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The Other Side of the Model Minority Story
Abstract and Figures
The image of the model minority dominates scholarly and public discourse on Asian American children and adolescents. However, recent research has shown that despite their high levels of educational achievement Asian American students report poor psychological and social adjustment. Using an ecological framework, this article sought to explore the family and peer expe-riences of Chinese American adolescents as these are the two most critical contexts influencing adolescents' psychological and social adjustment. Drawing on longitudinal data collected from two studies conducted in Boston and New York on 120 first-and second-generation Chinese American students, our analyses suggested that many Chinese American adolescents feel alienated from their parents and peers. The alienation from parents was due to factors such as language barriers, parenting work schedules, and high parental educational expectations. Alienation from peers was due to ongoing peer discrimination from both Chinese and non-Chinese peers. Implications and future research are also discussed. Teachers, mental health professionals, and the public at large frequently perceive Asian American children as being well-behaved, well-adjusted high achievers. In short, they are seen as "model minority." Little is known about the mental health status of Asian Americans (Chun & Sue, 1998, p. 75).
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... Studies have shown that various racial groups have experienced discrimination online due to their race or ethnicity [36][37][38][39][40], and this discrimination has continued throughout the COVID-19 pandemic [41][42][43]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Asian Americans and people of Asian ethnic origin have become particularly vulnerable to racial discrimination. ...
... During the COVID-19 pandemic, Asian Americans and people of Asian ethnic origin have become particularly vulnerable to racial discrimination. Asian Americans throughout US history have been and continue to be subjected to forms of xenophobia, hate, and bias [41][42][43], dating back to the concept of Orientalism, which refers to viewing Asians through a Western lens consisting of exoticism and a sense of superiority over the "inferior" Eastern countries. Discrimination against Asian Americans has dramatically risen in the past couple of years due to the link that has been drawn between COVID-19 and Wuhan, China, through multiple sources, especially the mass media [44]. ...
Background
During the COVID-19 pandemic, increased social media usage has led to worsened mental health outcomes for many people. Moreover, due to the sociopolitical climate during the pandemic, the prevalence of online racial discrimination has contributed to worsening psychological well-being. With increases in anti-Asian hate, Asian and Asian American social media users may experience the negative effects of online racial discrimination in addition to the reduced psychological well-being resulting from exposure to online COVID-19 content.
Objective
This study aims to investigate the impact of COVID-19–related social media use and exposure to online racial discrimination during the pandemic on the mental health outcomes (ie, anxiety, depression, and secondary traumatic stress [STS]) of Asian Americans compared with those of non-Asian Americans. In addition, this study explores the mediating role of negative affect and the moderating role of racial/ethnic identification.
Methods
An online survey was conducted through Amazon Mechanical Turk and a university-wide research portal from March 3 to March 15, 2021. A total of 1147 participants took the survey. Participants’ social media usage related to COVID-19 and exposure to 2 online forms of racial discrimination (individual and vicarious), mental health outcomes (anxiety, depression, and STS), racial/ethnic identification, negative affect, and demographics were assessed.
Results
Our results showed that COVID-19–related social media use, individual discrimination, and vicarious discrimination were predictors of negative mental health outcomes (anxiety, depression, and STS). Asian Americans reported higher vicarious discrimination than Latinx and White Americans, but Asian Americans’ mental health outcomes did not differ substantially from those of the other racial/ethnic groups. Racial/ethnic identification moderated the relationship between both types of discrimination and STS, and negative affect served as a mediator between both types of discrimination and all 3 mental health outcomes.
Conclusions
These results suggest that social media exposure continues to have a dire effect on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study helps to contextualize the rise of anti-Asian American hate and its impact on mental health outcomes in the United States.
... We call for research that examines the associations between dimensions of school-based involvement and various student outcomes. Research on students' socioemotional development related to their schooling experiences is important, given the high rate of socioemotional issues and parent-child conflicts reported by adolescents of Chinese immigrant families (Qin et al., 2008, Qin & Han, 2014. Evidence demonstrates that high home-school dissonance is associated with adolescents' negative emotional states (Arunkumar et al., 1999;Qin et al., 2008). ...
... Research on students' socioemotional development related to their schooling experiences is important, given the high rate of socioemotional issues and parent-child conflicts reported by adolescents of Chinese immigrant families (Qin et al., 2008, Qin & Han, 2014. Evidence demonstrates that high home-school dissonance is associated with adolescents' negative emotional states (Arunkumar et al., 1999;Qin et al., 2008). As positive school-family relations are found to bridge cultural gaps between home and school and increase effective socioemotional support provided by families at home (Comer, 2005;Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005), these lines of research could be particularly beneficial for Chinese immigrant families. ...
