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La double articulation linguistigue
Abstract
La linguistigue est traditionnellement présentée, sinon définie, comme la science du langage. Reste à savoir, naturellement, ce gu'on entend par . On sait les difficultés auxguelles se heurtent ceux des linguistes gui cherchent à donner un statut scientifigue aux termes traditionnels. Pour chacun d'entre ces termes, il s'agit en fait de trouver une définition gui, d'une part permette d'identifier à coup sûr une réalité comme faisant effectivement partie de la classe ainsi isolée, d'autre part, n'exclue aucun des faits gue la langue courante désigne au moyen du terme à définir. Dans un cas de ce genre, c'est la conformité à l'usage général gui reste, en fait, la pierre de touche de toute definition: si I'on définit le concept de de facon telle gue le /a/ de telle langue ne puisse être identifié comme une , et gue le /s/ de telle autre réponde à la définition proposée, celle-ci n'a aucune chance d'être acceptée, et son auteur lui-même n'insiste pas.
... Esta propiedad fue formulada de manera independiente y casi simultánea por dos autores de dos tradiciones diferentes: el estadounidense Charles F. Hockett (Hockett, 1958(Hockett, , 1960(Hockett, , 1962 y el francés André Martinet (Martinet, 1949) 3 . Sus concepciones son semejantes, aunque no idénticas, existiendo básicamente dos diferencias entre ellas (Longa y López Rivera, 2010): mientras Martinet parece trazar un recorrido desde las unidades con significado a las que carecen de él, Hockett concibe la dualidad de manera inversa, desde las unidades sin significado a las significativas; por otro lado, Hockett se detiene en el morfema (signo mínimo), atribuyendo la combina-3 Como sugiere un revisor anónimo, es obligado reconocer ciertas influencias de Hjelmslev en los dos autores tratados: por un lado, los términos 'plerema' y 'cenema', usados por Hockett (cf. ...
... Por esta razón, como señala Simone (1990: 29), el lenguaje es el ejemplo más obvio y potente de economía semiótica radical: unas pocas decenas de elementos sin significado combinados de múltiples maneras pueden formar miles de morfemas, estos conforman miles y miles de palabras, y con estas se producen infinitas oraciones. Así pues, tanto Hockett (1958Hockett ( , 1960Hockett ( , 1962 como Martinet (1949Martinet ( , 1960 consideran la dualidad o doble articulación como un rasgo definitorio fundamental del lenguaje. ...
... Esta propiedad fue formulada de manera independiente y casi simultánea por dos autores de dos tradiciones diferentes: el estadounidense Charles F. Hockett (Hockett, 1958(Hockett, , 1960(Hockett, , 1962 y el francés André Martinet (Martinet, 1949) 3 . Sus concepciones son semejantes, aunque no idénticas, existiendo básicamente dos diferencias entre ellas (Longa y López Rivera, 2010): mientras Martinet parece trazar un recorrido desde las unidades con significado a las que carecen de él, Hockett concibe la dualidad de manera inversa, desde las unidades sin significado a las significativas; por otro lado, Hockett se detiene en el morfema (signo mínimo), atribuyendo la combina-3 Como sugiere un revisor anónimo, es obligado reconocer ciertas influencias de Hjelmslev en los dos autores tratados: por un lado, los términos 'plerema' y 'cenema', usados por Hockett (cf. ...
... Por esta razón, como señala Simone (1990: 29), el lenguaje es el ejemplo más obvio y potente de economía semiótica radical: unas pocas decenas de elementos sin significado combinados de múltiples maneras pueden formar miles de morfemas, estos conforman miles y miles de palabras, y con estas se producen infinitas oraciones. Así pues, tanto Hockett (1958Hockett ( , 1960Hockett ( , 1962 como Martinet (1949Martinet ( , 1960 consideran la dualidad o doble articulación como un rasgo definitorio fundamental del lenguaje. ...
Duality of patterning is a central property of language. Half a century ago, Charles Hockett compared animal communication and language by means of his well-known system of design features, and contended that duality was one of the few features animal communication was not endowed with. Since then, a number of scholars (especially, linguists), have considered duality to exist in some animal communication systems which exhibit a combinatorial nature, in such a way that signals are composed of smaller units. This article critically discusses those proposals; more concretely, it makes the point that the hierarchical-combinatorial procedure found in animal combinatorial systems greatly differs from that found in language, the result being that those systems lack duality. Therefore, the paper vindicates Hockett's position, by arguing that he was fully right when he asserted that duality is absent from animal communication.
... Language is unique in its semanticity, productivity and mode of transmission: it is a system spread through cultural learning which consists of relatively fixed mappings between form and meaning, yet can effortlessly accommodate infinite novelty of expression. Language gets its massive expressive power from its duality of patterning or double articulation (Martinet, 1949): linguistic utterances are assembled from small meaningful units (morphemes) combined according to a set of morphosyntactic rules, while the morphemes themselves are built from a second set of meaningless sounds (phonemes) using a different set of phonological rules. Linguistic knowledge is fundamentally symbolic, made up of an inventory of arbitrary associations between forms and meaning (de Saussure, 1916), which can be composed into complex signals whose meanings can be derived from the meanings of their component parts and the way these are combined (Krifka, 2001). ...
