Language management and the East African Community

Abstract

Within the emerging discourse of language management, there is an increasing realisation of the strategic role that language plays in multinational and supranational contexts. The article discusses the strategic role that language can and should play within the East African Community (EAC). The discussion is presented in four parts: the first presents an exploratory discussion on the theory and practice of language management. The second provides key statistics on the EAC, including the language profiles and language policies of EAC member states and the language policy of EAC organs. Part three discusses some language management issues within the EAC. The final part of the article argues for the centrality of language management within the EAC.

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Language Matters: Studies in the
Languages of Africa
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Language management and the East
African Community
Munene Mwaniki a
a Department of Language Management & Language Practice,
Faculty of the Humanities , University of the Free State
Published online: 04 Dec 2010.
To cite this article: Munene Mwaniki (2010) Language management and the East African
Community, Language Matters: Studies in the Languages of Africa, 41:2, 260-277, DOI:
10.1080/10228195.2010.515240
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2010.515240
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Language Matters
41 (2) 2010
pp. 260—277
ISSN Print: 1022-8195
ISSN Online: 1753-5395
© University of South Africa Press
DOI: 10.1080/10228195.2010.515240
Language management and the East African Community
. . .
Abstract
Within the emerging discourse of language management, there is an increasing re-
alisation of the strategic role that language plays in multinational and supranational
contexts. The article discusses the strategic role that language can and should play
within the East African Community (EAC). The discussion is presented in four parts:
WKH¿UVWSUHVHQWVDQH[SORUDWRU\GLVFXVVLRQRQWKHWKHRU\DQGSUDFWLFHRIODQJXDJH
management. The second provides key statistics on the EAC, including the language
SUR¿OHVDQGODQJXDJHSROLFLHVRI($&PHPEHUVWDWHVDQGWKHODQJXDJHSROLF\RI($&
organs. Part three discusses some language management issues within the EAC. The
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Key words: East African Community, language management, multinational context,
regional economic communities, supranational context
Introduction
Within the emerging discourse of language management, there is an increasing realisation
of the strategic role language plays in multinational and supranational contexts. This trend
is evident in the language policy, planning and management literature. The literature on
the strategic role of language in multinational contexts in the main seeks to analyse and
document the role of language in the operations of multinational companies (MNCs),
and includes contributions such as Andersen and Rasmussen (2004); Crick (1999); Dhir
(2005); Janssens, Lambert and Steyaert (2004); Marschan, Welch and Welch (1997);
Marschan-Piekkari, Welch and Welch (1999); Nekvapil and Sherman (2009); Tange
(2009) and Welch, Welch and Marschan-Piekkari (2001). Literature on the strategic
role of language in supranational contexts seeks to analyse and document the role of
language in economic and political unions (EPUs) such as the European Union (EU)
and regional economic communities (RECs) such as the Southern African Development
Community (SADC). There is substantial literature on language dynamics and the
Munene Mwaniki
Department of Language Management & Language Practice
Faculty of the Humanities
University of the Free State
mwanikimm@ufs.ac.za
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261
Language management and the East African Community
strategic role of language in the EU, including several institutional documents from
the Union (see, e.g., Ammon (2006); Christiansen (2006); Das (2004); Els (2005);
Gazzola (2006); Ginsburg and Weber (2003); Hjorth-Andersen (2006); Kinnock (2004)
and Williams (2002)). The language dynamics and the strategic role of language
in SADC have been documented by Mooko (2009), but there is a dearth of related
literature as regards the East African Community (EAC) and other RECs in Africa,
such as the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD); the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS); the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA); the Economic Community of Central African States
(ECCAS); and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD). An exception to
this trend is Mukuthuria (2006), who addresses the issue of Kiswahili and its expanding
UROHVRIGHYHORSPHQWLQ(DVW$IULFDQFRRSHUDWLRQZLWKVSHFL¿FUHIHUHQFHWR8JDQGD
Ojwang (2008), who explores the prospects of Kiswahili as a regional language in a
socio-culturally heterogeneous East Africa; and Kawoya and Makokha (2009), who
present a case for Kiswahili as regional broadcasting language in East Africa.
The article seeks to contribute to this emerging discourse by analysing and discussing
the language dynamics and the strategic role of language in the EAC, which comprises
the Republic of Burundi, the Republic of Kenya, the Republic of Rwanda, the United
Republic of Tanzania, and the Republic of Uganda, within the framework of language
management7KHGLVFXVVLRQLVSUHVHQWHGLQIRXUSDUWVWKH¿UVWVHHNVWRFRQWH[WXDOLVH
the entire article with an exploratory discussion on the theory and practice of language
PDQDJHPHQW7KHVHFRQGSUHVHQWVWKHODQJXDJHSUR¿OHVDQGDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHODQJXDJH
policies of EAC member states, and the historical timeline and key statistics of the
EAC as well as the language policy of its organs. Part three discusses some language
PDQDJHPHQWLVVXHVZLWKLQWKH($&7KH¿QDOSDUWDUJXHVIRUWKHFHQWUDOLW\RIODQJXDJH
management within the EAC.
