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The conservation status of small or less well known groups of New Zealand terrestrial invertebrates
Abstract
A total of 27 taxa from taxonomic groups with few species, or that are less well known, are listed as Threatened, 50 taxa are At Risk, 110 taxa are Data Deficient and three taxa are Extinct. Thirteen taxa are Nationally Critical: Aceria clianthi; Eriophyoidea incertae (Acari); Cryptops sp.; Haasiella sp. (Chilopoda); Burmjapyx sp. (Diplura); Hirudobdella antipodum (Hirudinea); Antiponemertes allisonae (Nemertini); Prasmiola unica (Opiliones); and Tepakiphasma ngatikuri (Phasmatodea) are freeliving whereas the lice Apterygon okarito, Coloceras harrisoni, Rallicola takahe and Saemundssonia chathamensis (Phthiraptera) have the same threat status as their bird hosts. No taxa were considered Nationally Endangered but 14 ectoparasites are Nationally Vulnerable, including six Acari and eight Phthiraptera. The At Risk taxa comprise two that are Declining, four that are Recovering, one that is Relict and 45 taxa that are Naturally Uncommon. Earthworms (Oligochaeta) also make up 101 of the 110 Data Deficient taxa. All of the Extinct species were host-specific feather lice: two were on extinct birds and one became extinct when its host was transferred to predator-free islands. Thirty-six earthworm species that were previously Data Deficient are now ranked Not Threatened, as are five Phthiraptera that were previously ranked either Nationally Critical or Nationally Endangered and one Phasmatodea that was previously ranked Nationally Endangered.
... Given the lack of geographic knowledge of even the described Philopteridae fauna, we estimated that the number of threatened louse species in SWWA is approximately 42 species as a function of the host's threat status (following Buckley et al. 2012;Moir and Brennan 2020). The majority (24 species) were on migratory birds. ...
... Of further note, threatened vertebrates native to SWWA are being translocated to predator-free islands or fenced areas as insurance populations. Experience elsewhere has shown that dependent parasites may not survive in translocated host populations as host populations may feature too few individuals for the insect (e.g., wing louse Rallicola (Huiacola) extinctus on translocated little spotted kiwi in New Zealand: Buckley et al. 2012; and examples in . ...
The mass loss of insects is gaining momentum in the twenty-first century, compared with the previous 100 years. The loss is coinciding with accelerating threats, including megafires, flooding, temperature extremes, urbanisation, and habitat loss. In global diversity hotspots, where endemism is high, and native vegetation highly impacted, many insect species would likely be both endemic and threatened. However, insect diversity, endemicity and threat status are largely unknown in these regions. Here we assess the biodiversity and status of host-dependent insects in the southwest Australian (SWWA) hotspot. We selected nine insect families across three orders; Tingidae, Achilidae, Derbidae, Dictyopharidae, Triozidae (Hemiptera), Micropterigidae, Heliozidae (Lepidoptera), Boopidae, and Philopteridae (Psocodea). These families had 632+ species, of which 255 (~ 40%) were described. One species was formally listed as threatened, but a further 245 species potentially require conservation management. Threatening processes include coextinction (through loss or reduction in host populations), climate change, altered fire regimes, habitat loss, and fragmentation of host populations. Taxonomic and resourcing bias has inhibited attempts to describe the diversity and biogeography of the region, precluding comprehensive conservation assessments for the majority of insect families.
Implications for insect conservation
Given the scale and intensity of threats faced by a hyperdiverse insect fauna in the southwest Australia biodiversity hotspot, a systematic approach to manage habitats at a landscape scale is most likely to succeed in conserving species in the short-term. Longer term solutions require addressing these knowledge gaps, thus increasing our understanding of the diversity and conservation needs of insect families in southwest Australia.
... As with the taxonomy, information around the conservation needs of New Zealand landhoppers is scant. Only one valid species, Dana taranaki (formerly Tara taranaki), is currently assessed in the New Zealand Threat Classification System (NZTCS), presently placed in the 'Minor invertebrate groups' taxon report (Buckley et al. 2012). A lack of information about the ecology of our species is largely to blame for this situation, though taxonomic issues have no doubt also contributed. ...
... Currently, the Department of Conservation appear to have two terrestrial amphipod taxa listed in their threat classification lists. The first species, Tara taranaki (now Dana taranaki) is listed in the "Minor invertebrate groups" report (Buckley et al. 2012), which can now be updated. The second "species" is recorded as "Makawe spp.: Talitridae" and is included in the Freshwater invertebrates report (Grainger et al. 2018). ...