... One of the fundamental properties which gives language its expressive power is the duality of patterning described above (Martinet, 1949). All languages contain meaningless phonemes which can be used to build meaningful morphemes, but they differ widely in their number and type, in how the space of possible phonemes is divided up, and in the rules for combining the sounds together into larger units. ...
Language is probably the key defining characteristic of humanity, an immensely powerful tool which provides its users with an infinitely expressive means of representing their complex thoughts and reflections, and of successfully communicating them to others. It is the foundation on which human societies have been built and the means through which humanity’s unparalleled intellectual and technological achievements have been realized. Although we have a natural intuitive understanding of what a language is, the specification of a particular language is nevertheless remarkably difficult, if not impossible, to pin down precisely. All languages contain many separate yet integral systems which work interdependently to allow the expression of our thoughts and the interpretation of others’ expressions: each has, for instance, a set of basic meaningless sounds (e.g. [e], [l], [s]) which can be combined to make different meaningful words and parts of words (e.g. else, less, sell, -less); these meaningful units can be combined to make complex words (e.g. spinelessness, selling), and the words themselves can then be combined in very many complex ways into phrases, clauses and an infinite number of meaningful sentences; finally each of these sentences can be interpreted in dramatically different ways, depending on the contexts in which it is uttered and on who is doing the interpretation. Languages can be analysed at any of these different levels, which make up many of the sub-fields of linguistics, and the primary job of linguistic theorists is to try to explain the rules which best explain these complex combinations.
... All natural languages obey a set of combinatory rules which start playing at the level of word formation through phonemes i.e. 'smallest meaningful unit of sound' (Hockett, 1960) generally known as 'duality of pattering' (Hurford 2008, Martinet, 1949 or double articulation. To confirm a systematic formation of words through such rules if reverse order is applied, words can be broken down into smaller sound unit again. ...
The binarity of parameters according to which languages differ in their structure is the subject of minimalist program proposed by Noam Chomsky. This article analyses the phrase structure of Urdu in light of the binarity of the headedness principle. 10 participants with equal competency in Urdu and English were distributed a questionnaire containing 3 questions with 2 options in each, with both Urdu and English version of the phrase structure. They were required to tick (ð¸) the correct options and cross (x) if they considered any of the options ungrammatical. The responses of the participants confirmed that Urdu conforms to the universal principle of binarity in terms of headedness of phrase structure. It also highlights that the change of position of the head-word in Urdu only causes variation in stress pattern while the phrase remains grammatical in both cases.
... Corroborating Mufwene (1996), Efrat-Kowalsky argues that the less costly or complex it is to acquire, the more likely a feature is to be adopted by individual S-learners and therefore spread within a community. This hypothesis is also reminiscent of Martinet's (1949Martinet's ( , 1955 principle of economy in language, and Zipf 's (1949) "principle of least effort". According to both authors, linguistic behaviour is shaped in part by the minimization of effort. ...
... dazu Kapitel 1. 9 Vgl. Martinet (1949). 10 Vgl. ...
... Por ejemplo, si esperamos que la respuesta a una consigna sea el principio de articulación (de las lenguas naturales humanas) (Martinet, 1949(Martinet, , 1957, hay que pensar en las variantes a esa redacción de la respuesta que pueden surgir. En el caso particular de la autora de este artículo se proyectaron las que siguen: Incluso habiendo predeterminado todas estas variantes, aparecieron redacciones sorpresivas no tenidas en cuenta como "lenguas doblemente articuladas" que hubo que recalificar como respuestas correctas. ...
Este artículo surge de la actividad docente en la plataforma Moodle. Su objetivo es ilustrativo, busca dar un ejemplo de diversas situaciones que se produjeron en el uso de los cuestionarios de la plataforma y ofrecer opciones didácticas que pueden resultar de utilidad a la hora de resolver situaciones similares. Se pretenden focalizar dos aspectos del uso de los cuestionarios de Moodle: la confección de las consignas y la revisión manual de los resultados automáticos que arroja la plataforma. En primer lugar, se hace una breve explicación acerca de los cuestionarios: en qué consisten, qué tipos de preguntas permiten realizar, cómo se obtienen los resultados y cómo se revisan. En segundo lugar, se ofrecen algunas herramientas utilizadas en la práctica docente personal para la confección apropiada de las consignas. En tercer lugar, se proporcionan algunas orientaciones sobre el modo de llevar a cabo las revisiones de las calificaciones automáticas de Moodle. Finalmente, se cierra el trabajo con una conclusión que sintetiza lo trabajado.
... Language, in this sense, is doubly articulated or dually patterned (cf. Martinet 1949, Hockett 1960: comprised of meaningful units that are themselves composed of meaningless discriminative units. This informs grapholinguistic research directly, as will become evident in the discussion of the Chinese writing system, in which the most central graphematic relation is the one between visual units and morphemes -morphemes that, however, due to double articulation, directly correspond with pronounceable syllables. ...