Language management: Exploratory discussion of theory and practice
/DQJXDJHPDQDJHPHQWWKHRU\DQGSUDFWLFHKDYHORQJEHHQGHYHORSLQJ±DNH\¿JXUHLQ
the epistemology is J.V. Neustupny, who has written extensively on the subjects since the
1970s. Other contributors include Mwaniki (2004) and Spolsky (2009). The main source
of contributions by J.V. Neustupny is Neustupny and Nekvapil (2003), which condenses
Neustupny’s contributions on language management theory and practice over time.
According to Neustupny and Nekvapil (2003), language management theory originated in
the ‘language correction’ theory, developed in the 1970s and 1980s mainly by Neustupny
and Jernudd, which grew as an extension and adjustment of language planning theory.
Here, management refers to a wide range of acts of attention to ‘language problems’. In
the language planning theory of the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, ‘language problems’ were
viewed in the narrow sense of the word. Current language management theory aims to
LQFRUSRUDWHQRWRQO\WKHZKROHRIODQJXDJHGH¿QHGLQWKHWUDGLWLRQDOQDUURZVHQVH
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262 Munene Mwaniki
but a wide range of additional problems, implicating discourse and communication in
intercultural contact situations (Neustupny & Nekvapil 2003, 185) to name but a few.
Neustupny and Nekvapil (2003) distinguish between the simple and the organised
management of language: simple management is the management of problems as they
appear in individual communication acts; e.g., the problem of spelling a particular
word, or how to redress the use of an expression a speaker has just uttered, but now
FRQVLGHUVQRWWREH VXI¿FLHQWO\SROLWH2UJDQLVHGPDQDJHPHQW RFFXUVDWDGLIIHUHQW
level, and its main features are: more than one person participates in the management
process; discourse about management takes place; and thought and ideology intervene.
Since these features are present to varying degrees, there is a gradual transition between
the two extremes: simple and organised. Language management theory maintains
that, in principle, language problems originate in simple management and from there
are transferred to organised management. However, this does not mean organised
management would be a mere summary of simple management acts. There is more
to it. Finally, the results of organised management are again transferred to discourse:
without correcting individual discourse, the whole management process would make
little sense (ibid.).
The second prominent feature of language management theory, according to Neustupny
and Nekvapil (ibid., 185–186) is its processuality. Both simple and organised
management are seen as developing in a number of stages – they commence with the
deviation from the norm, with different participants often possessing different norms
or ‘expectations’. Following the deviation stage, the deviation may be noted, a noted
deviation may be evaluated, and subsequently an adjustment plan selected. In the last
stage, the plan may be implemented. The third feature of language management theory is
the establishment of a hierarchy between language (in the narrow sense), communication
and socioeconomic management. Language management alone makes little sense. A
fourth feature is the insistence on recognising the multiplicity of interests within a
FRPPXQLW\/DQJXDJHPDQDJHPHQWLVQRWDYDOXHOHVVREMHFWLYHµVFLHQWL¿F¶SURFHVV
Also, the capacity to implement one’s interest, i.e. power, is subject to variation, and no
ODQJXDJHPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHPFDQRYHUORRNWKLV$¿IWKIHDWXUHLVWKDWZKLOHODQJXDJH
planning theory turned its attention mostly to society-wide management networks (e.g.
governmental committees or various arms of government), language management theory
emphasises management at a number of levels: the individual, associations, social
organisations, media, economic bodies, educational institutions, local government,
central government, or international organisations (ibid., 186).
Another contributor to language management theory and practice is Mwaniki (2004),
ZKRLGHQWL¿HVIRXU DVSHFWV WKH WKHRU\PHWKRGGLVFLSOLQHDQGSUDFWLFH /DQJXDJH
management theory is a complex of theoretical precepts deriving from decision-
making theory, sociological and linguistic theories, modernisation theory, systems
theory, critical theory, management theory [especially as advanced by the public
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263
Language management and the East African Community
value management paradigm], phenomenology and human development theory, that
seeks to understand and explain the interactive dynamics of language in society and
language and society. This pertains especially to multilingual societies, with an aim
of formulating approaches that can address language-related challenges; but that can
fundamentally harness language resources in society. Language management method is
both a complex of methods and a particular way of doing linguistic and social science.
