivity, conformity, individual satisfaction, behavior change, role clarity among group members, and group stability. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The thesis is presented that sport is an important societal phenomenon because of its ritualistic overtones. The significance
of sport as a ritual is based on the status of the athlete as exemplary role incumbent with power to mediate between the individuals
who comprise the audience and the moral order of the community. Theoretical support is derived by a synthesis of Durkheim's
social theory of religion and Goffman's theory of interaction ritual.
Sporting incidents singled out and applauded by the media as examples of heroic action are used to support the idea that athletes
are significant social figures because they are capable of representing important societal values, i.e., courage, gameness,
integrity, and poise.
The practice of hazing in college fraternities, sororities, high school clubs, professional societies, business, the military, and secret societies is investigated. Through the retelling of actual stories involving hazing, the book addresses the questions of why men and women haze and allow themselves to be hazed, how the problems of hazing can be solved, and what this pervasive tradition says about people and their efforts to bond themselves in groups. In particular, the book focuses on an investigation of events leading up to the death of one hazing victim (Chuck Stenzel), who attended Alfred University in New York State, and how his mother (Eileen Stevens) became America's leading anti-hazing advocate. Appended information includes a selective chronology of college hazing incidents and related miscellanea, a glossary, a reference list of news clippings, an appendix, and an index. (GLR)
"May, 2003." Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of New Mexico, Division of Physical Performance and Development, 2003. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 144-154). Photocopy.
This Article argues that, to be effective, hazing law needs to impose both a criminal and civil duty on school personnel to act affirmatively. Part I of this article discusses in detail the problem of high school hazing. Part II discusses how American law addresses (or fails to address) hazing. Part III discusses shortcomings in moral reasoning that underlie current anti-hazing law. Part IV explores legal alternatives to address hazing. Part V concludes that the best way to address hazing is for Congress, under its spending power, to withhold education funds from individual states unless they: 1) impose both a criminal and civil duty on school personnel to act affirmatively against hazing, 2) impose penalties on school personnel that violate these duties, and 3) bar the affirmative defenses of "assumption of risk" and "sovereign immunity" where these duties are violated.
Hazing in view: College students at risk
- E Allen
- M Madden
Allen, E., & Madden, M. (2008). Hazing in view: College students at risk. Retrieved March 13, 2008
from http://www.hazingstudy.org/publications/hazing_in_view_web.pdf
Behavior in organizations
- R A Baron
- J Greenberg
Baron, R.A., & Greenberg, J. (1990). Behavior in organizations. Boston, Mass: Allyn and Bacon.
Cohesiveness in sport groups: Interpretations and considerations Tallmadge football player guilty of rape, hazing Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches
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Carron, A. (1982). Cohesiveness in sport groups: Interpretations and considerations. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4(2), 123Á138. Chancellor, C. (2008). Tallmadge football player guilty of rape, hazing. Retrieved March 19, 2008 from http://www.ohio.com/news/16807036.html?page0all&c0y Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
The prevalence and prevention of hazing in sport. Pennsylvania Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance NCAA study of substance use among college studentÁathletes
- B Crow
Crow, B. (2008). The prevalence and prevention of hazing in sport. Pennsylvania Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance, 78(2), 33. DeHass, D. (2006). NCAA study of substance use among college studentÁathletes. Indianapolis: National Collegiate Athletic Association.
Rookies face hazy days of spring/mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd020080303&content_id02401889&vkey0spt2008 news&fext0 Cognitive dissonance in athletic hazing: The roles of commitment and athletic identity
- A Footer
- S Hinkle
Footer, A. (2008). Rookies face hazy days of spring. March 3. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd020080303&content_id02401889&vkey0spt2008 news&fext0.jsp&c_id0mlb Hazing (2008). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved November 23, 2008 from http:// www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hazing Hinkle, S. (2005). Cognitive dissonance in athletic hazing: The roles of commitment and athletic identity. PhD Dissertation, retrieved from ProQuest (document ID 1068219371).
A search for a theoretical understanding of hazing practices in sport Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing
- M Holman
Holman, M. (2004). A search for a theoretical understanding of hazing practices in sport. In J. Johnson, & M. Holman (Eds.), Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 50Á60).
Initiation rites and athletics: A national survey of NCAA sports teams
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- N Pollard
Hoover, N., & Pollard, N. (1999). Initiation rites and athletics: A national survey of NCAA sports teams.
Alfred University and Reidman Insurance Co., Inc.
