No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
An Empirical Investigation of Music and Gambling Behaviour
Abstract
There has been an increasing amount of research that has examined the structural and situational characteristics of gambling behaviour. However, there is a lack of research examining the role of music and gambling. This study investigated the effects of background music on virtual roulette gaming behaviour under laboratory conditions. There was one independent variable of music with three conditions. The three conditions were (i) no music, (ii) slow tempo music, and (iii) fast music. A total of 60 participants were allocated to one of the three conditions. Ten games of roulette were played with speed of betting, amount spent across high, medium and low-level risk bets and total amount spent recorded. The winner with the most money at the end of the session was rewarded with a non-monetary prize. Results indicated that speed of betting was influenced by musical tempo with faster betting occurring while listening to higher tempo music. There was no relationship between musical tempo and either the size of the bet or the overall amount spent. The results provide valuable insight into how background music can be manipulated to increase betting speed. The implications of these findings for problem gambling management and commercial benefits are discussed.
... In non-gaming contexts, music affects emotional responses: through psychological arousal (linked to decreasing inhibitions) but also through relaxation (which reduces anxiety and can also focus attention) [4,14,31,42,53]. While there are many mediating factors (i.e., musical attributes and individual differences), the connection of music to individuals' emotional state yields effects on individuals' behaviour-sometimes this includes risk taking (cf. ...
... For example music affects our behaviour in restaurants in terms of the amount of money we spend and how much time we spend there [8,35]. Music can also affect gambling behaviour, with the presence of music, and particularly faster music effecting faster bets-however it did not impact the amount of money that was bet [14,52]. Meta-analyses have concluded that music can have a small negative impact on concentration and memory (e.g., disturbing reading), but overall has positive effects on emotional responses and exercise performance [28,42]. ...
... This also contrasts Brodsky's report that tempo increased driving speed and errors in a driving simulator [7]. Further, it is an interesting counterpoint to studies on risk behaviour in reallife gambling scenarios, where both the presence and speed of Paper Session 3: Dissecting the Player Experience CHI PLAY'19, October 22-25, 2019, Barcelona, Spain music significantly increased the pace of betting, but not the "risk per spin", i.e., how much money was bet [14,52]. ...
Music affects our emotions and behaviour in real life, yet despite its prevalence in games, we have a limited understanding of its potential as a tool to explicitly influence player experience and behaviour in games. In this work, we investigate whether we can affect players' risk-taking behaviour through the presence and attributes of background music. We built a game that operationalizes risk behaviour by repeatedly giving players the choice between a safe but less rewarding course, and a risky but potentially more rewarding course. In a mixed-design user study (N=60), we explored the impact of music presence, tempo, and affective inflection on players' in-game risk behaviour and overall player experience. We found an effect of music presence on risk behaviour in the first playthrough, i.e., in the absence of other prior knowledge about the game. Further, music affect and tempo affected player immersion, as well as experienced mastery and challenge. Based on these findings, we discuss implications for game design and future research directions.
... The second domain is gambling behavior. A number of studies show that music tempo influences speed of betting in virtual roulette (Dixon et al. 2007;Spewyn et al. 2010) but not the amount of money gambled or risk taken. In a card betting game, fasttempo music increases speed of betting and slow-tempo music prolongs gambling behavior, leading to more bets placed (Mentzoni et al. 2014). ...
... This result is in contrast with studies showing fasttempo music increases risk-taking behavior in driving (Brodsky 2002). Likewise, it seems to contradict findings showing musical tempo has no effect on risky gambling or amount of money gambled in virtual roulette (Bramley et al. 2016;Dixon et al. 2007). ...
... Second, in the present study response time was not measured. The effect of musical tempo on gambling has led to contrasting results, with some studies finding an effect (Dixon et al. 2007;Mentzoni et al. 2014;Spewyn et al. 2010) and others finding none (Bramley et al. 2016). ...
Decision-making processes can be influenced by situational factors, affecting risk taking. Background music, which is present in many everyday situations, has been shown to affect cognitive processes by influencing arousal and mood. The aim of the present study was to examine the possible effect of high- and low-arousal music on decision making in the context of financial investments, focusing on two tasks: a lottery-type task and a portfolio-diversification task. Participants were asked to make investment decisions while either high-tempo music, low-tempo music, or no music was played in the background. On the lottery-type task, low-tempo music led to more risky decisions (i.e., more investment in risky assets) than high-tempo or no music. On the portfolio-diversification task, low-tempo music led to more risky decisions (i.e., less diversification) than high-tempo music. Moreover, on both tasks, participants who subjectively perceived the music as helpful made riskier decisions. Results are discussed with regard to gender differences and previous findings.
... The second domain is gambling behavior. A number of studies show that music tempo influences speed of betting in virtual roulette (Dixon et al. 2007;Spewyn et al. 2010) but not the amount of money gambled or risk taken. In a card betting game, fast-tempo music increases speed of betting and slow-tempo music prolongs gambling behavior, leading to more bets placed (Mentzoni et al. 2014). ...
... This result is in contrast with studies showing fast-tempo music increases risk-taking behavior in driving (Brodsky 2002). Likewise, it seems to contradict findings showing musical tempo has no effect on risky gambling or amount of money gambled in virtual roulette (Bramley et al. 2016;Dixon et al. 2007). These findings suggest that the task used in the present study does not involve the same processes as those implicated in driving and virtual roulette. ...
... Second, in the present study response time was not measured. The effect of musical tempo on gambling has led to contrasting results, with some studies finding an effect (Dixon et al. 2007;Mentzoni et al. 2014;Spewyn et al. 2010) and others finding none (Bramley et al. 2016). Examining the effect of musical tempo on speed of decision making regarding investments could clarify whether music influences such processes. ...
... The gambling industry uses an array of marketing strategies to entice players to initiate and maintain gambling behaviour ). Many of these strategies are designed to appeal to players' cognitive and emotional demands and can be understood in terms of either situational or structural characteristics (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007). Situational characteristics refer to elements of the gambling environment that may influence gambling behaviour; including venue location, the number of venues in a given area, membership requirements or advertising (Cornish 1978;Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Griffiths 1999;Griffiths 2003; . ...
... Many of these strategies are designed to appeal to players' cognitive and emotional demands and can be understood in terms of either situational or structural characteristics (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007). Situational characteristics refer to elements of the gambling environment that may influence gambling behaviour; including venue location, the number of venues in a given area, membership requirements or advertising (Cornish 1978;Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Griffiths 1999;Griffiths 2003; . These features directly contribute to the acquisition or initiation of gambling behaviour (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Griffiths 2003). ...
... Situational characteristics refer to elements of the gambling environment that may influence gambling behaviour; including venue location, the number of venues in a given area, membership requirements or advertising (Cornish 1978;Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Griffiths 1999;Griffiths 2003; . These features directly contribute to the acquisition or initiation of gambling behaviour (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Griffiths 2003). Structural characteristics of EGMs are features created by manufacturers that are incorporated into the play experience itself (Griffiths 1999;Griffiths 2003;Griffiths et al. 2006;. ...
This is a report on a research project investigating Innovative Gambling Products in Australia commissioned by Gambling Research Australia. It is difficult to precisely define 'innovation' in the context of gambling products, because innovation is always bound to the present state of technological development. Technology has profoundly influenced the experience of play on Poker Machines, for instance, although the impact of the electronic revolution has taken place progressively over the past 40+ years. More recently, the automation of other traditional games; including casino table-games, bingo, race wagering and sports betting; is providing distinctly new gambling experiences to consumers. The effect of these contemporary innovations on player behaviour in comparison to their traditional counterparts is the primary focus of this current research project and report.
The project was devised to answer the principal research questions posed by Gambling Research Australia:
Q.1 What are the impacts on gamblers attitudes and behaviour that result from the newer presentations of traditional products?
Q.2 To what extent (if at all) do current changes in traditional products such as table games, bingo and wagering encourage riskier play?
... However, the use of survey tools as the only means for assessing problem gambling can sometimes produce inaccurate results due to threats to construct validity [26], [29]. Controlled studies have also been done in order to assess the impact of external factors on gambling behaviour such as alcohol consumption and music tempo [12], [14], [31], [48], with results showing positive correlations between alcohol consumption and gambling time, and music tempos and gambling intensity. However, the use of laboratory studies for analyzing gambling behaviour, may impose limitations on the generalizability of the obtained results, as these studies lack the realism of in situ behaviour. ...
... Despite the growing need for studies to help understand gambling behaviour, as well as problem gambling behaviour, research of actual gambling data is scarce [46]; particularly, research focused on EGM gambling data. While analysis done on Internet sport gambling sheds a light on the behaviour of on-line problem gamblers, it is not possible to generalize their results to EGM gamblers, a deficiency also found in controlled gambling studies [12], [14], [31], [48], due to the impact that EGM gambler proximity may have on EGM gambling behaviour. Another difference is the lack of anonymity for each gambler, which is an appealing characteristic of online gambling [27], as EGM gambling cannot be done remotely. ...
... than sessions in Cluster 1. Further, the higher intensity and short duration of sessions in Cluster 2 seemed to imply a lack of strategy in their gambling style. However, the low net loss and %loss reported in some of these sessions suggested that perhaps some gamblers in this group did have a strategy, which may have been characterized by quick decisions that assessed the degree of risk in a wager [12], [26], [31]. The results shown on Table 7 indicate that sessions in Cluster 3 have a much longer duration time than those in Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 (mean = 782.53mins.; ...