As a discipline, language management is an organised body of knowledge that occupies
itself with questions relating to the theoretical adequacy of language policy, language
planning theory and language planning models, deriving from language policy and
language planning epistemology in facilitating multilingual policy implementation;
questions about language as a resource in society; and about how language in society
can be harnessed for holistic development. As a practice, language management is a
particular way of implementing language policy and doing language planning activities
in multilingual settings, that involves the critical and creative deployment of strategies
designed to address language-related challenges and harness language resources,
with the ultimate goal of enlarging peoples’ choices – whether at the macro levels of
governance, development and democracy, or at the micro levels of individual freedom
DQGDGYDQFHPHQWDQGVHUYLFHDFFHVVEURDGO\GH¿QHG
Another contributor to language management theory and practice is Spolsky (2009),
who submits that language policy is all about choices, and the goal of a theory of
language policy is to account for the choices made by individual speakers on the basis
of rule-governed patterns recognised by the speech community (or communities) of
which they are members. Some of these choices are the result of managementUHÀHFWLQJ
conscious and explicit efforts by language managers to control the choices (Spolsky
2009, 1). Spolsky (ibid., 1–2) further submits that the slow progress in developing
DWKHRU\RIODQJXDJHPDQDJHPHQWEULQJV WROLJKWWKHGLI¿FXOWLHVIDFHGE\DOO VRFLDO
sciences in their endeavours to produce a satisfactory framework accounting for human
behaviour. Citing Watts (2007, 489), Spolsky (2009, 2) traces the problem of accounting
for human behaviour to the complexity of social phenomena, and suggests that the
best way to capture this complexity is by using network analysis, while recognising
WKHJUHDWGLI¿FXOW\LQDQDO\VLQJVRFLDOQHWZRUNVZKLFKDUHQRWVWDWLFQRWXQLWDU\DQG
exist in a larger framework. Such analysis is currently beyond the state of the art in
language policy, but it does hint at the principal components that need to be taken into
account: individuals, organisations, institutional and regulatory structures, as well as
their interaction. All of these will also be key elements in a theory of language policy
DQGPDQDJHPHQW7KHWKHRU\VWDUWVZLWKDQXPEHURIDVVXPSWLRQVWKH¿UVWLVWKDWZKLOH
language policy is intended to account for individual choices, it is (like other aspects of
language) a social phenomenon, dependent on the beliefs and consensual behaviours
of members of a speech community.
The second assumption is that language policy has three interrelated but independently
describable components – practice, beliefs and management. Language practices are the
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264 Munene Mwaniki
observable behaviours and choices, i.e. what people actually do. They are the linguistic
features chosen, the (variety of) language used. The second important component of
language policy is made up of beliefs about language (i.e. ideology). The beliefs that are
PRVWVLJQL¿FDQWWRODQJXDJHSROLF\DQGPDQDJHPHQWDUHWKHYDOXHVRUVWDWXVHVDVVLJQHG
to named languages, varieties and features. The status of a variant or variety derives from
how many people use it and the importance of the users, and the social and economic
EHQH¿WVDVSHDNHUFDQH[SHFWIURPXVLQJLW7KHWKLUGFRPSRQHQWRIODQJXDJHSROLF\
is management, the explicit and observable effort by someone/some group that has or
claims authority over participants in the domain to modify their practices or beliefs
(ibid., 4). Language management requires a detailed understanding of multilingualism
and social structure, and of multidimensional social and demographic space (ibid.,
260). The preceding insights on language management theory and practice are related
to the EAC scenario in the last two parts of the article.
/DQJXDJHSUR¿OHVDQGODQJXDJHSROLFLHVRI($&PHPEHUVWDWHV
East Africa is a language tapestry of over 240 indigenous and immigrant languages.
According to the Ethnologue – languages of the world website (2009), of these three
are spoken in Burundi, 70 in Kenya, three in Rwanda, 128 in Tanzania, and 43 in
Uganda. Some of these are cross-border languages, such as Chidigo, Dholuo, Ekegusii,
Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Kuria, Maasai (Maa), Pokoot and Kiswahili, while others such
as Arabic, English, French, Gujarati and Sign Language are spoken in more than one
East-African member state, without necessarily being cross-border languages. However,
this does not detract from the fact that East Africa is an intricately multilingual region.
7KHODQJXDJHSUR¿OHVDQGSROLFLHVRILQGLYLGXDO($&PHPEHUVWDWHVDUHGRFXPHQWHG
in the following sub-sections.
Burundi
French, Kirundi and Swahili are listed as the languages of Burundi (www.ethnologue.
com)2IWKHVH)UHQFKDQG.LUXQGLDUHWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHV($&6HFUHWDULDW
.LUXQGLLVVSRNHQE\PRVWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQ,WLVWKHQDWLRQDODQGRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH
DORQJZLWK)UHQFKWKRXJK)UHQFKLVXVHGDVDQRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHLQPRVWLQVWLWXWLRQDO
contexts. In Burundi, a small French-speaking elite, through the control they exert over
state structures, ensures that the school plays an important role in the legitimisation
of the dominant form of linguistic capital: French. Usually, four contradictory views
on language are articulated by teachers, educational administrators and commentators
on educational policy, i.e. Burundi needs an international language to achieve modern
development; Kirundi is not suitable for teaching science and technology; functional
bilingualism needs to be established between Kirundi and French; and Kirundi is
HVVHQWLDOWRWKHSURMHFWRIQDWLRQEXLOGLQJ7KH¿UVWWKUHHRIWKHVHYLHZVKDYHOHJLWLPLVHG
the continued dominance of French within education (Ndayipfukamiye 1996, 36–38).
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265
Language management and the East African Community
In the aftermath of the civil strife that engulfed Burundi some years ago, and with
its ascension into the EAC, the French-speaking nation is adopting English as well.
Limo (2009) reports that with the Treaty for the Establishment of the EAC, which
VWDWHVWKDWWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKHFRPPXQLW\VKDOOEH(QJOLVKDQG.LVZDKLOLVKDOO
be developed as the lingua franca of the community, Burundians have no option but
to adapt to the language of integration. English is now being taught in high school,
especially at the elite King’s School, located in the Kabondo area of Burundi’s capital
Bujumbura, where most pupils are the children of diplomats and business people.