Initiation. (2008). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved November 23, 2008 from http://
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/initiation
Running the gauntlet in sport: An examination of initiation/hazing and sexual abuse Sumo hazing allegations rock Japan A comprehensive approach to hazing prevention in higher education settings
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- G K L Wintrup
Kirby, S., & Wintrup, G. (2002). Running the gauntlet in sport: An examination of initiation/hazing and sexual abuse. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 8(22), 49Á68. Lah, K. (2008). Sumo hazing allegations rock Japan. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http:// www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/08/japan.sumo/index.html Langford, L. (2008). A comprehensive approach to hazing prevention in higher education settings. Newton, MA: US Department of Education's Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention.
Hazing not only wrong but expensive. NCAA News Hazing in NCAA Division I women's athletics: An exploratory analysis
- S Lipkins
Lipkins, S. (2006b). Hazing not only wrong but expensive. NCAA News, January 30. Retrieved November 3, 2008 from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?ContentID06642 McGlone, C. (2005). Hazing in NCAA Division I women's athletics: An exploratory analysis. PhD Dissertation, retrieved from ProQuest (document ID 920925091).
Wrongs of passage: fraternities, sororities, hazing, and binge drinking
- H Nuwer
Nuwer, H. (1999). Wrongs of passage: fraternities, sororities, hazing, and binge drinking. Bloomington,
IN: Indiana University Press.
High school hazing: When rites become wrongs
- H Nuwer
Nuwer, H. (2000). High school hazing: When rites become wrongs. Danbury, CT: Franklin Watts/
Scholastic.
How sportswriters contribute to a hazing culture in athletics Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing
- H Nuwer
Nuwer, H. (2004). How sportswriters contribute to a hazing culture in athletics. In J. Johnson, & M. Holman (Eds.), Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 118Á131).
Where does blame for the Wilson High School baseball hazing mess start?
- H Nuwer
Nuwer, H. (2008). Where does blame for the Wilson High School baseball hazing mess start? Retrieved
November 22, 2008 from http://www.stophazing.org/nuwer/may08column.htm
Ex-East high football player guilty in hazing incident. The Deseret Morning News Reality TV sends mixed message about hazing Crossing the line: Violence and sexual assault in Canada's national sport
- P Raevy
Raevy, P. (2008). Ex-East high football player guilty in hazing incident. The Deseret Morning News, March 1. Retrieved March 8, 2008 from http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143, 695257857,00.html Reality TV (2008). Reality TV sends mixed message about hazing. March 16. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http://kennebecjournal.mainetoday.com/view/columns/4869183.html Robinson, L. (1998). Crossing the line: Violence and sexual assault in Canada's national sport. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
Hazing Á a story Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 1Á18)
- L Robinson
Robinson, L. (2004). Hazing Á a story. In J. Johnson, & M. Holman (Eds.), Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 1Á18). Toronto: Canadian Scholar's Press.
Institutional liability for hazing in interscholastic sports
- S Rosner
- B Crow
Rosner, S., & Crow, B. (2002). Institutional liability for hazing in interscholastic sports. Houston Law
Review, 39(2), 276Á300.
Hazing in Portugal is perfectly normalhazing-in-portugal-is-totally-normal Foundations of sport and exercise psychology Sport-Related hazing: An inquiry into male and female involvement The NFL's hazing dilemma
- L Weimer
- R S Weinberg
- D K Gould
- J Bryshun
- Canada
- Zeigler
- C Jr
Weimer, L. (2007). Hazing in Portugal is perfectly normal. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http:// leasa.blogspot.com/2007/10/hazing-in-portugal-is-totally-normal.html Weinberg, R.S., & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed). Champaign IL: Human Kinetics. What is Hazing (n.d.). MASH, Inc. Retrieved September 14, 2008 from http://www.mashinc.org/ resources-whatis.html Young, K., & Bryshun, J. (1999). Sport-Related hazing: An inquiry into male and female involvement. Oxford University Press, Canada. Zeigler, Jr., C. (2006). The NFL's hazing dilemma. September 14. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http:// www.outsports.com/nfl/2006/0914hazing.htm Sport Hazing 451 Downloaded by [University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa] at 01:27 19 December 2014
Penn St. disciplines wrestlers after hazing incident
- G Armas
- R A Baron
- J Greenberg
Armas, G. (2007). Penn St. disciplines wrestlers after hazing incident. AP Newsbreak, May 26.
Baron, R.A., & Greenberg, J. (1990). Behavior in organizations. Boston, Mass: Allyn and Bacon.
Tallmadge football player guilty of rape, hazing
- C Chancellor
Chancellor, C. (2008). Tallmadge football player guilty of rape, hazing. Retrieved March 19, 2008 from
http://www.ohio.com/news/16807036.html?page0all&c0y
The prevalence and prevention of hazing in sport
- B Crow
Crow, B. (2008). The prevalence and prevention of hazing in sport. Pennsylvania Journal of Health,
Physical Education, Recreationand Dance, 78(2), 33.