Writing is an eclectic phenomenon whose many facets are studied by the young interdisciplinary field of grapholinguistics. Linguistically, writing is a system of graphic marks that relate to language. Under the lens of processing, it is a method of producing and perceiving utterances with our hands, eyes, and brains. And from a communication theoretical and sociolinguistic perspective, it is an utterly personal medium that allows users not only to convey messages to others but also to associate themselves with cultures or ideologies. These perspectives must merge to become the foundation of a functional theory of grapholinguistics that aims not only to describe how writing systems are built but to explain why they are built that way. Starting with a unified framework that allows the description of all types of writing systems with comparative concepts (such as grapheme) and moving towards the incorporation of evidence from disciplines such as psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics to arrive at explanations, this book establishes the cornerstones of such a functional theory of writing. The Nature of Writing is a collection of ideas about writing, a status report about relevant research, a discovery of desiderata, and a new perspective. It is a start, but most importantly, it is an invitation.
... Moreover, the existence of a phonological system leads to the validation of the double articulation principle [6] . This principle claims that human languages can be segmented on two levels: a first level linking an element with a meaning (in oral languages, a word is the element of minimal size for the first level) and a second level composed of distinctive units without meanings (the phonemes). ...
Signing avatars make it possible for deaf people to access information in their preferred language. However, sign language synthesis represents a challenge for the computer animation community as the motions generated must be realistic and have a precise semantic meaning. In this article, we distinguish the synthesis of isolated signs deprived of any contextual inflections from the generation of full sign language utterances. In both cases, the animation engine takes as input a representation of the synthesis objective to create the final animation. Because of their spatiotemporal characteristics, signs and utterances cannot be described by a sequential representation like phonetics in spoken languages. For this reason, linguistic and gestural studies have aimed to capture the typical and special features of signs and sign language syntax to promote different sign language representations. Those sign representations can then be used to produce an avatar animation thanks to sign synthesis techniques based on keyframes, procedural means or data-driven approaches. Novel utterances can also be generated using concatenative or articulatory techniques.
This article constitutes a survey of (i) the challenges specific to sign languages avatars, (ii) the sign representations developed in order to synthesize isolated signs, (iii) the possible sign synthesis approaches, (iv) the different utterance specifications, and (v) the challenges and animation techniques for generating sign language utterances.
... In all the systems, except Blissymbolics, the glyph is the basic articulation (Martinet, 1949;Rossi-Landi, 2005, pp. 102-105); we cannot find a lower level of articulation. ...
In this paper we discuss the theoretical linguistic and graphic preconditions of the design of PASS, a glyph system which we designed for use in Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) habilitative practices that has been released under open source licence.
We highlight the relevance of graphic design supporting sustainable practices for people with Autism Spectrum Di- sorders (ASD), in a context in which the o er of public healthcare services for rehabilitation is insufficient.
We present the context in which the AAC is adopted and how a glyph system can be used by people with ASD to learn a language. is particular group of users can access a language by using the glyph system as an interlanguage or as an alternative language.
We analyse the most common glyph systems (ARASAAC, PCS, WLS, Blissymbolics), highlighting their strengths and weaknesses from a graphic and linguistic point of view.
We present the theoretical background of the design process for the PASS glyph system.
In particular, we provide an in-depth description of the graphic design strategy, which aims to develop a systematic and consistent approach to the construction of the glyphs. This approach is grounded in a reflection on how to solve the linguistic problems raised by the valency model and Chomsky’s generative grammar theory in the visual domain.
We have designed the core of the glyph system by detecting the pertinent visual and linguistic variables in literature, with the objective of developing the system for clinical experimentation.
... In all the systems, except Blissymbolics, the glyph is the basic articulation (Martinet, 1949;Rossi-Landi, 2005, pp. 102-105); we cannot find a lower level of articulation. ...
La lectura de este monográfico permite conocer determinadas líneas de trabajo de investigación aplicada al sector del cuidado de la salud. Temáticas que se abordan desde perspectivas amplias y diversas, como son las que ofrecen las disciplinas de la creatividad, el diseño y la innovación, con el objetivo de mejorar la experiencia de las personas, ya sean pacientes o profesionales del sector.
... 3 As shown below, the cost-and-benefit approach to language has informed economists' analyses of speakers' language choices during the acquisition process and in multilingual settings, as well as their recommendations to governments to promote particular languages over others in their respective polities. Zhang & Grenier (2013) distinguish two strands of economics approaches to language: 1) the game theory approach adopted by economists such as Rubinstein (2000); and 2) the economics of language alternative, which emerged in the 1970s, 3 Note that Marschak's Zipfian glottometric approach to language is reminiscent of the French linguist André Martinet's (1949Martinet's ( , 1955 principle of economy in language. According to him, linguistic behavior is shaped by a combination of the satisfaction of communication needs and the minimization of effort. ...
Bridging Linguistics and Economics - edited by Cécile B. Vigouroux March 2020
... In all the systems, except Blissymbolics, the glyph is the basic articulation (Martinet, 1949;Rossi-Landi, 2005, pp. 102-105); we cannot find a lower level of articulation. ...
In this paper we discuss the theoretical linguistic and graphic preconditions of the design of PASS, a glyph system which we designed for use in Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) habilitative practices that has been released under open source licence.
We highlight the relevance of graphic design supporting sustainable practices for people with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), in a context in which the offer of public healthcare services for rehabilitation is insufficient.