... Many of the technological enhancements used by the gambling industry are designed to entice and prolong game play by appealing to players cognitive and emotional demands . These features can be understood in terms of either situational or structural characteristics (Dixon et al. 2007). Situational characteristics are attributes that contribute to the acquisition or initiation of game play such as advertising or membership requirements, venue location, or the number of venues in a given area (Dixon et al. 2007;Griffiths 1999Griffiths , 2003Griffiths et al. 2006;Parke and Griffiths 2006). ...
... These features can be understood in terms of either situational or structural characteristics (Dixon et al. 2007). Situational characteristics are attributes that contribute to the acquisition or initiation of game play such as advertising or membership requirements, venue location, or the number of venues in a given area (Dixon et al. 2007;Griffiths 1999Griffiths , 2003Griffiths et al. 2006;Parke and Griffiths 2006). Structural characteristics are those designed and incorporated into the play experience by the manufacturers such as visual and auditory effects, payout probabilities, features to increase an illusion of control or perception of skill, event frequencies (e.g., wins and losses), time between wagers and outcomes, and the frequency of payouts or wins (Griffiths 1999(Griffiths , 2003Griffiths et al. 2006;Parke and Griffiths 2006). ...
... There has been far more focus on auditory features of gambling products compared to visual features. Many authors suggest that event-related sound effects and background noise in gambling environments entice and perpetuate gambling, as sounds make wins more memorable and salient (Dixon et al. 2007;Griffiths and Parke 2005;Parke and Griffiths 2006). Parke and Griffiths (2006) argue that auditory cues act as reinforcers, since machines often have a particular sound effect or music that plays when individuals experience a win. ...
Automated gambling products are now a common feature on many casino floors. Despite their increasing prevalence, little research has considered the impact of converting games traditionally free from technological enhancements to automated versions. This review seeks to illustrate how automation is likely to change the way people engage and experience traditional games based around five prominent modifications: visual and auditory enhancements; illusions of control; cognitive complexity; expedited play; and social customisation. Otherwise known as the “VICES” framework. The inclusion of rich graphics, event-dependent sound and game-play information such as statistics, history, betting options and strategic betting are likely to prolong and entice gambling while encouraging more intense betting. Changes to the social environment due to the asocial nature of automated products is also likely to significantly change the gambling experience. Given the increasing prevalence of these products in the marketplace, it is important to consider the implications of converting traditional products to automated form as technological enhancements have the potential to allow for faster, more intense betting. More research is needed to determine the full impact of automation on player behaviours in order to understand the potential risks associated with technological enhancements to traditional games.
... During gambling, individuals perform speed-related and monetary behaviours. A number of studies have found that music can influence indices of gambling behaviour (Bramley, Dibben, & Rowe, 2014;Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Mentzoni, Laberg, Brunborg, Molde, & Pallesen, 2014;Noseworthy & Finlay, 2009;Spenwyn, Barrett, & Griffiths, 2010). Noseworthy and Finlay (2009) found that fast tempo music led slot machine players to underestimate the time they had spent gambling. ...
... Mentzoni et al. (2014) found that slow tempo music led participants to place more bets and fast tempo music led to quicker reaction times during a simulated card game. Three studies have found that fast tempo music leads to quicker betting in laboratory virtual roulette (Bramley et al., 2014;Dixon et al., 2007;Spenwyn et al., 2010). There is a lack of direct evidence for effects of music on expenditure and risk taking in gambling contexts, which suggests that tempo does not exert an influence on those behaviours. ...
... However, the claim that background music's effects on speed-related gambling behaviours can be attributed to tempo is open to challenge. Studies that have investigated the influence of tempo on laboratory gambling behaviour employed different pieces of music for each condition; consequently, music genre, as well as other characteristics, is confounded with music tempo (Dixon et al., 2007;Mentzoni et al., 2014;Spenwyn et al., 2010). For example, Mentzoni et al. (2014, p. 104) used a "slow paced jazz music soundtrack" and a "fast paced popular melody". ...
A number of studies indicate that fast music influences performance in everyday activities including shopping and gambling, but the mechanisms through which this effect is realised are not well understood. This study investigates whether fast tempo music influences gambling via an effect on arousal using a laboratory virtual roulette task. One hundred and forty-four participants played virtual roulette whilst listening to fast tempo, slow tempo or no music. Music tempo alone did not influence betting speed, expenditure or risk-taking. Furthermore tempo did not influence participants’ physiological or subjective arousal levels, nor participants’ opinions of the musical stimuli in terms of liking, familiarity, fit or its ability to aid concentration. Our findings suggest that there are some circumstances under which the effect of music tempo does not operate and therefore provides an insight into the limits of music tempo as an explanation for music effects on behaviour. This study has implications for the way that musical characteristics are operationalised in future research into music’s effects on behaviour.
... Fast tempo leads to faster betting speeds in virtual roulette (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Spenwyn, Barrett, & Griffiths, 2010). Arousal is a psychological mechanism which has been proposed as a possible explanation for why music tempo BACKGROUND MUSIC AND GAMBLING influences behaviour (Berlyne, 1971). ...
... We examine whether tempo and genre influence betting speed and expenditure in virtual roulette. We aimed to replicate the finding that fast tempo leads in turn to quicker betting (Dixon et al., 2007;Spenwyn et al., 2010), and establish whether subjective arousal mediated tempo's effects on gambling. Secondly, we predicted that popular music would better ''fit'' gambling, thereby increasing expenditure relative to classical music. ...
... This study showed that genre influences betting speed and has confirmed reported effects of tempo on betting speed (Dixon et al., 2007;Spenwyn et al., 2010). In addition, this study tested whether subjective arousal and ''fit'' were mechanisms underlying the effects of genre and tempo on betting speed. ...
Background music can influence everyday behaviour. We examined the influence of music tempo and genre on roulette. Fast tempo and popular music resulted in quicker betting with no effect on expenditure. Subjective arousal did not mediate music tempo's effects. Alternative mechanisms underlying music's influence on gambling and directions for future research are considered.
Read More: http://jgi.camh.net/doi/abs/10.4309/jgi.2014.29.17
... In recent years, research on structural mechanisms and significant events in gambling has received increased attention, showing how factors such as note acceptors (Blaszczynski, Sharpe & Walker, 2001;Blaszczynski, Sharpe, Walker, Shannon & Coughlan, 2005), game tempo (Chóliz, 2010;Linnet, Rømer Thomsen, Møller & Callesen, 2010;Mentzoni, Laberg, Brunborg, Molde & Pallesen, 2012), music (Dixon, Trigg & Griffiths, 2007;Spenwyn, Barrett & Griffiths, 2010) and sequential occurrence of wins (Kassinove & Schare, 2001;Mentzoni, Laberg, Brunborg, Molde & Griffiths, 2012;Weatherly, Sauter & King, 2004) affect within-session gambling behavior and cognitions. ...
... In such environments, music lead to decreased at-risk intentions. In an experiment investigating roulette players in a laboratory setting, it was found that faster betting occurred while high-tempo music was played, whereas bet size and overall amount spent was not influenced (Dixon et al., 2007). A more recent study, also investigating roulette players, reported similar results: Increased music tempo lead to faster betting, but not increased risk-taking (Spenwyn et al., 2010). ...
... Our hypothesis that high-tempo music would be associated with faster reaction times when placing the bets was also supported. This corroborates previous findings (Dixon et al., 2007;Spenwyn et al., 2010), which in sum strongly suggest that type of music exerts an influence on certain aspects of gambling behavior. A novel aspect of our study was the inclusion of a measure of participants' game evaluation. ...
Background and aims:
A long existing notion is that the presence of music might affect gambling behavior. In spite of this, little empirical research on the subject exists. The main aim of the present study was to corroborate and elaborate on the existing findings concerning gambling and music through a laboratory based experiment.
Methods:
A nonclinical sample of 101 undergraduate students (72 females, 29 males) played a computerized gambling task in which either a high-tempo or a low-tempo musical soundtrack was present. Persistence in gambling, reaction time and evaluation of the game comprised the outcome variables.
Results:
Low-tempo music was associated with increased gambling persistence in terms of overall number of bets placed, whereas high-tempo music was associated with intensified gambling in terms of faster reaction time per placed bet. Type of soundtrack was not associated with game evaluation.
Discussion:
Our findings add to the existing knowledge by showing that both low-tempo and high-tempo music can be associated with more risky gambling behavior, the former by increasing gambling persistence and the latter by reducing reaction time for bets placed.
Conclusions:
In sum, the existing studies provide compelling evidence that music can affect various aspects of gambling behavior. These findings may have clinical implications by educating gamblers on the effects of structural mechanisms in gambling on behavior.
... In short, music has the capability to increase confidence, modulate arousal and relaxation and help the player to disregard previous losses. To date, only one empirical study (Dixon et al. 2007) has investigated the role of music in gambling behaviour. Dixon and colleagues' study found that fast tempo music (i.e., fast music) significantly influenced participant's speeds of betting when gambling. ...
... The volume of the music remained the same for all conditions. As in previous experiments in the literature (e.g., Griffiths 1994; Dixon et al. 2007), data were recorded for the speed of bets (total time spent playing divided by total number of bets made), risk per spin (total amount of virtual money gambled divided by total number of spins), and overall financial outcome for each participant (total amount of virtual money left at the end of the experiment). Procedure Following ethical clearance participants were recruited by email and were asked to meet the first author outside of the laboratory. ...