Bujumbura has a business community of Asian origin, whose children go to the elite
VFKRRO/LPRIXUWKHUUHSRUWVWKDWXQLYHUVLWLHVLQ%XUXQGLKDYHLQWHQVL¿HGWKH
teaching of English, especially since the country joined EAC. Burundi cannot afford to
stick to French as a national language – more so after neighbouring Rwanda switched
to English in a move many believe is reinforced by President Kagame’s criticism of
France for not doing enough to prevent the 1994 genocide.
Kenya
Ethnologue lists the number of languages spoken in Kenya as 70. Of these, English
LVWKHVROHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH($&6HFUHWDULDWZKLOH.LVZDKLOLLVWKHQDWLRQDO
language (Kiarie 2004; Mugambi 2002; Muthwii 2004; Obiero 2008 and Ogechi 2003).
With regard to language policy, Mugambi (2002) succinctly captures the scenario by
observing that Kenya is a multilingual country in which over 40 languages are spoken;
KRZHYHU(QJOLVKDQG.LVZDKLOLGRPLQDWHLQWKDWWKH\DUHJLYHQRI¿FLDOUHFRJQLWLRQ
ZKLOHLQGLJHQRXVODQJXDJHVDUHQRW(QJOLVKLVXVHGLQHGXFDWLRQIRURI¿FLDOSXUSRVHV
and for international communication, while Kiswahili is the national language and
is used in the political arena, in parliament, and as a language of political unity and
national identity. Indigenous Kenyan languages, however, have not been given the
same level of recognition. They are relegated for use at the household level and for
interethnic communication. Although English and Kiswahili are regarded as languages
RISUHVWLJHLQWKDWWKH\FDUU\FHUWDLQSRWHQWLDOIRUHFRQRPLFEHQH¿W.HQ\DQVJUHDWO\
value their ethnic languages, because they carry the people’s culture and oral history
(Mugambi 2002, 12).
Rwanda
English, French and Kinyarwanda are listed as the languages of Rwanda (www.
ethnologue.com)±WKH\ DUH DOVR RI¿FLDO ODQJXDJHV ($& 6HFUHWDULDW7KH
Government of Rwanda Education Sector Policy of 2003 details that Rwanda has
FKRVHQWKHSDWKRIPXOWLOLQJXDOLVP7KLVKDVHFRQRPLFVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOMXVWL¿FDWLRQ
Apart from the mother tongue of Kinyarwanda, French and English have been intro-
duced in all schools as curriculum subjects and as language of instruction from primary
grade 4. All three languages are found throughout the education system, from primary to
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266 Munene Mwaniki
tertiary levels (Government of Rwanda 2003, 14). Rosendal (2009) provides a detailed
account of the evolution of Rwanda’s trilingual policy, by documenting that the 1991
constitution, with the addition of the Arusha Accord of 4 August 1993, the July 1994
Declaration by the Rwanda Patriotic Front, and the November Multiparty Protocol of
Understanding, were adopted by the Transitional National Assembly on 5 May 1995 as
Loi fondamentale (basic law)7KHODWHULQWURGXFWLRQRI(QJOLVKDVDQRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH
is foreseen in the documents. Article 25, section I, subsection 5 of the Arusha Accord of
9 June 1993 discusses how to integrate repatriates into the prevailing Franco-Rwandan
society, and states that a lack of knowledge of Kinyarwanda or French shall not
constitute an obstacle to employment and discharge of duties within the public sector.
6XEVHTXHQWO\(QJOLVKZDVDGGHGDVDQRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHLQWKHUHYLVLRQRI-DQXDU\
1996, of Loi fondamentale (Article 7). The Arusha Accord of 9 June 1993, which was
QHYHUUDWL¿HGDOVRJXDUDQWHHGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVHUYLFHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHQHHGDQGWKH
ULJKWWRXVHWKHODQJXDJHV5ZDQGHVHDUHPRVWIDPLOLDUZLWKGXULQJWKH¿UVWWKUHH\HDUV
while following intensive French and Kinyarwanda courses. Article 30 of the treaty
also guarantees that education should be provided in the language used in the country
of asylum. The most recent version of the constitution was adopted in a referendum on
0D\DVFRQ¿UPHGE\WKH6XSUHPH&RXUWRQ-XQH$UWLFOHRI&KDSWHU
One, ‘General Provisions’, declares that the national language is Kinyarwanda and the
RI¿FLDOODQJXDJHVDUH.LQ\DUZDQGD)UHQFKDQG(QJOLVK5RVHQGDO
,QFHUWDLQFLUFOHVWKHPRYHE\5ZDQGDWRHPEUDFH(QJOLVKDVWKLUGRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH
has been interpreted through the prism of international geo-politics. McGreal (2008),
writing for the Guardian newspaper in the UK, reports that the Rwandan government
is to switch the country’s entire education system from French to English, in one of the
PRVWGUDPDWLFVWHSVWRGDWHLQLWVPRYHDZD\IURP)UDQFRSKRQHLQÀXHQFH2I¿FLDOO\
the change is to reposition Rwanda as a member of the EAC (an organisation made
up mostly of English-speaking countries, such as neighbours Uganda and Tanzania).