Terrestrial amphipods (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Talitroidea) or landhoppers have often been overlooked as research or conservation subjects in New Zealand. Currently, there are 28 native species of landhopper described from New Zealand. Information around their conservation needs is scant and only one species is currently assessed in the New Zealand Threat Classification System (NZTCS). There is an urgent need therefore to understand the conservation requirements of our native landhoppers. This report presents the recommended threat statuses for all 28 native landhopper species described from New Zealand. Recommendations for a further eight undescribed New Zealand species, as well as two introduced species, are also presented. Two species were assessed as being Threatened (both Nationally Vulnerable), and 11 taxa were classed as At Risk (two as Relict, and nine as Naturally Uncommon). Most native species fell into the Not Threatened and Data Deficient categories. Two species are listed as Introduced and Naturalised. All but one of the assessments were newly proposed listings for the NZTCS. The implications of the recommended rankings on research and management of landhoppers in New Zealand are discussed. Notably, serious knowledge gaps around the taxonomic status of many New Zealand landhoppers are impeding our ability to accurately determine appropriate threat statuses and conservation measures. A pending journal publication will therefore focus in more detail on the current state of the taxonomy.
... Next, the database of the New Zealand Threat Classification System (NZTCS, https://nztcs.org.nz/) was used to match the names of type species with their conservation status (if it had been assessed) by 'marrying' with the Species ID. For each taxonomic group, the latest threat assessment information is provided: i.e., amphibians (Burns et al. 2025), indigenous vascular plants (de Lange et al. 2024), rhytididae (carnivorous snails; Walker et al. 2024), bats (O'Donnell et al. 2023, mushroom fungi (selected species of Agaricales, Boletales, Russulales; Cooper et al. 2022), Orthoptera (wēta, crickets and grasshoppers; Trewick et al. 2022), parasitic mites and ticks (Acari; Heath et al. 2022), birds (Robertson et al. 2021), reptiles , spiders (Sirvid et al. 2021), leaf-veined slugs and amber snails , pūpūharakeke/flax snails , hornworts and liverworts (de Lange et al. 2020), marine macroalgae (Nelson et al. 2019), marine mammals (Baker et al. 2019), chimaeras, sharks and rays (Duffy et al. 2018), freshwater fishes ), lichens (de Lange et al. 2018, Onychophora (Trewick et al. 2018), hymenoptera (Ward et al. 2017), lepidoptera (Hoare et al. 2017), mosses , stick insects (Buckley et al. 2016), earthworms (Buckley et al. 2015), fleas (Heath et al. 2015), aphids , coleoptera (Leschen et al. 2012), diptera (Andrew et al. 2012), hemiptera , small or less well-known terrestrial invertebrates (Buckley et al. 2012), nematodes (Yeates et al. 2012), micro-snails (Mahlfeld et al. 2012, and fungi excluding selected species of Agaricales, Boletales and Russulales (Hitchmough et al. 2007; other taxa were re-assessed by Cooper et al. 2022). ...
... Recently, six lice species were listed as co-extinct, and 40-41 were recognized as co-endangered (Rózsa and Vas, 2014). At national level, 3 lice species became extinct, 4 were considered as critically endangered, and 8 as vulnerable in New Zealand (Buckley et al., 2012). Nevertheless, these numbers may be underestimated because a lack of data on the local status of a number of bird and mammal species and many host-lice assemblages as well, particularly regarding threatened and/or endemic host-species. ...
Although the idea of conserving parasites as part of biodiversity is not new, these in general and lice in particular, are not included in the threatened list of invertebrate fauna. Assuming that the conservation status of a lice species is similar to that of its host, the number of threatened lice within the Spanish entomofauna was estimated based on the known host-lice assemblages. The lice parasitizing many of the Spanish birds and mammals are unknown. Overall, I found 6 extinct (EX) species; 4 critically endangered (CR); 15 endangered (EN), 7 vulnerable (VU) and 1 species near threatened (NT), at regional level. Since the status of hosts varies through time and space, it, (together with those of their lice, must be periodically updated. In addition to a number of reasons that justify the conservation of parasites, lice deserve being conserved, particularly, because of their scientific value.