We present the context in which the AAC is adopted and how a glyph system can be used by people with ASD to learn a language. This particular group of users can access a language by using the glyph system as an interlanguage or as an alternative language.
We analyse the most common glyph systems (ARASAAC, PCS, WLS, Blissymbolics), highlighting their strengths and weaknesses from a graphic and linguistic point of view.
We present the theoretical background of the design process for the PASS glyph system.
In particular, we provide an in-depth description of the graphic design strategy, which aims to develop a systematic and consistent approach to the construction of the glyphs. This approach is grounded in a reflection on how to solve the linguistic problems raised by the valency model and Chomsky’s generative grammar theory in the visual domain.
We have designed the core of the glyph system by detecting the pertinent visual and linguistic variables in literature, with the objective of developing the system for clinical experimentation.
... When Martinet (1970) defined double articulation, he considered phonemes as the lowest level of articulation in the hierarchy of language. A phoneme is a distinctive unit in a system and has no meaning per se. ...
... Para resolver o problema da inserção desse segmento sob uma ótica sincrônica, postulou-se platonicamente, que o morfema está num nível acima do significante e o que vimos chamando de "morfema" passou a chamar-se "alomorfe" e, algo só decifrável pela Historiografia da Linguística, deu-se o título de "morfema" a unidades que congregam os alomorfes (Martinet, 1949). ...
p>Este trabalho discute os limites teóricos do estudo da morfologia face aos lados tradicionalmente atribuídos ao signo: significante, significado e referência. O foco principal da discussão é a necessidade de concentração das preocupações da morfologia no significado e não no significante. Dizer que a morfologia enfatiza o significado não torna, contudo, esse estudo equivalente à semântica. Da mesma forma, separar claramente fonologia, morfologia e sintaxe tampouco significa negar a existência de modelos morfofonológicos ou morfossintáticos, da mesma forma que a biologia e a química são ciências independentes num continuum que inclui estudos bioquímicos com modelos igualmente independente. No entanto, busca-se provar neste artigo que nem a morfofonologia nem a morfossintaxe subsumem os estudos morfológicos, que mantêm a sua independência conceitual e seus objetos próprios.</p
... This is notably possible thanks to duality of patterning . This feature of language was initially conceptualised by Martinet (1949) and then taken by Hockett (1960) who mentions it as the thirteenth (and last) design feature of language (i.e. a feature present in all human languages). Duality of patterning was defined as the property of human language that enables combinatorial structure on two distinct levels: phonology and morphosyntax (de Boer, Sandler & Kirby, 2012). ...
It is generally accepted that comparative studies on animal communication can provide insights into the coevolution of social life, vocal communication, cognitive capacities and notably the emergence of some human language features. Recent studies suggested that non-human primates possess combinatorial abilities that may allow a diversification of vocal repertoires or a richer communication in spite of limited articulatory capacities. However, the functions of combined calls and the information that receivers can extract remain poorly understood. This thesis investigated call combination systems in two species of guenons: Campbell’s monkey (Cercopithecus Campbelli) and Diana monkey (Cercopithecus Diana). Firstly, I studied the combinatorial structure and relevance to receivers of combined calls in of both species using playback experiments. Results confirmed the presence of a suffixation mechanism reducing the emergency of danger signaled by calls of male Campbell’s monkeys. Also, they showed that combined calls of females Diana monkeys convey linearly information via their two units, which signal respectively caller’s emotional state and identity. Secondly, focusing on the context associated with the emission of simple and combined female Campbell’s monkey calls, results revealed flexible use of combination reflecting the immediate need to remain cryptic (i.e. simple calls) or to signal caller’s identity (i.e. combined calls). Finally, I compared females’ communication systems of both species to identify their similarities and differences. As predicted by their close phylogenetic relatedness, their repertoires are mostly based on homologous structures. However, the females differ strongly in their use of those structures. In particular, the great number of calls combined by Diana monkeys increases considerably their vocal repertoire compared to Campbell’s monkeys. Given that the combinations are non-random, meaningful to receivers and used flexibly with the context, I propose a parallel with a rudimentary form of semantic morphosyntax and discuss more generally the possible existence of similar capacities in other non-human animals.
... During the last decades, accumulating evidence has revealed that animal vocalizations share several features with human language (Collier, Bickel, Schaik, Manser, & Townsend, 2014). Duality of patterning, otherwise known as double articulation (Martinet, 1949), is a property of human language that makes possible a combinatorial structure on two levels: (a) phonological syntax, when meaningless sounds called phonemes (syllable or note) are combined to form meaningful acoustic structures called morphemes (motif) and words; and (b) compositional syntax, which is the combination of meaningful motifs into a larger structure, whose meaning depends on the motifs involved and the syntactical rules used to put them together (Berwick, Friederici, Chomsky, & Bolhuis, 2013;Marler, 1998;ten Cate & Okanoya, 2012). The involvement of this property in the acoustic signal enables much more information to be conveyed using a finite set of vocal elements (Berwick et al., 2013). ...