NCAA study of substance use among college studentÁathletes. Indianapolis: National Collegiate Athletic Association
- D Dehass
DeHass, D. (2006). NCAA study of substance use among college studentÁathletes. Indianapolis: National
Collegiate Athletic Association.
Rookies face hazy days of spring
- A Footer
Footer, A. (2008). Rookies face hazy days of spring. March 3. Retrieved March 17, 2008
from http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd020080303&content_id02401889&vkey0spt2008
news&fext0.jsp&c_id0mlb
Cognitive dissonance in athletic hazing: The roles of commitment and athletic identity . PhD Dissertation, retrieved from ProQuest (document ID 1068219371)
- S Hinkle
Hinkle, S. (2005). Cognitive dissonance in athletic hazing: The roles of commitment and athletic identity.
PhD Dissertation, retrieved from ProQuest (document ID 1068219371).
Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 118Á131)
- H Nuwer
Nuwer, H. (2004). How sportswriters contribute to a hazing culture in athletics. In J. Johnson, & M.
Holman (Eds.), Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 118Á131).
Toronto: Canadian Scholar's Press.
Sumo hazing allegations rock Japan
- K Lah
Lah, K. (2008). Sumo hazing allegations rock Japan. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http://
www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/08/japan.sumo/index.html
US Department of Education's Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention
- L Langford
Langford, L. (2008). A comprehensive approach to hazing prevention in higher education settings.
Newton, MA: US Department of Education's Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug
Abuse and Violence Prevention.
Hazing not only wrong but expensive . NCAA News
- S Lipkins
Lipkins, S. (2006b). Hazing not only wrong but expensive. NCAA News, January 30. Retrieved
November 3, 2008 from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?ContentID06642
Hazing in NCAA Division I women's athletics: An exploratory analysis . PhD Dissertation, retrieved from ProQuest (document ID 920925091)
- C Mcglone
McGlone, C. (2005). Hazing in NCAA Division I women's athletics: An exploratory analysis. PhD
Dissertation, retrieved from ProQuest (document ID 920925091).
Hazing definition and punishment (Section 14Á35)
- Hazing North Carolina
- Law
North Carolina Hazing Law (2007). Hazing definition and punishment (Section 14Á35). Retrieved
November 23, 2008 from http://www.stophazing.org/nc_law.html
Ex-East high football player guilty in hazing incident . The Deseret Morning News
- P Raevy
Raevy, P. (2008). Ex-East high football player guilty in hazing incident. The Deseret Morning
News, March 1. Retrieved March 8, 2008 from http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,
695257857,00.html
Reality TV (2008). Reality TV sends mixed message about hazing. March 16. Retrieved March 17, 2008
from http://kennebecjournal.mainetoday.com/view/columns/4869183.html
Crossing the line: Violence and sexual assault in Canada's national sport
- L Robinson
Robinson, L. (1998). Crossing the line: Violence and sexual assault in Canada's national sport. Toronto:
McClelland & Stewart.
Making the team: inside the world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 1Á18)
- L Robinson
Robinson, L. (2004). Hazing Á a story. In J. Johnson, & M. Holman (Eds.), Making the team: inside the
world of sport initiations and hazing (pp. 1Á18). Toronto: Canadian Scholar's Press.
Hazing in Portugal is perfectly normal
- L Weimer
Weimer, L. (2007). Hazing in Portugal is perfectly normal. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http://
leasa.blogspot.com/2007/10/hazing-in-portugal-is-totally-normal.html
Foundations of sport and exercise psychology
- R S Weinberg
- D Gould
Weinberg, R.S., & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed). Champaign
IL: Human Kinetics.
What is Hazing (n.d.). MASH, Inc. Retrieved September 14, 2008 from http://www.mashinc.org/
resources-whatis.html
Sport-Related hazing: An inquiry into male and female involvement
- K Young
- J Bryshun
Young, K., & Bryshun, J. (1999). Sport-Related hazing: An inquiry into male and female involvement.
Oxford University Press, Canada.
The NFL's hazing dilemma
- Jr C Zeigler
Zeigler, Jr., C. (2006). The NFL's hazing dilemma. September 14. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from http://
www.outsports.com/nfl/2006/0914hazing.htm
Penn St. disciplines wrestlers after hazing incident
- G Armas
Hazing death highlights horrors of army conscription
- G Stolyarova
Purple hazing is a rite for Rams
- J Thomas
Reality TV sends mixed message about hazing
- T V Reality