... Parasites, such as this louse (Phthiraptera, Rallicola pilgrimi Clay, collected June 2014, South Island, New Zealand), which went extinct when its host, the little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii Gould), was transferred to predator-free islands(Buckley et al., 2012), and which is not on the Red List, are almost completely unknown in the assessment of extinctions.Photograph: Creative Commons 4.0. Te Papa (A1.018470). ...
There have been five Mass Extinction events in the history of Earth's biodiversity, all caused by dramatic but natural phenomena. It has been claimed that the Sixth Mass Extinction may be underway, this time caused entirely by humans. Although considerable evidence indicates that there is a biodiversity crisis of increasing extinctions and plummeting abundances, some do not accept that this amounts to a Sixth Mass Extinction. Often, they use the IUCN Red List to support their stance, arguing that the rate of species loss does not differ from the background rate. However, the Red List is heavily biased: almost all birds and mammals but only a minute fraction of invertebrates have been evaluated against conservation criteria. Incorporating estimates of the true number of invertebrate extinctions leads to the conclusion that the rate vastly exceeds the background rate and that we may indeed be witnessing the start of the Sixth Mass Extinction. As an example, we focus on molluscs, the second largest phylum in numbers of known species, and, extrapolating boldly, estimate that, since around AD 1500, possibly as many as 7.5-13% (150,000-260,000) of all~2 million known species have already gone extinct, orders of magnitude greater than the 882 (0.04%) on the Red List. We review differences in extinction rates according to realms: marine species face significant threats but, although previous mass extinctions were largely defined by marine invertebrates, there is no evidence that the marine biota has reached the same crisis as the non-marine biota. Island species have suffered far greater rates than continental ones. Plants face similar conservation biases as do invertebrates, although there are hints they may have suffered lower extinction rates. There are also those who do not deny an extinction crisis but accept it as a new trajectory of evolution, because humans are part of the natural world; some even embrace it, with a desire to manipulate it for human benefit. We take issue with these stances. Humans are the only species able to manipulate the Earth on a grand scale, and they have allowed the current crisis to happen. Despite multiple conservation initiatives at various levels, most are not species oriented (certain charismatic vertebrates excepted) and specific actions to protect every living species individually are simply unfeasible because of the tyranny of numbers. As systematic biologists, we encourage the nurturing of the innate human appreciation of biodiversity, but we reaffirm the message that the biodiversity that makes our world so fascinating, beautiful and functional is vanishing unnoticed at an unprecedented rate. In the face of a mounting crisis, scientists must adopt the practices of preventive archaeology , and collect and document as many species as possible before they disappear. All this depends on reviving the venerable study of natural history and taxonomy. Denying the crisis, simply accepting it and doing nothing, or even embracing it for the ostensible benefit of humanity, are not appropriate options and pave the way for the Earth to continue on its sad trajectory towards a Sixth Mass Extinction.
... Host-parasite networks are altered and threatened by global change [11]. For instance, co-extinction of parasites from their hosts has been well documented [12][13][14] with some of these as a result of conservation efforts to save their hosts [15][16][17]. One of the bestknown examples is the extinction of the avian chewing louse, Colpocephalum californici Price & Beer, 1963 from the Critically Endangered Californian Condor Gymnogyps californianus (Shaw, 1797). ...
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Feather chewing lice are common and important ectoparasites of birds. Here we report for the first time the presence of the ectoparasite, Colpocephalum trichosum Harrison1916 (Phthiraptera: Menoponidae on the Andean condor Vultur gryphus Linnaeus, 1758 from the North high Andes of Ecuador in Pichincha province. A total of 20 louse specimens were collected and analyzed from one free-living female juvenile host. Additionally, high resolution photographs of the louse are included, and a discussion on the potential implications of ectoparasites on the conservation of this threatened bird species is presented. Finally, we propose that further studies on Andean Condor ectoparasites should be focused on the potential causes and effects of these interactions.
... Parasites may also be disadvantageously affected by host captivity if for instance intermediate hosts are absent (Milotic et al. 2020); however, in some cases parasites may remain in captive host populations despite treatment (Mironov et al. 2018). Regular treatments to save one organisms may thus lead to the extinction of another (Buckley et al. 2012;Rózsa and Vas 2015;Bulgarella and Palma 2017). ...