However, the shift to education solely in English is part of a wholesale realignment
DZD\IURP)UHQFKLQÀXHQFHWKDWLQFOXGHVDSSO\LQJWRMRLQWKH&RPPRQZHDOWK(QJOLVK
has also become fashionable among French-speaking youth in the cities (particularly
7XWVLVDVDPHDQVRIUHMHFWLQJ)UDQFRSKRQHLQÀXHQFHDQGLWVDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKWKH+XWX
regime (responsible for genocide). Instruction at Kigali’s elite Institute of Science and
Technology is already in English, and it is increasingly the language of instruction in
WKHQDWLRQDOXQLYHUVLW\7KHGULYHWRZDUGV(QJOLVKLVLQSDUW¿QDQFLDO&ORVHWUDGLQJ
ties not only with other East-African nations such as Uganda and Kenya, but also with
South Africa (which has provided investment for luxury hotels and shopping malls)
have helped drive an economic boom in Rwanda.
Tanzania
Ethnologue lists the number of languages spoken in Tanzania as 128. Of these, only
(QJOLVKDQG.LVZDKLOLDUHRI¿FLDO($&6HFUHWDULDW
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267
Language management and the East African Community
According to Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir (2004), the current language policy in
Tanzania can best be described as confusing, contradictory and ambiguous. Language
is no longer mentioned in the constitution of Tanzania which, from 1962, stated that
.LVZDKLOLDQG(QJOLVKVKRXOGEHWKH RI¿FLDOODQJXDJHV6LQFHWKHQWKHUHKDYHEHHQ
changes in the constitution 13 times (last 1999/2000), and the issue of language has
disappeared. Kiswahili, the most popular of the vernacular languages in Tanzania,
KDVHYROYHGDVWKHQDWLRQDODQGRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHWKURXJKDORQJKLVWRU\7KHRI¿FLDO
language-in-education policy currently followed, is the one laid down in the Education
and Training Policy (1995) which, inter alia, states that the medium of instruction in
pre-primary and primary schools shall be Kiswahili, and English shall be a compulsory
subject; and the medium of instruction for secondary education shall continue to be
English, except for the teaching of other approved languages; and Kiswahili shall be
a compulsory subject up to ordinary level. Two years after this policy was issued,
in August 1997, the Ministry of Education and Culture in Tanzania issued a policy
document entitled Sera ya Utamaduni (cultural policy). The aim of this policy is to
clarify the position of the government regarding the place of the different languages of
Tanzania in the formal education system, and it states that a special plan to enable the
use of Kiswahili as a medium of instruction in education and training at all levels shall
be designed and implemented. The ministry, aware of the important role of English and
also wanting the teaching of this language to be strengthened, but then as a subject,
stated in the policy that English will be a compulsory subject at pre-primary, primary
and secondary levels, and shall be encouraged in higher education. The teaching of
English shall be strengthened (Brock-Utne & Holmarsdottir 2004, 68–70).
Uganda
Ethnologue lists the number of languages spoken in Uganda as 43. According to the
($&6HFUHWDULDW8JDQGDKDVRQO\RQHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHLH(QJOLVK+RZHYHU
a look at other policy documents on Uganda points to a scenario where the government
is cognisant of the role other languages can and should play. The Constitution of the
Republic of Uganda, 1995, states that the state shall promote and preserve those cultural
values and practices which enhance the dignity and wellbeing of Ugandans; encourage
the development, preservation and enrichment of all Ugandan languages; promote the
development of sign language for the deaf; and encourage the development of a national
ODQJXDJHV7KHVHSULQFLSOHVDUHLQOLQHZLWKWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOSURYLVLRQVRQRI¿FLDO
ODQJXDJHVHFWLRQWKDWVWDWHWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRI8JDQGDLV(QJOLVKDQG
subject to clause (1) of this article, any other language may be used as a medium of
instruction in schools or other educational institutions or for legislative, administrative
or judicial purposes as may be prescribed by law. These constitutional provisions have
found expression in the Uganda National Culture Policy, released by the Ministry of
Gender, Labour and Social Development in December 2006, which states that English
LVWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRI8JDQGDDQG.LVZDKLOLLVWKHVHFRQGRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH
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268 Munene Mwaniki
7KH($&+LVWRULFDOWLPHOLQHDQGNH\VWDWLVWLFV
7KH($&LV D SDUWQHUVKLS RI ¿YH (DVW$IULFDQVWDWHV%XUXQGL.HQ\D 5ZDQGD
Tanzania and Uganda. First established in 1967 between Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, it
was dissolved in 1977. Following its dissolution, member states negotiated a Mediation
Agreement for the Division of Assets and Liabilities, signed in 1984. However, as
one of the provisions of the mediation agreement, the three states agreed to explore
areas of future cooperation and to make concrete arrangements for such cooperation.