... Risk per spin was excluded as a measure of gambling behaviour in this instance as no significant effect was found and so it failed to moderate gambling behaviour. The findings of this study corresponds with Dixon et al. (2007) who found the same when manipulating music tempo, but is contrary to Stark et al's (1982) finding that participants risked more when gambling under red light. However, the finding reported by Stark et al. was in comparison to blue light, whereas the present study was in comparison to white light. ...
Empirical research examining the situational characteristics of gambling and their effect on gambling behaviour is limited
but growing. This experimental pilot investigation reports the first ever empirical study into the combined effects of both
music and light on gambling behaviour. While playing an online version of roulette, 56 participants took part in one of four
experimental conditions (14 participants in each condition); (1) gambling with fast tempo music under normal (white) light,
(2) gambling with fast tempo music under red light, (3) gambling with slow tempo music under normal (white) light, and (4)
gambling with slow tempo music under red light. Risk (dollars spent) per spin and speed of bets were measured as indicators
of gambling behaviour. Significant main effects were found for speed of bets in relation to musical tempo, but not light.
No significant effects were found for risk per spin for either of the two independent variables. A significant interaction
between light and music for speed of bets was shown. Planned comparisons revealed that fast tempo music under red light resulted
in faster gambling. These findings are discussed along with the methodological limitations, and potential implications for
various stakeholders including the gambling industry and practitioners.
... Day et al., 2009), consumer behaviour (see Ding & Lin, 2012;Husain et al., 2002; for a review see: Turley & Milliman, 2000), risk-taking behaviour while driving (e.g. Brodsky & Slor, 2013), and gambling (Dixon et al., 2007;Halko & Kaustia, 2015;Spewyn et al., 2010). ...
... Those who listened to faster music drank more quickly than those who heard slower music. Dixon et al. (2007) investigated the effect of background music on decisions in a virtual roulette game under laboratory conditions. They found that those who listened to faster music bet more quickly than those who heard slower music or no music (see also Spewyn et al., 2010). ...
Music plays a significant role in human life. The literature suggests that background music can influence an individual’s decision-making process. Previous studies have shown that the tempo of music can affect people’s choices about whether to prefer the present or the future when buying goods. We focused on the influence of the tempo of music on monetary time preference which is the willingness to wait for receiving money in the present compared to receiving it in a later period. In the experiment we asked participants to complete a questionnaire that included time delay questions to measure time preferences while listening to background music. Those who listened to music with a fast tempo were more likely to favour the present than those who listened to slow music or none at all. We suggest that this difference arises from an increase in people’s cognitive load that leads to a status quo bias.
... Often, we need too make decisions while background music is playing. Varied studies demonstrated that music and song lyrics have the ability to influence people's behavior (e.g., Guéguen & Jacob, 2010;Morrison, Gan, Dubelaar, & Oppewal, 2011;North & Hargreaves, 2008;Park & Young, 1986), performance (e.g., Cassidy & MacDonald, 2007;Hallam, Price, & Katsarou, 2002; for review see: Schwartz, Ayres, & Douglas, 2017), decision making (e.g., Day, Lin, Huang, & Chuang, 2009), consumer behavior (see Ding & Lin, 2012;Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002; for a review see: Turley & Milliman, 2000), risk-taking behavior while driving (e.g., Brodsky & Slor, 2013), and gambling (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Spewyn, Barrett, & Griffiths, 2010). ...
... Conversely, slow music decelerated the pace, and led to greater sales. Dixon, Trigg, and Griffiths (2007) investigated the effect of background music on decisions in a virtual roulette game under laboratory condition. They found that listening to faster tempo music increased the speed of betting over the pace in conditions with slow-2 Visual stimuli have different effect on time preference depends on the content of the stimuli (Israel, Rosenboim, & Shavit, 2014). ...
Music plays a significant role in human life. Background music surrounds us in many places, in restaurants, shopping centers and even at work. The literature suggests that background music can influence an individual's decision-making process. In the current study, we asked participants to complete a questionnaire about their time preference while listing to background music. There were three different treatments (fast music, slow music, and no music), and our findings indicate that participants exposed to a faster tempo have a higher present preference than those exposed to slow music or none at all. Our analysis showed that although impulsiveness is related to time preference and was affected by the music, it was not a mediator between background music and time preference. We suggest that time preference changes due to cognitive processes and decision avoidance.
... Mentzoni, Laberg, Brunborg, Molde, and Pallesen (2014) found that slow-tempo music led participants to place more bets and fast-tempo music led to quicker reaction times during a simulated card game. Three studies have found that fast-tempo music leads to quicker betting in virtual roulette (Bramley, Dibben & Rowe, 2014;Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Spenwyn, Barrett, & Griffiths, 2010). Noseworthy and Finlay (2009) found that music, particularly slow-tempo, highvolume music, can provide cues from which slot machine players can more accurately reconstruct elapsed duration of play. ...
... The results of laboratory studies suggest that musical characteristics can influence betting speed (Bramley et al., 2014;Dixon et al., 2007;Spenwyn et al., 2010), reaction time (Mentzoni et al., 2014), and estimations of duration of play (Noseworthy & Finlay, 2009). However, responses to the statements in relation to both gambling operator-selected and self-selected music showed that, in general, gamblers do not believe that music influences their gambling behaviour (i.e., betting speed, the ability to judge the time spent gambling, expenditure, and duration of gambling sessions). ...
Background music is often present in gambling environments and has been found to influence gamblers’ behaviour. However, little is known about gamblers’ perception of environmental influences, including music, and whether gamblers believe that such influences can impact upon their gambling behaviour. An online questionnaire was administered to 136 gamblers to probe the perceived effects of gambling operator-selected and self-selected music on the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects of gambling. In general, few respondents believed that music influences aspects of gambling participation. However, the analysis indicated that some gamblers, particularly those classified as moderate-risk and problem gamblers, self-select music to accompany gambling, and analysis of free-text responses indicated that this was undertaken to match their musical preferences or out of habit. Some gamblers believed that self-selected music promoted positive moods and supported concentration. Furthermore, some poker players thought that music may serve unique functions such as helping them to mask outward emotions and filling time between games. This study demonstrates that self-selected music is sometimes purposefully used by gamblers to support the cognitive and emotional aspects of gambling. However, as few gamblers believed that music could influence the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects of gambling, this research reveals a disparity between subjective opinions and objective evidence, as gathered in published empirical laboratory experiments. This indicates the need to improve gamblers' awareness of the potential influence of background music on the gambling experience.
... Studies using the IGT also indicate better and slower decisions in control participants versus one particular patient population, pathological gamblers (Goudriaan et al. 2005). In previous studies, fast tempo music playing in the background during a gambling-based decision making task led to faster and higher (riskier) bets on the task (Brevers et al. 2015;Dixon et al. 2007). In addition, when participants have only 2 s to make a decision on the IGT, performance is significantly riskier than when there are 4 s to decide (Cella et al. 2007). ...
... Faster decisions have been described as more impulsive, and in turn, less advantageous in the long term (Moeller et al. 2001). Our results are consistent with those showing quicker and higher bets in the presence of faster music playing in the background during gambling tasks (Brevers et al. 2015;Dixon et al. 2007). In addition, these results support those showing decisions on the IGT are improved when decision making speed is slowed down (Brevers et al. 2015;Goudriaan et al. 2005;Schilt et al. 2009), and riskier when a time constraint is imposed (Cella et al. 2007). ...
This study examined the effects of speech rate on decision making across two age groups. Prior research has found that listening to fast speech can lead to subsequent rate changes on other tasks. The present study sought to examine if different speech rates (slow and fast) could alter decision making speed and performance accuracy in college students (ages 18–20) and preschool-aged children (ages 3–5). Participants listened to a recording (fast or slow) and then completed the Hungry Donkey Task to assess risky decision making. The results suggest that speech rate priming relates to response latencies and performance on a subsequent task. Participants in the slow condition had longer response times and made more advantageous decisions than those in the fast condition. College student participants’ performance was more accurate than the children’s performance following the slow prime, but there was no difference following the fast prime. These findings suggest that there is a shared timing mechanism across domains, and we may be able to capitalize on this to improve decision making.
... Features most commonly cited refer to auditory or visual features, event frequencies (e.g., wins and losses), payout probabilities, perceptions of skill requirements, the frequency of payouts, or the interval or period between the wager and outcome. Many of these features are designed to increase arousal or appeal and can often be configured to either facilitate excessive gambling or as a means to potentially reduce the harm associated with EGMs (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007;Griffiths et al., 2006). Based on this research and the structural characteristics of EGMs, a framework to assess the characteristics of automated products was developed referred to as the VICES framework (Armstrong & Rockloff, 2015). ...
... Visual displays and intricate graphics increase player engagement and can result in greater betting persistence (Ladouceur & Sévigny, 2002); while auditory features, particularly when paired with winning outcomes, increase arousal, anticipation and urgency resulting in the reinforcement of faster, more excessive gambling (Delfabbro, Flazon, & Ingram, 2005;Dixon et al., 2007;Griffiths & Parke, 2005;Spenwyn, Barrett, & Griffiths, 2010). Together, dynamic computerised graphics and event-dependant sound effects can give the impression that gambling is a lucrative and exciting experience, enticing people to gamble while stimulating gambling persistence (Griffiths & Parke, 2005;. ...