The crested ibis has survived a dramatic population decline during the twentieth century, declining from a range across much of China, Japan, the Korean peninsula and nearby Russia, to a known world population of seven individuals. These formed the basis of a successful breeding program in Shaanxi, China. We examined ibises in this breeding program for ectoparasites, to establish whether any of the three chewing louse species known from this host had survived this severe host population bottleneck. We recovered representatives of three species of lice, identified as the same species as those previously known from the wild populations: Ardeicola nippon, Colpocephalum nipponi, and Ibidoecus meinertzhageni. Of these, the two first species were recovered from almost all examined hosts, whereas I. meinertzhageni was more rare. As these lice are host specific, this implies that all three louse species remarkably survived this bottleneck, and are now thriving in both the reintroduced and captive populations of crested ibis. This constitutes an unintentional success story in the conservation of parasitic species. We provide the first photos of all three species, as well as a preliminary assessment of their conservation status, and discuss the future of chewing louse conservation.
Many parasites are intimately tied to a single host species, and thus likely to go extinct if their host vanished, making the parasites and hosts co-endangered. As endangered host species taken into breeding or relocation programs are often routinely treated against parasites, conservation-induced extinction of parasite species is likely to be a problem for parasite conservation. Moreover, the representation of parasites in the IUCN Red List is poor. For parasitic lice (Phthiraptera), only a single species has been evaluated, despite over 150 louse species being known from highly threatened bird hosts. Here, we calculate the Index of Specificity (IS) for all louse genera occurring on avian hosts. We use this to estimate that the true diversity of avian chewing lice is 41,627–42,410 species, of which only 4535 (~ 11.0%) are presently known. We then use these IS values to predict the unknown diversity of lice on highly threatened host species, estimating that the number of host-specific louse species exclusively parasitizing highly threatened bird hosts may be an order of magnitude higher than presently known (1162 vs. 108 species). In order to forestall the conservation-induced extinction of further louse species, we here propose a “pre-emptive red listing” of louse species that are not currently known or described formally but are likely to occur on highly threatened hosts. Ideally, any future breeding or relocation program involving these hosts should take care to also survey louse species on the hosts and, as far as possible, conserve these concurrently with their hosts.
The conservation status of 211 parasitic (on animals only) mite and tick (Acari) taxa was assessed using the New Zealand Threat Classification System (NZTCS). A list is presented, along with a statistical summary and brief notes on the most important changes. This list replaces all previous NZTCS lists for parasitic mites and ticks.
Most remote and oceanic islands are important, yet highly vulnerable biodiversity hotspots, which host a significant proportion of endemic species. Along with iconic endangered or extinct animals and plants, the disappearance of their co-inhabitants, including protist parasites, gets usually unnoticed from the conservation perspective. Here, we examined insects from Madagascar, Reunion, and Mauritius for the presence of trypanosomatid parasites (Kinetoplastea). Out of 660 specimens of the true bugs (Heteroptera) belonging to 87 species and 18 families, 95 individuals of 30 species were found to be infected (14% prevalence) by at least one trypanosomatid species, here referred to as typing units (TUs). Out of 141 flies (Diptera), 19 (13%) were infected. High diversity of the host species correlated with a high diversity of detected TUs belonging to 11 trypanosomatid genera, and representatives of 7 genera (Angomonas, Blastocrithidia, Herpetomonas, ‘jaculum’, Leptomonas, Wallacemonas, and Zelonia) yielded axenic cultures. Of 39 detected TUs, more than half have not been encountered in other geographical regions and appear to be endemic. Altogether, 27 TUs, including 15 newly detected ones, were found exclusively in bugs, while flies hosted 11 TUs, out of which five were found exclusively on the studied islands. Only a single species, Leptomonas moramango, was found in both insect groups. Several new isolates have significantly extended the diversity of the plant-pathogenic Phytomonas. Geographically widespread as well as endemic TUs were detected in both widely distributed and (sub)endemic insects. The high proportion of endemic TUs suggests that the prominent role of islands in the global diversity of macroscopic organisms likely extends also to their protistan parasites and that the protection of macro-organisms in biodiversity hot spots can also protect the vast, yet mainly invisible, diversity of their parasitic companions.
The ectoparasite fauna of kiwi is reviewed, and new host records given for ticks and fleas. New locality records for the tick Ixodes anatis Chilton, 1904 are provided, together with geographical distribution, seasonal data for each tick stage, and a discussion on the biology of the tick as far as could be ascertained from the available material and observational data. The effects of the parasites on the hosts, and the extent to which host phylogeny is only dimly illuminated by host–parasite relationships, are presented. The availability of a good series of the trombiculid Guntheria (Derrickiella) apteryxi Loomis & Goff, 1983 suggests that this mite is likely to be more specific to the kiwi than the mammalian links with other species in this genus would otherwise indicate. Some suggestions are made for further research, especially into tick biology.