Subsequent meetings of the three Heads of State led to the signing of the Agreement
for the Establishment of the Permanent Tripartite Commission for East African Co-
operation on 30 November 1993. Full East-African cooperation operations started
on 14 March 1996, when the Secretariat of the Permanent Tripartite Commission
was launched at the Headquarters of the EAC in Arusha. Considering the need to
consolidate regional cooperation, the East-African Heads of State, at their second
summit in Arusha on 29 April 1997, directed the Permanent Tripartite Commission to
start upgrading the agreement establishing the Permanent Tripartite Commission for
East African Co-operation into a treaty. The treaty for the establishment of the East-
African community was signed in Arusha on 30 November 1999 and entered into force
RQ-XO\IROORZLQJWKHFRQFOXVLRQRIWKHSURFHVVRILWVUDWL¿FDWLRQDQGGHSRVLW
RIWKH,QVWUXPHQWVRI5DWL¿FDWLRQZLWKWKH6HFUHWDU\*HQHUDOE\DOOWKHWKUHHSDUWQHU
states. Upon the entry into force of the treaty, the East-African Community came into
being. On 18 June 2007, Burundi and Rwanda acceded to the EAC treaty and, on 1 July
2007, Burundi and Rwanda became full members (www.eac.int). The objectives of the
community are to develop policies and programmes aimed at widening and deepening
FRRSHUDWLRQDPRQJSDUWQHUVWDWHVLQWKHSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDO¿HOGV
in research and technology, defence, security and legal and judicial affairs, for their
PXWXDOEHQH¿W($&6HFUHWDULDW
The EAC region covers 1.82 million square kilometres, with a population of 126.6
million and a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of US$ 73 billion and average GDP per
FDSLWDRI86HVWLPDWHV)RUWKH¿QDQFLDO\HDUWKH($&EXGJHW
was projected at US$ 54 257 291, of which personal emoluments took US$ 16 719 628
(30.8%), recurrent expenditure US$ 10 114 063 (18.6%) and development expenditure
867KHEXGJHWLV¿QDQFHGE\FRQWULEXWLRQVIURPSDUWQHUVWDWHVWR
the tune of US$ 27 966 699, development partners US$ 26 223 665 and miscellaneous
income which is expected to total US$ 66 927 (ibid.).
/DQJXDJHSROLF\RIWKH($&RUJDQV
EAC organs include: the Summit (established under Article 9) and its composition and
roles (detailed under Articles 10 to 12 of the treaty). The main function of this meeting
of the heads of state or government of partner states is to give general directives to the
community (to enable it achieve its objectives); the council (established under Article 13
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269
Language management and the East African Community
and its functions detailed under Articles 14–16). It consists of the minister responsible
for East-African Community affairs of each partner state; such other ministers of
the partner states as each partner state may determine; and the Attorney General of
each partner state; The Coordination Committee (established under Article 17) and
its functions (detailed in Articles 18 and 19). It consists of the Permanent Secretaries
responsible for East-African Community affairs in each of the partner states and such
other permanent secretaries of the partner states as each may determine, and is mainly
charged with implementing the decisions of the council and with serving as a watch-
dog of the community, tasked with making and submitting recommendations on the
implementation of the treaty; Sectoral Committees (established under Article 20 and
WKHLUIXQFWLRQVDQGRSHUDWLRQDOPDQGDWHFODUL¿HGXQGHU$UWLFOHVDQGDQGEDVLFDOO\
charged with the responsibility of preparing detailed implementation plans and setting
out priorities); The East-African Court of Justice (established under Article 23 and its
composition, functions, procedures and mandate detailed under Articles 24 to 47). The
court’s basic mission is to ensure adherence to the law in the interpretation and application
of the treaty; The East-African Legislative Assembly (established under Article 48 and
its composition, functions, procedures and mandate detailed under Articles 49 to 69).
Its main function is to legislate on aspects of East-African cooperation; The Secretariat
(established under Article 66 and its composition, functions and matters related to
LWGHWDLOHGLQ$UWLFOHVWRFRPSULVLQJRIWKH RI¿FHVRIWKH6HFUHWDU\*HQHUDO
and Deputy Secretaries-General of the community, the Counsel for the Community
DQGRWKHURI¿FHUVWKH6HFUHWDULDWLVFKDUJHGZLWKWKHH[HFXWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKH
community. The Secretariat also oversees the operations of the institutions of the EAC
which include: Lake Victoria Basin Commission; Civil Aviation Safety and Security
Oversight Agency; Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation; Inter-University Council for
East Africa; and the East African Development Bank (www.eac.int).
The language policy of the EAC organs is stipulated in Article 137 of the treaty. It
VWDWHVWKDWWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKHFRPPXQLW\VKDOOEH(QJOLVKDQG.LVZDKLOLVKDOO
be developed as a lingua franca. However, in an interesting aspect of this language
SROLF\$UWLFOHRIWKHWUHDW\VSHFL¿FDOO\VWLSXODWHVWKDWWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH
East-African Court of Justice shall be English.
/DQJXDJHPDQDJHPHQWLVVXHVZLWKLQWKH($&
From the preceding discussion of language management theory and practice, the
ODQJXDJHSUR¿OHVDQGSROLFLHVRI($&SDUWQHUVWDWHVDQGWKHFRPSOH[RUJDQLVDWLRQDO
structure and mandate of the EAC, it is evident that it is not possible to exhaustively
address all language management matters attendant to the EAC. Only some such issues
are therefore discussed, including language and the envisioned East-African Political
Federation; language in economic development; language and education; language in
the legal and health sectors; and language in ICTs and the media sector.