Despite growing recognition of diverse forms of parental involvement, scarce research exists on the critical influence of sociocultural contexts on parental involvement in their children’s education. Building on and modifying Hoover-Dempsey’s parental involvement model, this article proposes a new sociocultural model to explain Chinese immigrant parents’ motivations for school-based and home-based involvement. Within the discussion of the model, each component is detailed but the emphasis is directed to three general components: the Chinese cultural model of learning, parental role construction, and school-family relations, including teachers’ parental involvement practices that differ from the U.S. mainstream culture’s model. This review demonstrates that Chinese immigrant parents tend to be more involved in some types of school-based activities (e.g., attending parent-teacher conferences and school events) than others (e.g., volunteering in classrooms and attending PTO meetings/school council). Chinese immigrant parents’ involvement processes also interact with family socioeconomic status and immigrant contexts. The article concludes with implications for research and educational practice.
... Age was not expected to be associated with profiles, as previous research suggests that ethnic and bicultural identities and acculturation trajectories are largely stable, although both progressive and regressive changes may occur (Kiang, Witkow, & Champagne, 2013;Schwartz et al., 2015;Syed & Juang, 2018). First-generation adolescents were expected to fall into profiles with stronger ethnic identity, lower BII, and greater behavioral participation in Chinese culture than later generations, as they are more strongly connected to their heritage culture (Qin, Way, & Mukherjee, 2008). Finally, adolescents in lower SES families were expected in profiles with less mainstream behavioral participation, due to fewer opportunities to participate in the mainstream society (Qin, Chang, Xie, Liu, & Rana, 2017). ...
... Consistent with their behavioral acculturation pattern, separated adolescents also reported the strongest ethnic identification and greatest challenges forming blended and harmonious bicultural identities. The separated profile had the largest proportion of first-generation adolescents (64%) across three profiles, which may explain their highly separated pattern, as firstgeneration immigrant youth have a stronger connection with their culture of origin and face more language and cultural barriers to participation in the dominant culture than later generations (Qin et al., 2008;Wang et al., 2019). Moreover, the lower family SES of this profile may have created further barriers for these adolescents' engagement in the mainstream society (Qin et al., 2017). ...
The present study examined the impact of COVID-19-related racial discrimination on
Chinese American adolescents (N = 213; M age = 13.95 years, SD = 2.35; 49% girls) at the
intersection of race and gender. We explored: (a) subgroups of adolescents based on ethnic identity, bicultural identity integration, and behavioral acculturation, (b) their demographic correlates, and (c) whether the association between racial discrimination and anxiety varied across subgroups and gender. Latent profile analysis identified three profiles: bicultural, marginalized, and separated. Bicultural and marginalized adolescents were vulnerable to direct and vicarious racial discrimination, respectively. Moreover, bicultural and marginalized boys and separated girls were more negatively affected by COVID-19-related racial discrimination. The findings highlight the utility of person-centered and intersectional approaches in understanding Chinese American adolescents’ experiences of racial discrimination.
... For example, other cultural groups may show a higher prevalence of this profile characterized by elevated conditional negative regard only; for example, Chinese (vs. European American) children report that their parents react in a failure-oriented way to performance (Ng, Pomerantz, & Lam, 2007) and react harshly when they fail, but they do not react positively when they succeed (Qin, Way, & Et Mukherjee, 2008). In addition, because conditional negative regard is linked to negative developmental outcomes such as low self-esteem and depression (Otterpohl et al., 2017;Wouters et al., 2018), it is likely more prevalent in families who receive parental counseling or mental health treatment. ...
SYNOPSIS
Objective. Parental academic conditional regard is a socialization strategy in which parents’ displays of appreciation increase (conditional positive regard; PACPR) or decrease (conditional negative regard; PACNR) depending on the children’s academic achievement. Little is known about how adolescents perceive combinations of conditional positive and negative regard and how within-person combinations of them relate to developmental outcomes. Design. This study uses a person-oriented approach to examine within-person combinations of PACPR and PACNR and their different associations with individuals’ motivation and adjustment. Three different samples reported on perceived PACPR and PACNR: adolescent students (N = 3,891), university freshmen (N = 556), and parents (N = 760). We conducted confirmatory latent profile analyses and investigated associations between profiles and outcome measures (basic need satisfaction, self-esteem level and contingency, ability self-concept, achievement goal orientation, test anxiety, and depressive symptoms). Results. The results supported a 3-class solution in all samples: low (44.4%–61.4%) or high (14.5%–24.5%) on both, and only high on PACPR (14.1%–31.3%). Groups reporting overall high levels of conditional regard scored the least favorably on all outcomes. Individuals with only high scores on PACPR differed from those with overall low scores on conditional regard primarily in terms of higher contingent self-esteem. Conclusions. The two dimensions of conditional regard are distinct. Although combination of the two dimensions is associated with individuals’ general poor adjustment, the presence of PACPR alone is related to a fragile sense of self-esteem. Implications for future research are discussed.