Carios quadridentatus , a new species of argasid tick associated with the New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat, is described and illustrated from larval material. This is the second species of soft tick found in New Zealand, bringing the total number of tick species breeding in New Zealand to 11. The taxonomic history of bat ticks is discussed, together with the affinities of the new species with the Australian bat-tick fauna.
A list of all the species of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae, Argasidae) known to occur naturally in the New Zealand subregion is given. Hosts, geographic distribution and relevant references are provided for each species. Three erroneous records published recently, two in a book on New Zealand biodiversity and one in a seabird tick review are corrected.
Clianthus is an endemic genus of only two species, C. punicens (G. Don)Sol. Ex Lindl. and C. maximus Colenso, both of which are endangered (Heenan 2000). Information about the herbivores that feed on these species and pathogens that attack them was obtained from literature, Landcare Research fungal databases and field observations. Two pathogens are associated with roots and two with stems and the crown, while a powdery mildew, Odium sp., is seen on leaves. The commonest of three herbivorous mites found on Clianthus is the endemic species, Aceria clianthi (Eriophyidae). This mite is only found on Clianthus and should be regarded as endangered. Eleven species of insects, in the orders Coleoptera (3), Diptera (1), Hemiptera (5) and Lepidoptera (2), and one species of mollusc are associated with Clianthus. The endemic leaf mining fly, Liriomyza clianthi (Agromyzidae) and the adventive mollusc, Cantareus aspersus (Gastropoda: Helicidae), can defoliate plants in the Auckland gardens and reduce the life span of plants.
Austreynetes maudenis FAIN & BARKER new genus and new species (Acari: Ereynetidae) is described
from the pallial cavIty of the terrestrial gastropod Pseudaneitea schauinslandi (PLATE, 1897)
(Athoracophoridae) collected from Maud Island in the Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand.
Six New Zealand Orthoptera are considered Threatened: Sigaus homerensis is Nationally Critical; Brachaspis robustus and Sigaus “yellow” are Nationally Endangered; while Sigaus “green”, Sigaus “blue” and Hemideina thoracica with a chromosome arrangement of 2n=23/24 are Nationally Vulnerable. Forty taxa are At Risk comprising one Declining (Sigaus minutus), two Recovering (Deinacrida mahoenui, Motuweta isolata), six anostostomatids that are Relict and 31 Naturally Uncommon taxa. The remaining taxa known to occur in New Zealand comprise eight taxa that are Introducedand Naturalised, 19 that are Data Deficient and 94 taxa, including 80 species, that are Not Threatened. Factors influencing the vulnerability of threatened Orthoptera in New Zealand are noted.
We describe a new genus and species of stick insect from Northland, New Zealand, Tepakiphasma ngatikuri, gen. nov., sp. nov. We have classifi ed this genus as a member of Phasmatidae, Phasmatinae, Acanthoxylini, and due to the presence of certain key synapomorphies it is phylogenetically placed within the Australasian clade Lanceocercata. A number of character states differentiate Tepakiphasma from other New Zealand Acanthoxylini genera including the number and arrangement of teeth on the claspers and a perforate egg capitulum or capitular cone. Like many New Zealand phasmatodeans the known host plants of T. ngatikuri include species of Myrtaceae. This genus appears to have an extremely limited geographic distribution and is known from only two specimens collected in the Te Paki / North Cape area at the northernmost tip of mainland New Zealand. This discovery further emphasises the importance of the Te Paki / North Cape area in New Zealand biodiversity. The phasmatodean fauna of New Zealand now contains 10 genera and 23 described species.
A list of all the species of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae, Argasidae) known to occur naturally in the New Zealand subregion is given. Hosts, geographic distribution and relevant references are provided for each species. Three erroneous records published recently, two in a book on New Zealand biodiversity and one in a seabird tick review are corrected.
The conservation status of Gastropoda, excluding taxa in the genus Powelliphanta and those in freshwater, are listed. Forty-seven taxa are Threatened and comprise 28 that are Nationally Critical, 11 that are Nationally Endangered and eight that are Nationally Vulnerable. A further 259 are At Risk, comprising five Declining, 50 Relict and 204 Naturally Uncommon taxa. In addition, 138 taxa are Data Deficient; no taxa are listed as Extinct. Factors that contribute towards New Zealand landsnails becoming threatened are discussed.