Technological innovation has increased electronic and mechanical automation to traditional games that replace or augment human croupiers, and also change how the games are enjoyed. Little is known about how these automated products may influence people’s gambling or entice new players to try these table and community games. Research regarding the characteristics of electronic gaming machines (EGMs) has provided insights into the potential consequences associated with technological enhancements. However, without knowing how these products differ to their traditional counterparts, it is difficult to begin to understand their implications on player expenditures and product safety. An Australian national environmental scan of these electronically and mechanically enhanced table-game and community-game products was conducted to identify the characteristics of these automated products Australiawide. Based on EGM research (Armstrong & Rockloff, 2015), the “VICES” framework was identified as an appropriate organising principle for surveying the features of automated products. The VICES acronym specifies 5 criteria by which automated products might differ from traditional table-games: (v)isual and auditory enhancements, (i)llusion of control, (c)ognitive complexity, (e)xpedited play, and (s)ocial customisation. The findings suggest that automation provides the potential for the provision of products that intensify gambling engagement with the attendant potential for gambling-related harm. Further research, however, is needed to find if this potential harm is manifest in real-world gambling environments. © 2016, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. All rights reserved.
... The influence of music on online gambling behaviour has recently been the focus of a couple of empirical studies. The effect of background music tempo on gambling behaviour when playing online roulette has been investigated in two studies (Dixon et al. 2007;Spenwyn et al. 2010). The risk of the bet (i.e. the amount of money spent) and the speed at which bets were placed were recorded for no music, slow music and fast tempo music (Dixon et al. 2007). ...
... The effect of background music tempo on gambling behaviour when playing online roulette has been investigated in two studies (Dixon et al. 2007;Spenwyn et al. 2010). The risk of the bet (i.e. the amount of money spent) and the speed at which bets were placed were recorded for no music, slow music and fast tempo music (Dixon et al. 2007). The definitions of slow and fast tempo come from Milliman's (1982) supermarket study (where slow tempo is less than 72 beats per minute (bpm) and fast tempo is greater than 94 bpm). ...
In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) use of the auditory channel normally involves communicating information to users in the form of short, auditory messages. Given the recent trend of HCI research towards incorporating experiential objectives, we propose that the auditory channel could also be exploited for affective intent. In particular, music could be integrated within interactive technologies as a vehicle to influence users’ behaviour and their experiences. This chapter describes some of the research conducted from other fields that already embrace the affective characteristic of music within their context. The limited amount of research exploiting music affectively in an HCI environment is discussed; including a review of our previous work involving Ambient Music Email (AME), an affective musical extension for email clients. By reflecting on how other subjects investigate the affective nature of music, this chapter aims to show that the HCI field is falling behind and inspire further work in this area. In fact, there are a wide variety of potential motivations for working with affective musical interaction, with a vast realm of potential research avenues, some of which are proposed here.
... Surprisingly, only a couple of empirical studies have investigated the impact of casino-related factors (e.g., fast sounds and ''warm'' lights) on gambling behaviors. Dixon et al. (2007) found that fast tempo music (e.g., [94 beats per minute) significantly heightened participant's betting speed when gambling. In addition to fast sound, ''warm'' colors are often used in gambling environments (e.g., Griffiths and Swift 1992). ...
... This was the first time that the effect of the casino-related context on choice reaction time was estimated on the basis of previous choice-outcome. Indeed, previous studies (Stark et al. 1982;Dixon et al. 2007;Spenwyn et al. 2010) showed that fast sounds and/or red light increase participant's betting speed when gambling, but independent of feedback contingency. In addition, in accordance with our hypotheses and previous research (Rockloff et al. 2011), we observed that performing the IGT face to face with another participant (with or without explicit instruction of competition) heightened the decision speed, independently of feedback contingency. ...
Casino venues are often characterized by "warm" colors, reward-related sounds, and the presence of others. These factors have always been identified as a key factor in energizing gambling. However, few empirical studies have examined their impact on gambling behaviors. Here, we aimed to explore the impact of combined red light and casino-related sounds, with or without the presence of another participant, on gambling-related behaviors. Gambling behavior was estimated with the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Eighty non-gamblers participants took part in one of four experimental conditions (20 participants in each condition); (1) IGT without casino-related sound and under normal (white) light (control), (2) IGT with combined casino-related sound and red light (casino alone), (3) IGT with combined casino-related sound, red light and in front of another participant (casino competition-implicit), and (4) IGT with combined casino-related sound, red light and against another participant (casino competition-explicit). Results showed that, in contrast to the control condition, participants in the three "casino" conditions did not exhibit slower deck selection reaction time after losses than after rewards. Moreover, participants in the two "competition" conditions displayed lowered deck selection reaction time after losses and rewards, as compared with the control and the "casino alone" conditions. These findings suggest that casino environment may diminish the time used for reflecting and thinking before acting after losses. These findings are discussed along with the methodological limitations, potential directions for future studies, as well as implications to enhance prevention strategies of abnormal gambling.
... Research has shown that peripheral features such as sounds, and "warm" lights play a key role in the development of some gambling behaviors (Stark et al. 1982;Finlay, Marmurek et al. 2010). For instance, Dixon et al. (2007) reported that fast tempo music (e.g., > 94 beats per minute) had a significant effect on participant betting speed while gambling. Similarly, Spenwyn et al. (2010) found that the combined effects of both high tempo music and red light resulted in faster bets by participants while playing a computerized version of roulette. ...
Gambling as a leisure activity has now become widespread in many countries. While the majority of individuals who gamble experience no significant negative detrimental effects, research has consistently shown that a small minority develop problems, and that for an even smaller minority, the behavior appears to be an addiction just like other more traditional psychoactive substance-based addictive behaviors. This chapter briefly overviews problem gambling behaviors by examining the (i) demographics of gambling and problem gambling, (ii) prevalence of gambling and problem gambling, (iii) psychological theories of problem gambling, (iv) importance of structural and situational characteristics in problem gambling, (v) biological bases of problem gambling, (vi) specific comorbidities, (vii) problem gambling assessment approaches, and (viii) treatment approaches for problem gambling. Problem gambling, like other addictions, results from an interaction and interplay between many factors including the individual’s biological and/or genetic predisposition, their psychological constitution, their social environment, and structural characteristics of the gambling activity itself.
... Another flourishing tradition has started to bloom in the last two decades (for a 2006-2016 qualitative systematic review, see Palazzi et al., 2019), anticipated by the seminal work of Griffiths & Parke (2005) on the psychology of music in gambling environments: numerous researchers have deepened the influence of music on gambling (Halko & Kaustia, 2015), virtual roulette (Bramley et al., 2014(Bramley et al., -2016Dixon et al., 2007), ultimatum game (Chung et al., 2016), casino environment (Marmurek et al., 2007) and lottery and portfolio diversification tasks (Israel et al., 2019). Taken together, as suggested by Palazzi et al. (2019), the results of these studies suggest that liked, and positive mood music generally increases risk-taking by alleviating loss aversion and increasing loss amount, while disliked and negative mood music presents the opposite pattern. ...
In the last decades, an increasing number of psychological studies tackled numerous phenomena related to the influence that film music exerts on the perception of audiovisuals. Soundtracks proved to be effective in shaping the viewers' interpretations, attitude toward the characters, plot anticipations, recall of the scenes, and other processes. However, the most recent review on the issue (Herget, 2019) indicates a few criticalities: First, due to the lack of an interconnected research discourse, several of the existent studies stand side by side rather than building on each other. Secondly, in most cases, established instruments were not used for the assessments, thus jeopardizing the external validity. As a third key point, the number of ecologically valid studies is limited and needs to be increased. Lastly, the methodological necessity exists to decrease the complexity of certain experimental paradigms and encourage between-subjects designs that could avoid the risk of automatically drawing attention to musical manipulation. In the present research, four studies are presented on a variety of psychological constructs, processes, and mechanisms that are influenced by film music: impressions of the characters’ personality, plot anticipations, and environment perception (Study 1a-1b); gaze direction, gaze dispersion, and pupillometry (Study 1b); empathy toward the filmed characters (Study 1a-1b-2); affective state attributed to on-screen characters, affective state of the viewers (Study 2); time perception (Study 3); and recall (Study 4).
An effort was made to employ validated measurement tools whenever possible, together with easily digestible and entertaining experimental tasks, without compromising on experimental control and data quality. Aiming at a high ecological validity, all the studies (except Study 1b) implicated an online administration; in doing so, the viewers watched the videos directly from home, through their smartphones, tablets, and laptops, as if they were watching everyday YouTube videos or Netflix series.
The general finding is that the influence of music is truly pervasive; namely, virtually every analyzed variable was affected by it predictably. Thanks to the music’s tonal and expressive cues, the viewers manage to create a network of coherent and interconnected inferences, which end up constituting their interpretation of the scene.
The results are discussed in terms of diverse theoretical frameworks depending on the constructs at hand. Particular attention is lastly given to the future paths that the research could go down to fill a wide number of unsolved theoretical gaps.
In conclusion, a coda about the ethical relevance of such research is provided.
... Another flourishing tradition has started to bloom in the last two decades on the psychology of music in gambling environments: numerous researchers have deepened the influence of music on gambling, virtual roulette, ultimatum game, casino environment, and lottery (Dixon et al., 2007). ...
This article presents two studies that deepen the theme of how soundtracks shape our interpretation of audiovisuals. Embracing a multivariate perspective, Study 1 (N = 118) demonstrated, through an online between-subjects experiment, that two different music scores (melancholic vs. anxious) deeply affected the interpretations of an unknown movie scene in terms of empathy felt toward the main character, impressions of his personality, plot anticipations, and perception of the environment of the scene. With the melancholic music, participants felt empathy toward the character, viewing him as more agreeable and introverted, more oriented to memories than to decisions, while perceiving the environment as cozier. An almost opposite pattern emerged with the anxious music. In Study 2 (N = 92), we replicated the experiment in our lab but with the addition of eye-tracking and pupillometric measurements. Results of Study 1 were largely replicated; moreover, we proved that the anxious score, by increasing the participants' vigilance and state of alert (wider pupil dilation), favored greater attention to minor details, as in the case of another character who was very hard to be noticed (more time spent on his figure). Results highlight the pervasive nature of the influence of music within the process of interpretation of visual scenes.