Asian American and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) are one of the fastest growing ethnic communities in the United States. Often referred to as the model minority, first coined by William Peterson, in 1966, AAPIs in the U.S. number approximately 15 million and represent more than 100 languages and dialects. However, few studies have investigated psychological consequences of internalizing the model minority. The purpose of this chapter is delve into the other side of the model minority façade, the less glamorous side of model minority, one of the causes of Asian Americans' psychological and mental health issues: the history of model minority, the concept of stereotype, and the various psychological and mental health issues, the reputation of the concept of psychological issues, and mental health services. While there is sacred empirical evidence in the support of the claim that direct causality exists between model minority and psychological and mental health issues, validities and correlations can be established, through the shared classification of diagnosed symptoms.
This autoethnographic narrative shows how discourses of belonging for racialized identities within Canada’s mosaic are bounded by history, cultural politics, and attendant social struggles. Using an intersectional framework of Asian Critical theory, politics of location, and cultural capital, this paper demonstrates how ideologies of belonging are sustained by processes of cultural and institutional socialization which maintain hierarchies privileging some social groups over others and produce racial/ized difference and inequities within Canadian citizenry. As a second-generation of Chinese ancestry born and raised in Vancouver, Canada, my lived experiences in a predominantly white English-speaking environment illustrate how my status as “model minority” or “honorary white” has been a precarious position. Bonilla-Silva warns us that “honorary white” positioning may be revoked in times of economic, racial or ethnic tension. Dramatic increases in anti-Asian hate incidents during the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic—earning Vancouver, BC, the title of the “anti-Asian hate capital of North America”—is an example of how these racialized statuses are paradoxical designations which deny the existence of social inequities. Critical research must interrogate how the continued use of mis-aggregated data that essentializes diverse population groups and perpetuates harmful distortions of Canadian citizenry contribute to, rather than dismantle, discourses of race in “multicultural” Canada.
Asian American (AsA) youth comprise a large and fast-growing proportion of the U. S. population. AsA youth have comparable and sometimes higher rates of mental health concerns compared to White youth, but are significantly less likely to access mental health services. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) was originally designed by and for White and Western populations, but might provide clinical benefits for AsA youth because several CBT characteristics overlap with some AsA values (e.g., directive therapeutic style; family involvement). Despite this promise, there has yet to be a synthesis of evidence on the effectiveness of CBT, either culturally-adapted or non-adapted, for AsA youth. A systematic narrative review identified randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of CBT conducted with AsA youth. Electronic databases used included PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed, and ProQuest. Our search yielded 2,059 articles, of which, 8 RCTs (386 participants) met inclusion criteria. Studies were heterogeneous across targeted problems (e.g., phobia, depression) and age (M = 8.4–22.1 years). Findings suggest that both culturally-adapted and non-adapted CBT (3 and 5 RCTs, respectively) were effective in reducing a range of emotional and behavioral problems for AsA youth. The dearth of studies with AsA youth underscores the need for enhancing the cultural responsiveness of clinical research and practice, as well as harnessing community-engaged methods to improve the accessibility and uptake of evidence-based mental health services for AsA youth.
Social scientists have long debated whether high-achieving students of color are socially sanctioned. This discussion has rarely focused on immigrant students, who are exceptionally diverse in their educational performance and face challenges in social integration at school. This article assesses whether the effect of academic achievement on U.S. adolescents’ popularity among peers varies by immigrant status. Further, we investigate whether the same pattern holds for immigrant students across racial/ethnic groups. While theoretical frameworks led us to expect that some immigrant groups would be socially punished for their school achievement, we did not find evidence for a negative effect of achievement (GPA) on popularity (number of alters nominating ego as a friend) for any group. Instead, the effect of achievement on popularity is positive but smaller among second-generation and foreign-born students than among white students from native-born families. This social penalty is observed across Black and most Hispanic immigrant subgroups, applies to some Asian immigrant subgroups, and does not apply to white immigrant students.