Many species approach predators to harass them and drive them away. Both the intensity of this antipredator strategy and its success are positively related to the size of the group that carries out this mobbing. To recruit individuals to the mob, members of prey species produce mobbing calls. In some songbirds—the Japanese tit, Parus minor, and the southern pied babbler, Turdoides bicolor—mobbing calls are structurally complex and it has been suggested that they convey information by means of compositional syntax, when meaningful items are combined into larger units. These two species combine alert and recruitment calls into an alert and recruitment sequence when attracting conspecifics to cooperate in mobbing a predator. Whether this rudimentary, two‐call, compositional structure is used by other bird species in mobbing calls and how it can alter the ability of heterospecifics to adequately recognize mobbing calls is not well understood. Heterospecifics’ responses to mobs are critical to the success of the mobbing strategy, so it is of great importance to understand whether and how syntax influences these responses. To address these questions, we conducted two playback experiments. Firstly, we investigated whether the great tit, Parus major, extracts different meanings from different individual motifs (i.e., component calls), and from combined motifs in both natural and artificially reversed order. We found that great tits extract different meanings from the two motifs involved in mobbing calls and that they also discriminate for motif order reversal in the mobbing call sequence. Secondly, we investigated whether heterospecifics (the coal tit, Periparus ater, and the common chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs) are sensitive to syntax alteration of great tit mobbing calls. While chaffinches did not respond to great tit mobbing calls, coal tits were sensitive to mobbing call sequence reversal although they did not react in the same way as conspecific subjects. Overall, whereas our results indicate that tits are sensitive to call reversal, this is not to say that tits actually use compositional syntax to increase the information content.
... The typical natural language has about 24-31 contrastive speech sounds (Velupillai, 2012). Regardless of how many phonemes there are in a language, this set of meaningless units can be used to form an infinite number of meaningful words and sentences, a phenomenon referred to as double articulation (Martinet, 1949) or duality of patterning (Hockett, 1960). The possibilities for how phonemes can be combined are, however, limited by structure, e.g. ...
... Alle grammemer er indekser, og dermed også de ytringer som grammemerne indgår i. Hvis en ytring var et symbol, ville dette betyde at barnet måtte laere alle ytringer udenad ligesom det laerte alle ord udenad. Dette ville imidlertid tale direkte imod hvad der kaldes sprogets produktivitet, og som anses for et saerkende ved sproget (se Martinet 1949;Hockett 1963; Lyons 1977: 76f; Jakobson 1968): alle sprogbrugere i et samfund kan producere ytringer der aldrig er produceret før, og på samme måde forstå helt nye ytringer, selv om de aldrig har hørt eller set dem før. ...
It will be argued that, despite their obvious anchoring in verbal communication based on linguistic signs (symbols), Directives, i.e. Requests and Offers, have more in common with gestures which primarily involve indexes and icons. It will be demonstrated that this type of speech act should be interpreted as consisting of three indexical sign types: (1) a symptom that points at the speaker and goes back in time; (2) a signal that points at the hearer and goes forward in time; and (3) a model that points at a situation and is timeless, because it can be used at any time. On this basis, a speech act process model for communicationbased problem solving is created specifically for declarative Directives.
... A feature that is believed to be common to all natural languages is called 'double articulation', which means that the morphemes of a language are built through a combination of smaller units which do not mean anything by themselves (MARTINET 1949;HOCKETT 1960). In other words, every language consists of a given set of meaningless units (i.e. ...
... The categorical exclusion of phonological structures from the domain of (construction) grammar rests on the assumption that phonology is concerned with distinctive elements within the language system, whereas grammar is concerned with the combination of meaningful elements into complex utterances. Indeed, what Martinet (1949) famously dubs the 'double articulation' of language is one of the most salient semiotic features of human language as compared to other systems of symbolic communication: Utterances are composed of meaningful units, which in turn are composed of units which by themselves are meaningless, but rather distinguish different meanings. For instance, the utterance in (3) consists of several words with different meanings, such as cat 'animal of the species Felis catus' , which can be subdivided into three distinctive units (/k/, /ae/, and /t/). ...
... El término doble articulación, acuñado por Martinet (1949) y retomado más tarde por Hockett (1958), describe el principio jerárquico fundamental presente en el lenguaje, según el cual los signos -las palabras que forman los enunciados-están compuestos por unidades menores no significativas -fonemas-. Esta jerarquía opera permutando un número finito de estos elementos básicos, carentes de significado, para conformar palabras, que pueden crear a su vez un número ilimitado de enunciados. ...
Frente a los fonemas y a los rasgos distintivos se ha propuesto que la unidad de la producción y la percepción fonéticas es el gesto articulatorio. Se ha buscado así definir la unidad mínima de lenguaje para reconciliar la disociación existente entre las descripciones fonológica y fonética. Esta idea entronca con la teoría motora de la percepción del habla, surgida en parte como reacción al fenómeno de la coarticulación. En los últimos años, distintos estudios han confirmado la base motora de la percepción del habla, lo que, junto al hallazgo de las neuronas espejo, ha llevado a reconsiderar tanto el papel desempeñado por el principio de paridad en la comunicación como la importancia de la imitación en la adquisición del lenguaje. La imitación de los gestos vocales contribuye al desarrollo de la memoria fonológica y cabe pensar que desempeña, igualmente, un papel importante en la adquisición de elementos suprasegmentales.