... A study by Hirsch (1995), found that the amount of money gambled on slot machines rose by over 45% in part of a casino that had been subtly treated with a pleasant odour. Similar studies have been published evaluating the influence of music (Dixon et al., 2007;Griffiths and Parke, 2005), lighting (Spenwyn et al., 2010;Stark et al., 1982) and decor (Finlay et al., 2010) among other variables on gambling behaviour. Importantly, these 'systematic knowledges of the creation and mobilisation of affect' (Thrift, 2008: 172) are being reintegrated into the design of ever more calculated and efficient gambling environments. ...
Drawing together recent theoretical work from both within and beyond criminology, this article considers the role of strategically designed consumer spaces in eliciting potentially criminogenic and harmful dispositions and behaviours. First, the article introduces recent work in cultural geography and urban studies, which has drawn attention to the manipulation of affect through spatial design. Second, by way of example, the article considers how such strategies are deployed in three types of consumer environments: shopping malls and retail spaces; casinos and other gambling environments; and the so-called night time economy. Third, the article engages such developments theoretically. It is suggested we rethink the distinctions and interrelationships between human subjectivity and agency and the built environment. The implications of this proposed conceptual reorientation are explored—first, for our understandings of agency, intentionality, moral responsibility and political accountability; and second, for criminological thinking around embodied difference, power and exclusion.
... Erroneous gambling beliefs contribute to the development and maintenance of gambling problems (Barrault and Varescon 2013;Blaszczynski and Nower 2002;Cunningham et al. 2014;Myrseth et al. 2010); but conversely gambling itself can potentially induce an 1 3 irrational state that promotes less considered decision making. Many gambling products and venues are designed to be highly arousing; appealing to players emotional and cognitive needs in a way that minimises the use of reflective thinking (Armstrong et al. 2016a, b;Dixon et al. 2007;Finlay et al. 2006;Friedman 2000;Griffiths 2003Griffiths , 1999Griffiths et al. 2006;Kranes 1995;Parke and Griffiths 2006). Gambling decisions that are driven by highly emotive states tend to be personalised and action/outcome orientated, based on information that validates gambling urges (Denes-Raj and Epstein 1994); making it difficult for gamblers to think carefully about their gambling decisions. ...
Gambling has been associated with an array of fallacious beliefs that foster risky gambling decisions. Research into other belief systems suggests that the endorsement of non-evidence based beliefs, such as the paranormal or conspiracy theories, can be reduced when people think more analytically. The purpose of this study was to explore whether an intervention designed to elicit analytical thinking was effective in altering the gambling beliefs and simulated gambling behaviour of 178 regular electronic gaming machine (EGM) gamblers (102 males, 76 female). Participants were randomly allocated to complete either an analytic or a neutral priming task, followed by completion of belief measures (erroneous and protective) and play on a simulated EGM game. Results failed to show that priming for analytical thinking changed betting on an EGM; including features of bet size, bet change, persistence and theoretical losses. Contrary to expectations, results suggest that priming analytical thinking using generalised interventions does not appear to be effective in altering peoples’ simulated gambling involvement or gambling beliefs. In fact, priming people to think more critically might be counterproductive by contributing to greater positive expectations about gambling outcomes. The results further suggested that the number of times a player alters their bet is a good indicator of theoretical gambling losses and is associated with irrational gambling cognitions. Interventions designed to promote safer thinking in gamblers should be implemented with care, as results from our study suggest that encouraging critical thinking in at-risk or problem gamblers may not be effective in reducing risky gambling.
... kunne fortaelle om sammenhaenge mellem perciperet svaerhedsgrad og musik. Dixon et al. (2007) påviste i øvrigt sammenhaenge mellem hurtig musik og hurtigere bets. Der blev i litteraturreviewet overvejet, om hurtigere musik også kunne lede til hurtigere bevaegelsesmønstre. ...
Please note: The full text is in Danish.
The purpose of this master thesis is to investigate whether the absence or presence of music in a given video game has any correlation to a player’s perception of that game’s difficulty. Using established theory like Flow Theory and SAM tests, this study aims at measuring perceived difficulty by triangulating self-reported perceived difficulty-, flow- and affective reaction- measures, with psychophysiological data.
... One possible explanation is that when playing roulette, gamblers tend not to change the odds or the stakes; they are rather reacting to other environmental stimuli, e.g. music, lights, movements, etc (Dixon, Trigg and Griffiths, 2007;Schüll, 2013). In roulette, like in other kinds of machine gambling, the presence of 'flow' could be important. ...
People who appear to believe in the hot hand expect winning streaks to continue whereas those suffering from the gamblers’ fallacy unreasonably expect losing streaks to reverse. 565,915 sports bets made by 776 online gamblers in 2010 were used for analysis. People who won were more likely to win again whereas those who lost were more likely to lose again. However, selection of safer odds after winning and riskier ones after losing indicates that online sports gamblers expected their luck to reverse: they suffered from the gamblers’ fallacy. By following in the gamblers’ fallacy, they created their own hot hands. Some gamblers consistently outperformed their peers. They also consistently made higher profits or lower losses. They show real expertise. The key of real expertise is the ability to control loss.
... In the gambling studies field, there are now dozens of published experiments that have manipulated various structural characteristics and demonstrated that such features can prolong gambling compared to games without such features. This includes many experiments demonstrating that "near misses" can increase arousal levels and facilitate repeated gambling [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26], as well as experiments showing persistent gambling can be influenced by such structural characteristics as jackpot size [18], big wins [22], small wins [27], stake size [28], music [29,30], and color [30]. Karlsen [11•] compared the psychostructural elements that contribute to excessive gambling and video gaming, focusing particularly on the elements of the near miss and entrapment. ...
Purpose of review:
There are many different factors involved in how and why people develop problems with video game playing. One such set of factors concerns the structural characteristics of video games (i.e., the structure, elements, and components of the video games themselves). Much of the research examining the structural characteristics of video games was initially based on research and theorizing from the gambling studies field. The present review briefly overviews the key papers in the field to date.
Recent findings:
The paper examines a number of areas including (i) similarities in structural characteristics of gambling and video gaming, (ii) structural characteristics in video games, (iii) narrative and flow in video games, (iv) structural characteristic taxonomies for video games, and (v) video game structural characteristics and game design ethics. Many of the studies carried out to date are small-scale, and comprise self-selected convenience samples (typically using self-report surveys or non-ecologically valid laboratory experiments).
Summary:
Based on the small amount of empirical data, it appears that structural features that take a long time to achieve in-game are the ones most associated with problematic video game play (e.g., earning experience points, managing in-game resources, mastering the video game, getting 100% in-game). The study of video games from a structural characteristic perspective is of benefit to many different stakeholders including academic researchers, video game players, and video game designers, as well as those interested in prevention and policymaking by making the games more socially responsible. It is important that researchers understand and recognize the psycho-social effects and impacts that the structural characteristics of video games can have on players, both positive and negative.
... The presence of a certain aroma was associated with higher amounts spent on slot machines in a Las Vegas casino compared to a different aroma and no odor at all (Hirsh, 1995). The presence of music and the type of music played had no impact on bet size or amount spent in a laboratory-based roulette game (Dixon, Trigg & Griffiths, 2007). However, a faster music tempo was associated with a faster speed of betting. ...
The past 15 years has seen a considerable amount of interest and effort being put into developing strategies to prevent problem gambling. Unfortunately, the development, implementation, and evaluation of most of these initiatives has been a haphazard process. Most have been put in place because they ‘seemed like good ideas’ and/or were being used in other jurisdictions, rather than having demonstrated scientific efficacy or being derived from a good understanding of effective practices in prevention.The primary purpose of the present document is to help change this state of affairs. More specifically, by: Proposing an etiological framework for understanding how problem gambling develops based on the available evidence and drawing from established models of addictive behaviour. Comprehensively evaluating the effectiveness of the various initiatives that have been used around the world to prevent problem gambling based on their demonstrated efficacy and/or their similarity to initiatives that are empirically effective in preventing other addictive behaviour. Based on this etiological framework and this critical review of the research, identifying current ‘best practices’ for the prevention of problem gambling.
... Increased musical tempo was found to have a significant positive effect on the speed of bets (Dixon, Trigg and Griffiths 2007;Spenwyn, Barrett and Griffiths 2010). Furthermore, whether the music is from the EGM itself or external to it makes little difference in terms of the potential "acquisition, development, and maintenance of gambling behaviour" (Griffiths and Parke 2005, p. 1). ...