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270 Munene Mwaniki
Language and East-African political integration
One of the objectives of the EAC treaty is the ultimate establishment of a political
federation which will, of necessity, take the form of a plurinational state, with the
core tenets of respect for socio-cultural diversity; respect for linguistic diversity;
LQVWLWXWLRQDOLVDWLRQRIFRQVWLWXWLRQDODV\PPHWU\DQGJXDUDQWHHLQJRIVRPHVSHFL¿F
rights to indigenous nationalities and other minorities. In these processes language
management is a critical issue, because of the centrality of language in the diversity
discourse. However, when the processes that have to be initiated and sustained for the
realisation of this ideal – consultation and participation – are closely analysed, the issue
of language and East-African political integration becomes critical.
It is inconceivable how the processes of consultations and participation with/by the
citizenry of East Africa, aimed at soliciting their inputs and getting them involved in
WKHSURFHVVHVWKDWZLOOGH¿QHWKHSROLWLFDOIHGHUDWLRQZLOORFFXUZLWKRXWDFRQVLGHUDWLRQ
of the language issue. One approach is to conduct consultations in Kiswahili – the
designated lingua franca of the region. However, when one considers that many people
in the region live in fairly rural-bound communities where indigenous languages are the
medium of communication, then a consideration of the role of indigenous languages in
the consultation processes aimed at actualising East-African political federation cannot
EHJDLQVDLGWKHRI¿FLDO SROLF\ RIWKH($&QRWZLWKVWDQGLQJ7KH LVVXHRIODQJXDJH
in relation to citizen consultation and participation is even more acute in the case of
%XUXQGLDQG5ZDQGD,QWKHVHWZRFRXQWULHV(QJOLVKWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH($&
and Kiswahili, the lingua franca of the EAC, are yet to take root. French (the dominant
RI¿FLDOODQJXDJHLQWKHVHWZRFRXQWULHVIRUPXFKRIWKHLUSRVWFRORQLDOH[LVWHQFHLVQRW
DQRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH($&QRULWVOLQJXDIUDQFD(YHQLI)UHQFKZHUHWREHPDGH
DQRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH($&LWLVDODQJXDJHRIWKHHOLWHLQWKHVHWZRFRXQWULHVDQG
therefore its use will not engender citizen consultation and participation. To resolve this
dilemma, one approach would be to intensify the promotion of Kiswahili, but even then
language acquisition takes time. The most appropriate approach, as suggested earlier,
would be to consider the role of indigenous languages (i.e. Kirundi and Kinyarwanda)
in processes involving consultation and participation aimed at East-African political
integration. The EAC secretariat should have the capacity to synthesise inputs deriving
from various countries, irrespective of the indigenous languages used.
Language in economic development
This article does not seek to delve into the intricacies of the discourse on language
and economics (c.f. the seminal contributions of Bruthiaux (2000, 2003); Grin
(1990, 1994, 1996a and b, 2003); Grin and Vaillancourt (1997); Kaplan and Baldauf
2]ROLQVDQG9DLOODQFRXUW+RZHYHUVXI¿FHLWWR VXEPLWWKDW
the inextricable relationship between language and economics has been established
beyond question, and is studied under what has come to be known as the economics
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271
Language management and the East African Community
of language – the paradigm of mainstream theoretical economics that uses the concept
and tools of economics in the study featuring linguistic variables. It focuses principally,
but not exclusively, on those relationships in which economic variables also play a part
(Grin 2003, 16). Because of language management’s preoccupation with harnessing
language resources in society, the relationship between language and economics generally
and the relationship between language and economic development in particular, are
central. Within this context, the current discussion focuses on the latent role of language
in the actualisation of the East-African Customs Union, the Community Common
Market and the Monetary Union.
 (DVW$IULFDQ&XVWRPV8QLRQ
The EAC treaty makes provisions for the establishment of the East-African Customs
Union. To effect these provisions, partner states developed and signed the protocol on
2 March 2004, and it came into force on 1 January 2010. The objectives of the Customs
Union include further liberalisation of intra-regional trade in goods on the basis of
PXWXDOO\EHQH¿FLDOWUDGHDUUDQJHPHQWVDPRQJSDUWQHUVWDWHVSURPRWLQJHI¿FLHQF\LQ
production; enhancing domestic, cross-border and foreign investment; and promoting
HFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQWDQGGLYHUVL¿FDWLRQLQLQGXVWULDOLVDWLRQLQWKHFRPPXQLW\($&
Secretariat 2004, 9). Successful implementation of these interventions depends on the
HIIHFWLYHDQGHI¿FLHQWH[FKDQJHRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGNQRZOHGJHDPRQJSDUWQHUVWDWHV
investors, consumers and development partners in the region. In effect, the strategic role
of language in this process and the knowledge needed to operationalise the Customs
Union is a matter the EAC ought to consider. Information on the Customs Union is
available in English, but should also be made available in Kiswahili.