... Another advantage of combinatorial speech is that it makes systems of signals more predictable, and therefore easier to learn and to transmit through a learning bottleneck (a situation where learners need to reconstruct a system of which they have only seen a limited number of examples). Different theoretical accounts of how this plays a role in phonology have been proposed (Clements, 2003;Martinet, 1949;Ohala, 1980), all assuming involvement of cognitive biases for detecting, re--using and preferring certain regularities. ...
In language, recombination of a discrete set of meaningless building blocks forms an unlimited set of possible utterances. How such combinatorial structure emerged in the evolution of human language is increasingly being studied. It has been shown that it can emerge when languages culturally evolve and adapt to human cognitive biases. How the emergence of combinatorial structure interacts with the existence of holistic iconic form-meaning mappings in a language is still unknown. The experiment presented in this paper studies the role of iconicity and human cognitive learning biases in the emergence of combinatorial structure in artificial whistled languages. Participants learned and reproduced whistled words for novel objects with the use of a slide whistle. Their reproductions were used as input for the next participant, to create transmission chains and simulate cultural transmission. Two conditions were studied: one in which the persistence of iconic form-meaning mappings was possible and one in which this was experimentally made impossible. In both conditions, cultural transmission caused the whistled languages to become more learnable and more structured, but this process was slightly delayed in the first condition. Our findings help to gain insight into when and how words may lose their iconic origins when they become part of an organized linguistic system.
Von den 1960er- bis 1980er-Jahren war die Filmsemiotik strukturalistischer Prägung zweifellos der dominante Ansatz in der modernen Filmtheorie. Initiiert von dem französischen Theoretiker Christian Metz (1931–1993) fand die systematische Erforschung des Films mittels sprachwissenschaftlicher Konzepte und Methoden bald viele Anhänger, aber auch Kritiker. In den 1970er-Jahren führte die Filmsemiotik sodann zur sukzessiven Institutionalisierung der filmwissenschaftlichen Disziplin, zuerst in Frankreich, bald darauf in Großbritannien, in den USA und weiteren europäischen Ländern sowie in Japan.
This paper aims to show the role played by the relations of comparison and associativity, as they are introduced in Saussure’s Cours de linguistique générale, in the theories of Luis J. Prieto. This is done, first, on the basis of a historiographical approach, and second, on the basis of an exegetical approach to Prieto’s works. Thus, the paper first presents and analyses three programmes, corresponding to three courses Prieto gave at the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba during the early 1950s. The analysis of these programmes will show the centrality of Saussure’s Cours in Prieto’s linguistic theorizing. After this, an attempt will be made to show the continuity between the theoretical tenets presupposed by the courses’ programmes and the main proposal advanced in Prieto’s article “Classe et concept. Sur la pertinence et sur les rapports saussuriens ‘de comparaison’ et ‘d’échange’”. By constructing this continuity we attempt to show: (1) the constant influence the Cours exerted upon Prieto’s thinking throughout his whole career, and (2) that such influence is manifested in the fact that Prieto did not generalize linguistic principles as such, but rather posited that linguistic principles were instances of more general semiotic ones.
This tutorial offers a brief overview of linguistic research into sign languages. The tutorial’s target audiences are people with some background in linguistics of spoken languages. For the sake of brevity, I will only concentrate on some major topics. I will briefly introduce sign languages, discuss some basics of phonological structure of these types of languages (including the use of space), discuss some new findings on the syntax of sign languages, and, finally, will briefly address some methodological issues. The majority of data will come from German Sign Language, although data from other sign languages is also included.
The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Methodology provides a comprehensive overview of methodologies in translation studies, including both well-established and more recent approaches.
The Handbook is organised into three sections, the first of which covers methodological issues in the two main paradigms to have emerged from within translation studies, namely skopos theory and descriptive translation studies. The second section covers multidisciplinary perspectives in research methodology and considers their application in translation research. The third section deals with practical and pragmatic methodological issues. Each chapter provides a summary of relevant research, a literature overview, critical issues and topics, recommendations for best practice, and some suggestions for further reading.
Bringing together over 30 eminent international scholars from a wide range of disciplinary and geographical backgrounds, this Handbook is essential reading for all students and scholars involved in translation methodology and research.
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The paper develops a new holistic theory of the word by integrating semiotic, linguistic, and psychological perspectives and introduces the Cogitative-Sensory Word Model, the CogSens Model, that unites the human mind and body. Saussure’s two-sided sign is replaced by a Peirce-inspired three-sided conception in which the expression unit mediates two content units, namely, an idea content connected to the human mind and an image content linked to the human body. It is argued that it is the word that makes human language a unique tool of communication. Moreover, it is demonstrated how words interact with grammar to create an utterance. Finally, it is suggested that speech perception, i.e., fission of idea and image content, is the mirror image of speech production, i.e., fusion of idea and image content.
I call holistic and relativistic approaches to language gestalt linguistics. Although there have been some efforts to integrate them into linguistics, they have never formed part of mainstream linguistics. This article tackles the “why” of this diagnosis. Historic exclusion of psychology from linguistics, the fact that the perceptual gestalt theory is not a genuine linguistic theory and that it deals with preconscious grouping principles but not with symbolic linguistic units, the vagueness of gestalt concepts, and the lack of a proper formalism are aspects of the answer.