Scholarly research into gambling did not formally begin until 1974, with the First Annual Conference on Gambling being held in Las Vegas. Since then, a plethora of academic research has been published, most of it focusing on problem gambling, be it relating to its behavioural causes, the mechanisms of EGMs and their relation to problem gambling, and/or gambling and its consequences. In 1997 however, Shaffer called for a greater adherence to rigorous scientific standards than is typical in much of the gambling research literature to date. Against the background of the moral and public policy issues surrounding gambling, strong adherence to either a pro-or anti-gambling view renders the objectivity tenet of scientific discourse virtually irrelevant. McGowan (1997) is also critical of a researcher's ideological stance being brought into play, as he considers that it inevitably prevents the conducting of mature, high-quality gambling research, a point reinforced by McMillan (2009). The 'anti' gambling group is classified under the 'Ethics of Sacrifice' and the 'pro' group under the 'Ethics of Tolerance' (McGowan 1997). Like Shaffer (1997), McGowan argues that a middle (objective) road should be taken in gambling research. The majority of gambling academic literature focuses on problem/pathological gambling, thus ignoring the reality that, for the majority of its adherents, gambling is an act of free choice with minimal harmful consequences. In the U.S., the emphasis on problem gambling has been to view it as a medical disorder whereas in Australia it is viewed in terms of the social harm caused not only to the problem gambler but to the additional 5-10 people who are also affected by the gambler's addiction (Productivity Commission 1999, p. 21). This paper discusses the interdisciplinary gambling literature.
... Thus, ambient cues (red lights, casino sounds) that were not specifically associated with outcomes on the IGT had a positive effect on mood and speeded up reaction times to make choices following losses, but had no effect on choice behaviour (Brevers et al. 2015). Higher tempo of background music increased the speed of betting in a virtual roulette game, especially when combined with ambient red light, but did not affect bet size or the amount spent (Dixon et al. 2007). Though the effects of anticipatory gambling cues remain mostly unstudied, one experiment found that that sequential presentation of symbols on the different reels may be more reinforcing to the players than simultaneous presentation of the symbols on all the reels, as sequential presentation increased the number of games played (Ladouceur and Sevigny 2002); however, varying the duration of the reel spin did not affect any aspect of gambling behaviour (Sharpe et al. 2005). ...
The similarity between gambling disorder (GD) and drug addiction has recently been recognized at the diagnostic level. Understanding the core cognitive processes involved in these addiction disorders, and in turn their neurobiological mechanisms, remains a research priority due to the enormous benefits such knowledge would have in enabling effective treatment design. Animal models can be highly informative in this regard. Although numerous rodent behavioural paradigms that capture different facets of gambling-like behaviour have recently been developed, the motivational power of cues in biasing individuals towards risky choice has so far received little attention despite the central role played by drug-paired cues in successful laboratory models of chemical dependency. Here, we review some of the comparatively simple paradigms in which reward-paired cues are known to modulate behaviour in rodents, such as sign-tracking, Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer and conditioned reinforcement. Such processes are thought to play an important role in mediating responding for drug reward, and the need for future studies to address whether similar processes contribute to cue-driven risky choice is highlighted.
... Research into the effect of player perception of wins/losses has established a link between the use of sounds associated with winning and an overestimation of winning success and arousal in players (Dixon, Harrigan, and Santesso, 2011;Spenwyn, Barrett, and Griffiths, 2008). Musical elements such as the structure and tempo of musical accompaniment have also shown limited effects on player's awareness of their time on device, their rate of play, and machine selection (Noseworthy and Finlay, 2009;Dixon, Trigg, and Griffiths, 2007). These layers of sound work with the graphics and game play of the machines with three distinct objectives: to create a sense of flow by bridging the very brief pauses in action that exist between wagers, to enhance narrative elements like animation and movie clips that are sprinkled through routine game play, and to highlight key events related to the underlying win/loss dynamics of the machine. ...
This study looks at the incorporation of video game design and structure into contemporary slot
machines. The investigation was guided by theoretical and empirical works from a range of
scholarly fields: gambling studies, video-game studies, digital communication, psychology, and
sociology. Two methodological designs were employed. The first phase used a content analysis
that identified the distribution of video-game styles and design in the most recent slot games on
display at a major industry conference. The second phase employed semi-structured interviews
with both experienced and inexperienced slot players to assess the impact of different design
elements on their playing experience and motivation to play. Findings indicate that current slot
machines share some similarities with video game mechanics through the introduction of more
complex structure and multiple goals or games within games. Slot machines can resemble the
immersive elements video games with the use of sophisticated graphics and sound design as well
as the incorporation of complex themes and interactive animated characters. Eight gamblers
with experience ranging from novice to highly experience participated in in-depth interviews.
The interviews suggest that, like with video game players, some slot players might be more
attracted to complex game mechanics in slot machines while other players are more interested in
the immersive elements. The implications for the future of slot machine design, the study of slot
machine design on problem gambling, and the use of digital space to introduce play into
gambling are discussed.
... The presence of a certain aroma was associated with higher amounts spent on slot machines in a Las Vegas casino compared to a different aroma and no odor at all (Hirsh, 1995). The presence of music and the type of music played had no impact on bet size or amount spent in a laboratory-based roulette game (Dixon, Trigg & Griffiths, 2007). However, a faster music tempo was associated with a faster speed of betting. ...
... The sound of electronic gambling machines in the context of a casino can play a significant role in the perception of the games. Background music in the casinos or bars changes throughout the day, with pop music played in daytime, and relaxing music in the evenings (Dixon, Trigg, & Griffiths, 2007). The noise and music gives the impression of an exciting and fun environment and, critically, that winning is more common than losing. ...
much neglected area of research into game sound (and computer games in general) is the use of sound
in the games on electronic gambling machines (EGMs). EGMs have many similarities with commercial
computer games, particularly arcade games. Drawing on research in film, television, computer games,
advertising, and gambling, this chapter introduces EGM sound and provides an introduction into the
literature on gambling sound in general, including discussions of the casino environment, the slot machine
EGM, and the physiological responses to sound in EGMs. Throughout the article, we address how the
study of EGM sound may be relevant to the practice and theory of computer game audio.
... Griffiths, 1993). For instance, Dixon and colleagues (2007) found that fast-tempo music (i.e. fast music) significantly influenced a participant's betting speed when gambling. ...
The purpose of this review is to gain more insight on the neurocognitive processes involved in the maintenance of pathological gambling. Firstly, we describe structural factors of gambling games that could promote the repetition of gambling experiences to such an extent that some individuals may become unable to control their gambling habits. Secondly, we review findings of neurocognitive studies on pathological gambling. As a whole, poor ability to resist gambling is a product of an imbalance between any one or a combination of three key neural systems: (1) an hyperactive 'impulsive' system, which is fast, automatic, and unconscious and promotes automatic and habitual actions; (2) a hypoactive 'reflective' system, which is slow and deliberative, forecasting the future consequences of a behavior, inhibitory control, and self-awareness; and (3) the interoceptive system, translating bottom-up somatic signals into a subjective state of craving, which in turn potentiates the activity of the impulsive system, and/or weakens or hijacks the goal-driven cognitive resources needed for the normal operation of the reflective system. Based on this theoretical background, we focus on certain clinical interventions that could reduce the risks of both gambling addiction and relapse.
... Often, the winning music contains high-pitched, major mode songs, which has a tendency to increase the perception of urgency (Haas and Edworthy 1996). Casino ambience is an important contributor to gambling behaviour (Griffiths and Parke 2005; Dixon et al. 2007; Marmurek et al. 2007; Noseworthy and Finlay 2009; Spenwyn et al. 2010). The flashing lights, the visual design of the space, and in particular the use of loud sounds serves to create feelings of excitement that distract the player by increasing cognitive load (see Kranes 1995; Skea 1995) and, critically, give the impression that winning is much more common than losing. ...
Slot machine wins and losses have distinctive, measurable, physiological effects on players. The contributing factors to these effects remain under-explored. We believe that sound is one of these key contributing factors. Sound plays an important role in reinforcement, and thus on arousal level and stress response of players. It is the use of sound for positive reinforcement in particular that we believe influences the player. In the current study, we investigate the role that sound plays in psychophysical responses to slot machine play. A total of 96 gamblers played a slot machine simulator with and without sound being paired with reinforcement. Skin conductance responses and heart rate, as well as subjective judgments about the gambling experience were examined. The results showed that the sound influenced the arousal of participants both psychophysically and psychologically. The sound also influenced players' preferences, with the majority of players preferring to play slot machines that were accompanied by winning sounds. The sounds also caused players to significantly overestimate the number of times they won while playing the slot machine.
... Music has been suggested to play an important role in slot machine gambling by inducing a " romantic " affective state that makes the player overestimate the chances of winning and disregard previous losses (Griffiths and Parke 2005). Other studies have found that players gamble more quickly when the music is 'high tempo' (i.e., high number of beats per minute) (Dixon et al. 2007). In relation to video games, an unpublished study by Griffiths found that the music of Tetris significantly increased players' excitement and arousal compared to playing the game in silent mode with the music off (cf. ...
Excessive video game playing behaviour may be influenced by a variety of factors including the structural characteristics
of video games. Structural characteristics refer to those features inherent within the video game itself that may facilitate
initiation, development and maintenance of video game playing over time. Numerous structural characteristics that influence
gambling frequency and expenditure have been identified in the gambling literature, and some researchers have drawn comparisons
between the rewarding elements in video gaming and those in slot machine gambling. However, there have been few rigorous attempts
to classify and organise the psycho-structural elements of video games in a similar way to gambling. In order to aid current
psychological understanding of problem video game playing and guide further research questions in this area, a new taxonomy
of video game features is proposed, which includes: (a) social features, (b) manipulation and control features, (c) narrative
and identity features, (d) reward and punishment features, and (e) presentation features. Each category is supported with
relevant theory and research, where available, and the implications of these features for excessive video game playing are
discussed.