Racial-ethnic inequity is deeply entrenched in U.S. social systems, yet adolescents’ voices and understanding around inequity are not often directly examined. The current qualitative study uses focus group data from African American ( n = 21), Chinese- ( n = 17), Indian- ( n = 13), and Mexican- ( n = 17) origin adolescents ( M age = 12.93 years; SD = 1.23; 51% boys) to provide insight on how youth navigate their attitudes and beliefs about these issues. Using a racial-ethnic socialization lens, we explore proximal (e.g., parents, peers, teachers) and distal (e.g., media, society) ways in which adolescents come to understand racial-ethnic inequity. Three themes characterized adolescents’ discussions. School diversity, of peers and of thought, and messages around egalitarianism were two prominent influences on their perceptions. A third theme related to perceptions of social hierarchies, which appeared to be shaped by stereotypes, peer interactions, and ideas about inequity itself. Emergent themes suggest that the school context is a particularly salient social setting that encompasses multiple sources of socialization (e.g., teachers, classmates, academics, climate), and parents, peers, and the media also play prominent roles.
Amidst changing patterns of accommodation and conflict among American ethnic groups, there remains a paucity of research on the nature and impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on development in multiethnic samples of youth. The Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index along with measures of caregiver racial bias preparation and self-esteem was administered to 177 adolescents drawn from 9th–12th graders self-identified as African American, Hispanic, East Asian, South Asian, and non-Hispanic white. Youth from all ethnic backgrounds reported distress associated with instances of perceived racial prejudice encountered in educational contexts. Instances of institutional discrimination in stores and by police were higher for older youth and particularly for African American and Hispanic teenagers. Encounters with peer discrimination were reported most frequently by Asian youth. Reports of racial bias preparation were associated with distress in response to institutional and educational discrimination and self-esteem scores were negatively correlated with distress caused by educational and peer discrimination. The importance of research on discrimination distress to understanding adolescent development in multiethnic ecologies is discussed here.
This study examined the independent and combined influence of demographic variables (gender and ethnicity) and contextual variables (perceived family and friend support, and school climate) on changes in psychological adjustment (self-esteem and depressive symptoms) over a 2-year period. The sample included 100 Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents from low-income families. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the increase over time in reported levels of self-esteem was significantly greater for those who reported more positive perceptions of school climate at Time 1. Unexpectedly, the increase in self-esteem and the decrease in depressive symptoms over time were also significantly greater for those who reported lower family support at Time 1. Post hoc analyses were conducted to better understand the patterns detected. Findings underscore the importance of positive school experiences for students' psychological well-being and the need to examine the meaning of family support.
Responding to the lack of research on friendships among racial/ethnic minority adolescents, a study of friendships was conducted among 160 African American, Latino, and Asian American adolescents from low-income families. The goals of the study were to (a) assess gender and racial/ethnic differences in the characteristics and quality of close and general friendships, (b) examine the independent and combined influence of individual-level (i.e., psychological well-being) and contextual (i.e., family relationships and school climate) variables on the quality of close and general friendships, and (c) examine the moderating effect of gender and race/ethnicity on the associations between individual-level and contextual variables and the quality of close and general friendships. Findings indicated significant gender and racial/ethnic differences in the characteristics and quality of close and general friendships. Furthermore, the correlates of friendship quality differed across the type of friendship (i.e., close or general) and across gender, underscoring the importance of distinguishing types of friendships and examining the role of gender in friendships.
Some past conceptualizations in family research have synthesized the constructs of family cohesion and enmeshment by placing enmeshment at the high extreme end of cohesion. In this article, we argue that, theoretically, the 2 are different constructs—cohesion is a measure of supportive interaction, and enmeshment is a measure of psychological control. We examine this hypothesis by testing the associations between adolescent reports of family cohesion and enmeshment and several measures of adolescent problem behaviors using a sample of 471 students in preadolescence and early and middle adolescence from a suburb of a city in the South. Results show that cohesion is associated negatively with both internalizing and externalizing adolescent problem behaviors. Enmeshment is related positively with youth problems, and more strongly with internalizing problems. Furthermore, different patterns of interaction emerge among the 2 family variables and the adolescents' grade in school and sex.
The analysis emphasizes the need to examine structural and cultural factors in the sending and receiving countries over a historical process to understand how immigrants are incorporated in American society. The article argues that Chinese were slower to make the transition from sojourner to immigrant due to structural characteristics of Chinese village society; whereas Japanese immigrants were not tied by strong family bonds to Japan and made a more rapid transition. The differential timing of family formation and family-run businesses in America account for the more rapid assimilation of Japanese Americans. Changing labor markets after World War II provided new opportunity structures favorable to the socioeconomic mobility of native-born Chinese and Japanese Americans.
To understand the way children develop, Bronfenbrenner believes that it is necessary to observe their behavior in natural settings, while they are interacting with familiar adults over prolonged periods of time. His book offers an important blueprint for constructing a new and ecologically valid psychology of development.