Die bisher vorgestellten Filmtheorien sind sich zumindest darin einig, dass sie der gewichtigen Frage nachgehen, was der Film oder die Filmkunst überhaupt ist, auch wenn sie hierbei zu völlig unterschiedlichen Antworten kommen. Die Filmsemiotik von Christian Metz, von der im folgenden Kapitel die Rede sein soll, beschreitet dagegen einen von dieser Tradition abweichenden Weg und nimmt damit schon aktuelle Ansätze wie den Neoformalismus von David Bordwell und Kristin Thompson vorweg (s. Kap. 10). Denn während in der klassischen Filmtheorie von Münsterberg bis Kracauer immer wieder der Zusammenhang von Wesen und Normativität verhandelt wird, steht bei Metz hingegen schlichtweg die Frage im Mittelpunkt, auf welche Weise Filme Geschichten erzählen. Die Nähe zu Eisenstein springt ins Auge, insofern es ihm dabei nicht um die einzelnen Einstellungen, sondern vielmehr um ihre Syntax geht – also um die Verknüpfung mehrerer Einstellungen zu einer Einheit bzw. – wie Metz es nennt – zu einem Syntagma.
Von den 1960er- bis 1980er-Jahren war die Filmsemiotik strukturalistischer Prägung zweifellos der dominante Ansatz in der modernen Filmtheorie. Initiiert von dem französischen Theoretiker Christian Metz (1931–1993) fand die syste- matische Erforschung des Films mittels sprachwissenschaftlicher Konzepte und Methoden bald viele Anhänger, aber auch Kritiker. In den 1970er-Jahren führte die Filmsemiotik sodann zur sukzessiven Institutionalisierung der filmwissen- schaftlichen Disziplin, zuerst in Frankreich, bald darauf in Großbritannien, in den USA und weiteren europäischen Ländern sowie in Japan.
The paper analyses existing moraic conceptions of Estonian quantity. Main features of functional, generative and phonetically-instructed moraic accounts of Estonian are considered. In most generative accounts, morae simultaneously represent several layers of functionally and structurally diverse information. This brings along a considerable increase in formal analytical machinery and internal controversies. In a structural functional framework, morae can be used to formalise the prosodic contrast of long and short stressed syllables in Estonian. Its relevance is seen in actual functioning of the prosodic system. This contrast is built upon the segmental contrast of short and long phonemes and, in turn, serves as a basis for the contrast of two distinctive foot accents, light and heavy. As an example, a formal morphonological algorithm of calculating Estonian foot accents, which also shows the place of the syllable weight contrast, is proposed.
Аннотация. Наталья Кузнецова: Эстонская словесная просодия в Прокрустовом ложе мор. Статья посвящена анализу существующих морных подходов к анализу количества в эстонском языке. Обсуждается основные особенности морных концепций эстонского количества в рамках функциональной и генеративной лингвистики, а также понимание моры фонетистами. Генеративные концепции совмещают на одном иерархическом уровне репрезентации (морном) нескольких разных с функциональной и структурной точки зрения пластов информации, что приводит к значительному усложнению формального описания и внутренним противоречиям. В рамках структурного функционального понимания эстонского количества моры могут служить вспомогательным средством для формализации просодической оппозиции краткого (легкого) и долгого (тяжелого) ударного слога. Релевантность этой оппозиции проявляется в функционировании просодической системы языка. Этот контраст надстраивается над сегментной оппозицией кратких и долгих фонем и, в свою очередь, формирует базис для оппозиции лексикализованных стопических акцентов, легкого и тяжелого. В качестве примера в статье приводится формальный морфонологический алгоритм присваивания стопических акцентов в словоформе и показано место в нем слогового веса.
Ключевые слова: эстонский, структурная функциональная фонология, автосегментная фонология, словесная просодия, мора, количество
Kokkuvõte. Natalia Kuznetsova: Eesti sõnaprosoodia moorade Prokrustese sängis. Artiklis analüüsitakse eesti keele vältekontseptsioone, mis rakendavad mooralist analüüsi. Hinnatakse peamisi funktsionaalseid, generatiivseid ja foneetilisi moorasid arvestavaid seletusi eesti keele kohta. Enamasti esindavad generatiivsetes seletustes moorad samaaegselt mitut funktsionaalselt ja struktuuriliselt hajusa informatsiooni tasandit. See toob kaasa märkimisväärse formaalsete analüüsitehnikate keerustumise ja sisemised vastuolud. Strukturaal-funktsionaalses raamistikus saab moorasid kasutada eesti keeles pika ja lühikese rõhulise silbi prosoodilise kontrasti esitamiseks. Selle sobivust jälgitakse prosoodilise süsteemi tegeliku toimimise põhjal. Kontrast põhineb pika ja lühikese foneemi segmentaalsel kontrastil ja on omakorda aluseks kahele erinevale kõnetakti aktsendile, kergele ja raskele. Artiklis on näitena välja pakutud morfofonoloogiline algoritm eesti keele taktiaktsentide arvutamiseks, mis näitab ka silbikaalu kontrasti kohta.