In the real world, PWYW businesses can either engage supervised payments or honour boxes where consumers can drop their loose change to make payments. As consumers can pay any amount (including zero) for PWYW payments, the current work delineates conditions under which higher payments can be encouraged. Findings from a series of field experiments show that low arousal music facilitates higher PWYW payments under an external influence (e.g., a salesperson), while high arousal music motivates consumers to make higher payments when they carry more versus less loose change. Further, the interactions of music with salesperson and loose change respectively drives higher payments through the subject’s internal reference price. The current work is novel in testing the influence of salesperson, loose change and music driving higher PWYW payments. The current work also provides managers with a strategic tool (e.g., ambient music) that will help drive higher PWYW payments.
This book focuses on the growing body of empirical research investigating the cognition of musical multimedia, with an emphasis on temporally organized auditory and visual structures. ‘Multimedia’ commonly refers to audiovisual presentations in film, television, video, interactive gaming, computer interfaces, and on the Internet. The term ‘empirical’ refers to the process of collecting data from human participants via systematically designed experiments. Such empirical research provides a framework for understanding the relationships between music, sound, and image in multimedia contexts. The international collection of contributors represents eight countries and a range of disciplines including psychology, neuroscience, musicology, media studies, film, and communications. Each chapter includes a comprehensive review of the topic and, where appropriate, identifies models that can be empirically tested. Part I presents contrasting theoretical approaches from cognitive psychology, philosophy, semiotics, communications, musicology, and neuroscience. Part II reviews research on the structural aspects of music and multimedia, while Part III focuses on research related to the influence of music on perceived meaning in the multimedia experience. Part IV explores empirical findings on a variety of real-world applications of music in multimedia including entertainment and educational media for children, video and computer games, television and online advertising, auditory displays of information, and the impact of surround sound, showing how theory and practice intertwine in various examples of multimedia. Part V includes a final chapter that consolidates emergent themes and concludes with the value of broadening the scope of research to encompass multisensory, multidisciplinary, and cross-cultural perspectives to advance our understanding of the role of music in multimedia.
Research into gambling behaviour is an important aspect of mitigating the effects of problem gambling. However, the majority of existing studies are conducted in the laboratory, rather than in vivo, raising questions over the generalisability of results. Virtual reality (VR) is well established as an effective tool for exposure therapy, and has also been used in other experimental contexts: such work is often motivated by the ability of the platform to create ecologically valid conditions, and simulations that would be hard to create in real life. Whilst a small number of studies have used VR to evoke the urge to gamble, and also to conduct behavioural studies, no work has yet considered the differences in experience between laboratory and VR conditions.
We approach this from the perspective of immersion, arousal and user experience, and conduct a within-subjects study (N = 48) in which participants play a gambling game both on a laptop in a laboratory, and on a virtual gaming machine located in a VR simulation of a betting shop. Our results show that participants reported higher levels of arousal, as well as higher levels of immersion in the game when playing in VR. There was also a significant difference in self-reported physical task workload in VR. Based on our results, we argue for further use of VR in experimental research related to gambling, as well as further study of the experience and responses of problem gamblers to VR simulations of real-world gambling.
In the previous chapter, I discussed the problem of music recommendation as a sequential decision-making problem, as people’s preferences and expectations are informed by what has been played up to any given point in time. However, there are other ways in which people’s preferences and expectations are influenced by music. A relevant question in the context of studying interactive processes between people and automated systems is how background information, and music in particular, impact the way people make decisions. This chapter focuses on this question in two distinct contexts which engage different decision-making processes.
There is a growing body of research exploring how music interventions impact on wider behaviours in people’s lives, such as anti-social behaviours, classroom behaviours and consumer behaviours. However, an understudied area is whether engagement in structured music programmes leads to wider changes in musical behaviours amongst participants. This study explored this question in relation to women with symptoms of postnatal depression (PND). Ninety-three women up to 40 weeks post-birth with symptoms of PND were randomised to 10 weeks of group singing classes or usual care. Women who attended the singing workshops had a significantly greater increase than those in the control group in the frequency of their singing, their confidence in singing and the repertoire they knew. There were also indications that the partners of women in the singing group also increased their frequency of singing, suggesting effects can extend to the wider family unit. However, there was no impact on wider musical behaviours such as listening to music. This is the first demonstration that weekly singing programmes can alter musical behaviours in new mothers. Analyses explore the optimum number of singing classes required to trigger a wider behaviour change and health psychology theories around behaviour change that could account for these results are discussed.
There are many examples on the use of game-based learning in and outside the classroom, along with evaluation of their effect in terms of engagement, learning, classroom dynamics, concentration, motivation and enjoyment. Most of the research in this area focuses on evaluations of the use of game-based learning applications and the effect they have on the students. The majority of these papers show that game-based learning has a positive effect compared to more traditional learning methods. However, there are very few papers that investigate what specific elements in game-based learning applications that produce a positive effect. In this paper, we present an experiment where we investigated how the use of points and audio affect the learning environment. Specifically, the paper presents results from an experiment where the same lecture was taught for different group of students using the game-based learning platform Kahoot!. One group used Kahoot! as it supposed to be used with audio and points, one group used Kahoot! with audio but without points, one group used Kahoot! without audio but with points, and one group used Kahoot! without points and audio. The results from the experiment reveal that there are some significant differences whether audio and points are used in game-based learning in the areas of concentration, engagement, enjoyment, and motivation. The most surprising finding was how the classroom dynamics was positively affected by the use of audio. A total of 593 students participated in this experiment with a gender distribution of 44% female and 56 male students.
Link to article: http://pom.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/02/26/0305735616632897.abstract
A number of studies indicate that fast music influences performance in everyday activities including shopping and gambling, but the mechanisms through which this effect is realised are not well understood. This study investigates whether fast tempo music influences gambling via an effect on arousal using a laboratory virtual roulette task. One hundred and forty-four participants played virtual roulette whilst listening to fast tempo, slow tempo or no music. Music tempo alone did not influence betting speed, expenditure or risk-taking. Furthermore tempo did not influence participants’ physiological or subjective arousal levels, nor participants’ opinions of the musical stimuli in terms of liking, familiarity, fit or its ability to aid concentration. Our findings suggest that there are some circumstances under which the effect of music tempo does not operate and therefore provides an insight into the limits of music tempo as an explanation for music effects on behaviour. This study has implications for the way that musical characteristics are operationalised in future research into music’s effects on behaviour.
That music affects human beings in various ways has probably been presumed as long as people have played music. Many marketing practitioners already accept this notion, given that music is increasingly used as a stimulus in the retail environment as well as in radio and television advertising. Yet, fewer than 20 published empirical studies in marketing have music as their focus. The author reviews the small body of marketing literature, surveys relevant literature outside marketing, and provides research propositions to guide future studies.
What psychological functions does music serve in everyday life? In this paper we argue that the answer to this question is changing as a result of current social and technological changes in music itself, and that these changes force us to re-evaluate the role of the social context in music psychology. After describing the changes we go on to outline the psychological functions of music in everyday life in terms of the cognitive, emotional and social domains. We next attempt a detailed redefinition of the social psychology of music by reviewing the contents of our recent book of this title. The research findings lead us to conclude that the social functions of music are manifested in three principal ways for the individual, namely in the management of self-identity, interpersonal relationships and mood. This leads us to propose a new agenda for music psychology which places the social dimension at its core, and which considers the interdisciplinary context; the effects of the "democratisation" of music; the role of theory; the relationship between theory and practice; and the implications for research methodology. © 1999 by the Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music Education.
Effects of the listening context on responses to music largely have been neglected despite the prevalence of music in our everyday lives. Furthermore, there has been no research on the role of music in gambling environments (e.g., casinos, amusement arcades) despite gambling's increased popularity as a leisure pursuit. An exploratory observational study in gambling arcades was carried out to investigate (i) how music is used as background music in amusement arcades, and (ii) how slot machines utilize music in their design. Results indicated that arcades often have music that caters for their customer demographics and that this may influence gambling behaviour. Furthermore, music from the slot machine itself appears to produce important impression formations about the machine (i.e., quality of the machine, familiarity, distinctiveness, and the sound of winning). It is suggested that music (whether it is in the gambling environment or in the activity itself) has the potential to be important in the acquisition, development, and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Some preliminary ideas and hypotheses to
This is a RG generated duplicate entry. Paper is here:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/29870484_Mood_and_persuasion_Affective_states_influence_the_processing_of_persuasive_communications
The present paper describes a computerized slot machine simulation designed to examine many of the potential variables involved in gambling behavior. This program was created in Visual Basic Version 6.0 and is designed to run on any Windows 95 or higher equipped computer. The program allows for experimenter manipulation of probabilities of payoffs, visual display of potential winning symbols, exact sequences of wins and losses, as well as pose run time questions to the subject on prespecified trials. The program records data on a trial-by-trial basis to a text file for easy importation into many data analysis and statistical programs. Conceptual and experimental questions that may be addressed with the described program are also discussed.
At the moment, there is no single conceptual theoretical model of gambling that adequately accounts for the multiple biological, psychological and ecological variables contributing to the development of pathological gambling. Advances in this area are hampered by imprecise definitions of pathological gambling, failure to distinguish between gambling problems and problem gamblers and a tendency to assume that pathological gamblers form one, homogeneous population with similar psychological principles applying equally to all members of the class. The purpose of this paper is to advance a pathways model that integrates the complex array of biological, personality, developmental, cognitive, learning theory and ecological determinants of problem and pathological gambling. It is proposed that three distinct subgroups of gamblers manifesting impaired control over their behaviour can be identified. These groups include (a) behaviourally conditioned problem gamblers, (b) emotionally vulnerable problem gamblers and (c) antisocial, impulsivist problem gamblers. The implications for clinical management are discussed.