Märksõnad: eesti keel, strukturaal-funktsionaalne fonoloogia, autosegmentaalne fonoloogia, sõnaprosoodia, moora, välted
This paper addresses the need for a model of communication with a new, holistic conception of language within it. The resultant process model is called the Communicative Wheel . It consists of three communicative products: the sender’s input corresponding to his/her experience of a situation (symptom), an output corresponding to a piece of information to the receiver (signal), and the receiver’s intake corresponding to a description of the situation referred to (model). What the model of the wheel suggests, is that the understanding of “utterance” as symbolic needs to be replaced by an understanding of it as indexical .
Eine erste, sehr einfache und sehr grundlegende Unterscheidung ist die zwischen dem Prinzip und demjenigen, was durch das Prinzip prinzipiiert wird, also dem Prinzipiat. Prinzip und Prinzipiat liegen naturgemäß nicht auf derselben Ebene. Nun sagt Jakobson explizit, dass das Prinzip der Äquivalenz projiziert werde.
General linguistics, like any other academic subject, is always moving. But in recent years there have been more signs of fundamental change than for some time before, at least as far as may be gathered from published literature, necessarily the main source of information on contemporary trends on the part of most of one’s colleagues the world over. The earlier undercurrents and movements in linguistic thinking and discussion can only be known by those in personal contact with their prime movers.
In present times, it may be surprising to see th e word "origins" in the title of an ethnomusicological article. Reviewing historical and current hypotheses on the origins of song, or music more generally, it becomes apparent that most au hors interpret a possible bifurcation between (spoken) language and (sung) music as the most plausible point from which "music" evolved. Curt Sachs states polemically, "Music began with singing" (1943: 21). In this article, I suggest that seeking to understand the moment in which this bifurcation, or rather spreading out, of utterances occurred is a productive task. Understanding the differences between speech and song is a starting point for unpacking how these distinct phenomena emerged. Alternatively, thinking about those prehistoric times when speech and song emerged may support insights about modern meaning and the function of utterances that occupy a liminal space between speech and song.
Two major works in recent evolutionary biology have in different ways touched upon the issue of cultural replicators in language, namely Dawkins’ Selfish Gene and Maynard Smith and Szathmáry’s Major Transitions in Evolution. In the latter, the emergence of language is referred to as the last major transition in evolution (for the time being), a claim we argue to be derived from a crucial property of language, called Duality of Patterning. Prima facie, this property makes natural language look like a structural equivalent to DNA, and its peer in terms of expressive power. We will argue that, if one takes seriously Maynard Smith and Szathmáry’s outlook and examines what has been proposed as linguistic replicators, amongst others phonemes and words, the analogy meme-gene becomes problematic. A key issue is the fact that genes and memes are assumed to carry and transmit information, while what has been described as the best candidate for replicatorhood in language, i.e. the phoneme, does by definition not carry meaning. We will argue that semiotic systems with Duality of Pattering (like natural languages) force us to reconsider either the analogy between replicators in the biological and the cultural domain, or what it is to be a replicator in linguistics.
We propose that the interface between phonology and phonetics is mediated by a transduction process that converts elementary units of phonological computation, features, into temporally coordinated neuromuscular patterns, called 'True Phonetic Representations', which are directly interpretable by the motor system of speech production. Our view of the interface is constrained by substance-free generative phonological assumptions and by insights gained from psycholinguistic and phonetic models of speech production. To distinguish transduction of abstract phonological units into planned neuromuscular patterns from the biomechanics of speech production usually associated with physiological phonetics, we have termed this interface theory 'Cognitive Phonetics' (CP). The inner workings of CP are described in terms of Marr's (1982/2010) tri-level approach, which we used to construct a linking hypothesis relating formal phonology to neurobiological activity. Potential neurobiological correlates supporting various parts of CP are presented. We also argue that CP augments the study of certain phonetic phenomena, most notably coarticulation, and suggest that some phenomena usually considered phonological (e.g., naturalness and gradience) receive better explanations within CP.
The aim of this article is to analyse the figure of André Martinet and Emilio Alarcos (the most representative grammarians of the Spanish and French Functionalism), establishing their connections, similarities and divergences throughout their linguistic career and paying special attention to the strong influence Martinet had on Alarms. Even though both authors are known for the diversity of their scientific production (the two of them have studied Phonology, Diachronical Studies, Dialectology, etc.), this contribution focused on the Syntax field, as one of the disciplines where some of their most important linguistic contributions can be found.
This chapter describes the structural similarities between music and language, in pursuit of a strong argument for the hypothesis that music and language are not categorically different from one another, but placed on the same continuum. Hence, we propose an integrative model. Analyzing their denotative and connotative levels, a crucial systemic difference emerged: while in language these levels rely on semantics, in music they depend on syntax and semantics, respectively. Thus, musical syntax and semantics are merged into a unique system that cannot be split. Indeed, an analysis of musical intra- and extra-systemic meanings suggests, that music seems to be to a certain degree auto-referential, while language’s main function is extra-referential. This, ultimately, leads to the difficulty of translating different semiotic systems into one another. We argue that a translation is notwithstanding possible in principle, allocating both music and language on the same semiotic continuum based on their structural similarities.
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