That music affects human beings in various ways has probably been presumed as long as people have played music. Many marketing practitioners already accept this notion, given that music is increasingly used as a stimulus in the retail environment as well as in radio and television advertising. Yet, fewer than 20 published empirical studies in marketing have music as their focus. The author reviews the small body of marketing literature, surveys relevant literature outside marketing, and provides research propositions to guide future studies.
This paper critically reviews the literature available and presents an empirical study that examines the effects of background music on in-store shopping behavior. It finds that music tempo variations can significantly affect the pace of in-store traffic flow and dollar sales volume.
In this study, we evaluated the relationship between the number of wins and the number of irrational verbalizations on the part of individuals playing American roulette. We predicted that subjects who win frequently would make more irrational verbalizations than rational verbalizations compared to subjects who win infrequently. Twenty Canadian subjects (8 men, 12 women) were randomly divided into two experimental groups (frequent vs. infrequent wins). The subjects used the thinking aloud procedure to verbalize their thoughts, which were then classified according to degree of rationality or irrationality. The results showed that irrational verbalizations outnumbered rational verbalizations in both groups. A few wins were sufficient to evoke an illusory perception of control.
Music is universal. As a successor to the book The Social Psychology of Music, this book aims to provide social psychological answers to the numerous questions concerning music. Given the prominence music plays in our lives, it is still however imperilled by modern culture. Forewarning an imminent danger to music, it was warned in the previous book that the digital revolution would pave the way for legal and illegal online music stores and computer applications that would completely change the way people accessed music. With its ubiquity, music has been downgraded as insignificant or 'cheap'. This book deems that the best way to safeguard music is to comprehend the rightful place it occupies in our everyday modern life, and those more complex factors that rationalize our most profound experiences of music. The chapters in this book argue that the social and applied psychology approach to music can tackle issues such as: why some pieces elicit strong emotional reactions; what makes a good musician, or why some composers are forgotten easily; whether music can boost retailers' profits; whether there is a link between musical subculture and suicide; and whether music can be used to help sick patients. Using social and applied psychology to understand some questions about music helps to safeguard it by allowing people to make effective arguments concerning 'music as a manifestation of the human spirit'; against modern-day pressures such as neo-conservative protesters, accountants, and the digital revolution by demonstrating its social and financial value.
This paper will critically review the limited literature available on the topic and present an empirical study that examines the effect of background music on the behavior of restaurant customers. It was found that music tempo variations can significantly affect purchases, length of stay, and other variables examined.
Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of different types of background music on verbal interaction in small
group discussions. In the first experiment, soothing music, stimulating music or no music provided the background for discussions
which required the group to reach a consensus in ranking the correctness of eight opinion-type statements. The soothing music
groups had more verbalizations and took longer to reach a consensus, though the differences were not statistically significant.
In the second experiment, the same conditions were used, but the discussion topic was changed to one which required the group
to reach a consensus on the truthfulness of 11 statements based on a very brief story. The soothing music groups had significantly
more verbalizations and again took longer, but were not more accurate. Possible reasons for these effects and implications
for music therapy are discussed.
This exploratory study investigates the effect of music on the perceived characteristics of a commercial listening environment and on customers' purchase intentions therein. Three musical styles and also no music were played in a student cafeteria over the course of 4 days. Subjects' responses to a questionnaire indicated that different musical styles had different effects on the perceived characteristics of the cafeteria, and that classical music was associated with subjects being prepared to pay the most for food items on sale therein. There was also some indication that classical and pop music might have increased actual sales in the cafeteria, as compared with easy listening and silence. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for both commercial practice and our theoretical understanding of music and consumer behavior.
This paper reports 2 studies of the effects of music on customers' perceptions of the atmosphere in a city center bank and a city center bar, respectively. In the first study, classical music, easy-listening music, and no music were played over the course of 3 weeks, and customers were asked to rate the banking hall in which it was played and the music in terms of twenty 10-point adjectival scales. Customers' responses indicated a positive correlation between ratings of the banking hall and the music on each of the scales. There were also statistically significant differences between the conditions on factor scores derived from a factor analysis of responses to the banking hall. The second study employed a similar methodology over 9 days in a bar, comparing classical, pop, and no music. Customers rated the atmosphere of the bar and the music played there in terms of II adjectival scales. Once again there was a positive correlation between ratings of the listening environment and ratings of the music. Type of music and volume level gave rise to main effects on ratings of the bar in terms of these adjectives. Factor analysis of the ratings gave rise to 3 factors, which were similar to those obtained in the first study, and also to those in an earlier study situated in a university cafeteria. Finally, there were significant Type of Music × Time of Day, and Volume × Time of Day interactions on customers' estimates of the maximum sum they would be prepared to pay for products on sale in the bar. These results demonstrate that music can have reliable effects on atmosphere and purchase intentions in commercial environments.
Over the past three decades, a number of authors have examined the role of structural characteristics as they appear to be important in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Furthermore, it has been argued that fruit machine gambling features more gambling-inducing structural characteristics than all other forms of gambling. However, it is clear that previous overviews in this area are now out of date in a number of key areas. This paper therefore reviews the changes in structural characteristics of the fruit machine over the last decade. Important changes in the structural characteristics of fruit machines will be discussed focusing on the small changes to established structural characteristics (e.g., the near miss, sound effects, light effects, colour effects, event frequencies etc.) as well as a more speculative examination of new and contemporary characteristics such as the importance of “features” and the psychology of familiarity.
A general theory of addictions is proposed, using the compulsive gambler as the prototype. Addiction is defined as a dependent state acquired over time to relieve stress. Two interrelated sets of factors predispose persons to addictions: an abnormal physiological resting state, and childhood experiences producing a deep sense of inadequacy. All addictions are hypothesized to follow a similar three-stage course. A matrix strategy is outlined to collect similar information from different kinds of addicts and normals. The ultimate objective is to identify high risk youth and prevent the development of addictions.
Determinants of the decision to gamble not only include the gambler's biological and psychological constitution but also the structural characteristics of the gambling activity itself. Such characteristics may be responsible for reinforcement, may satisfy gambler's needs, and facilitate excessive gambling. Showing the existence of such relationships has great practical importance. Not only could potentially dangerous forms of gambling be identified but effective and selective legislation could be formulated. This paper outlines a history of the importance of structural characteristics in fruit machine gambling and then discusses the role of a number of distinct characteristics including pay out interval, multiplier potential, better involvement, skill, win probability, pay out ratio, suspension of judgement, symbol ratio proportions, the near miss, light, colour, and sound effects and naming. These are all examined in relation to the gambler's behaviour and/or cognitions. It is shown that structural characteristics of fruit machines have the potential to induce excessive gambling regardless of individuals' biological and psychological constitution and that such insights may help in decreasing fruit machine gambling's addictiveness potential and help in formulating effective gambling policy.
An analysis of the marketing appeals made by the legal Nevada gambling industry yields three main categories of motive toward which appeals are made: (1) rational-economic motives, (2) recreational motives, and (3) prestige-seeking motives. It was noted that the industry seems loath to exploit motives which may be related to psychopathology, such as the desire to lose in order to alleviate guilt.
Gambling is common among children and adolescents, but Hide is known about factors initiating or maintaining this behavior. Fifty-one male and 51 female kindergarten and first grade children were invited to play a game involving repeated opportunities to select colored chips from a cup while blindfolded. Children playing for tangible incentives elected to play longer than those who were not (p <.001). Seeing a videotaped model win or fail to win a large prize had no effect on persistence with the game. Playing again one week later, children playing for incentives exhibited a more successful strategy, quitting sooner (p <.04) and with more winnings (p <.03). The parameters of experiential versus observational learning are discussed, with implications for educating children about risk-taking.
A Decade of Gambling Research in Australia and New Zealand: Implications for Policy, Research, and Harm Minimisation
- P H Delfabbro
Delfabbro, P.H. 2003. A Decade of Gambling Research in Australia and New Zealand: Implications for Policy, Research, and Harm Minimisation. Report prepared for The Independent Gambling Authority of South Australia, Adelaide.
Harm Minimisation in Relation to Gambling on Electronic Gaming Machines
- A Blaszczynski
- L Sharpe
- M Walker
Blaszczynski, A., Sharpe, L. and Walker, M. 2003. Harm Minimisation in Relation to Gambling on Electronic
Gaming Machines. University of Sydney: Gambling Research Unit.
Urge to Gamble Linked to Casino Designs
- K Finlay
- H Marmurek
Finlay, K. and Marmurek, H. 2003. Urge to Gamble Linked to Casino Designs. Available at http://www.
uoguelph.ca/realestate/news.20003-10-08.html (accessed 14 October 2004).
Against the odds', Young People Now
- S White
White, S. 1989. 'Against the odds', Young People Now, April pp. 26-27.
Report prepared for The Independent Gambling Authority of South Australia
- P H Delfabbro
Delfabbro, P.H. 2003. A Decade of Gambling Research in Australia and New Zealand: Implications for Policy,
Research, and Harm Minimisation. Report prepared for The Independent Gambling Authority of South
Australia, Adelaide.
Gambling: relationship between the frequency of wins and irrational thinking
- R Ladouceur
- A Gadoury
- M Durmont
- P Rochette
Ladouceur, R., Gadoury, A., Durmont, M. and Rochette, P. 1988. 'Gambling: relationship between the
frequency of wins and irrational thinking', Journal of Psychology, 122, pp. 409-14.