 (DVW$IULFDQ&RPPXQLW\&RPPRQ0DUNHW
In line with the EAC treaty, the partner states have sought to establish the EAC Common
Market, through a protocol signed on 20 November 2009 and made effective in July
2010. The protocol provides for the free movement of goods, persons, labour, services,
capital, and right of establishment and residence (EAC Secretariat 2009). As is the
case with the Customs Union, successful implementation of the protocol will depend
RQWKHHIIHFWLYHDQGHI¿FLHQWH[FKDQJHRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGNQRZOHGJHDQGWKHUROHRI
language in this process cannot be gainsaid. However, it is important to point out that
in the dynamics of a Common Market, the language factor does not only play itself out
at the level of the community or partner states. At a micro level, language is a critical
FRQVLGHUDWLRQLQWKHGHFLVLRQVDQGFKRLFHVRI¿UPVDQGLQGLYLGXDOVWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQ
WKHHQODUJHG(DVW$IULFDQPDUNHW$VLQGLFDWHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ¿UPVDQG
individuals would wish to participate in markets where they have a command of the
language of business. Here, Kiswahili seems the most logical candidate language.
+RZHYHUWRHQVXUHWKDWWKHODQJXDJHLVXVHGHIIHFWLYHO\DQGHI¿FLHQWO\WKHUHLVDUHDO
need to promote the language in Burundi and Rwanda, where it is not so widespread,
and to a lesser degree in Uganda.
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272 Munene Mwaniki
 3URSRVHG(DVW$IULFDQ0RQHWDU\8QLRQ
The EAC treaty envisions the establishment of the East-African Monetary Union in
2012. Buigut and Valev (2005), using structural vector autoregression analysis to
investigate whether the proposed East-African Monetary Union is an optimal currency
DUHDSRLQWRXW WKDW D PRQHWDU\ XQLRQ FDQKDYHLPSRUWDQWEHQH¿WV %\ HOLPLQDWLQJ
currency conversion costs and exchange rate risks between member states, it can
spur intra-regional trade. It is also possible that the supranational monetary authority
could achieve greater credibility for setting prudent monetary policy, compared to the
FHQWUDOEDQNVRILQGLYLGXDOFRXQWULHV([SHFWDWLRQVRI¿QDQFLDOVWDELOLW\FRQWULEXWHWR
¿QDQFLDOGHHSHQLQJJUHDWHULQYHVWPHQWDQGIDVWHUHFRQRPLFJURZWK6XFKLQVWLWXWLRQDO
credibility gains are particularly important in developing countries with a relatively
short history of independent policy making. Finally, a monetary union reduces the need
to maintain large liquid foreign exchange reserves that can be redirected to generate
greater returns (Buigut & Valev 2005, 2119–2120). However, it is in the mechanics of
a monetary union, especially with regard to aspects of symmetry and asymmetry, that
the issue of language management becomes manifest. Ideally, a monetary union should
be underlined by symmetry between member states, but this is hardly the case. The two
researchers cited above further submit that the asymmetry of economic shocks is less
of a problem for the feasibility of a monetary union if labour is mobile between the
FRXQWULHVLIZDJHVDUHÀH[LEOHRULIWKHFRXQWULHVFDQHQJDJHLQHIIHFWLYHLQGHSHQGHQW
RUFRPPRQVWDELOLVDWLRQ¿VFDOSROLFLHV$UWLFOHRIWKH($&WUHDW\HQYLVLRQVWKH
free movement of labour and the right of establishment of residence as goals of the
community. Through the protocol establishing the common market, the EAC has moved
closer to harmonising labour laws, travel documents and education policies, among
others. A common language and many cross-border communities suggest possibilities
for greater mobility in the future (ibid., 2122). Simply stated, the role of language
in facilitating the movement of labour, access to jobs and the minimisation of wage
differentials is critical in reducing the asymmetry of economic shocks in a monetary
union. From this perspective, Kiswahili has a critical role to play in the actualisation
and operationalisation of the monetary union.
Language and education
Mooko (2009) observes that one of the challenges facing SADC is the failure of
education systems in the region to produce individuals who can operate in all three
SADC languages. However, the situation is different within the EAC region. With
the exception of Burundi (and indications are that it is increasingly moving towards
DGRSWLQJ(QJOLVKDVRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHDQGODQJXDJHRIHGXFDWLRQHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPVLQ
WKHUHJLRQSURGXFHLQGLYLGXDOVZKRFDQIXQFWLRQLQWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH($&±
English. Admittedly, this is a contentious point – especially with regard to degrees of
SUR¿FLHQF\LQ(QJOLVKE\WKHJUDGXDWHVRIWKHVHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPV±EXWWKDWLVQRWD
discussion point in this article. The issue here is that the education systems in the EAC
XQDVKDPHGO\VWULYHWRSURGXFHJUDGXDWHVZKRDUHSUR¿FLHQWLQWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH
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273
Language management and the East African Community
of the EAC. It is also instructive to note that the EAC’s lingua franca, Kiswahili, is
increasingly being adopted in the region as a subject in education systems and as a
high-function language, like the reported case of increased Kiswahili use in Uganda’s
military. However, there is a need to promote indigenous languages in member states’
education systems, because mother tongue is key in the foundation years of schooling
– especially within the framework of additive bilingualism.
Language in the legal and health sectors
Language also has a critical bearing on the legal and health sectors. The EAC treaty
DGRSWHG(QJOLVKDVWKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJH RI WKH (DVW$IULFDQ &RXUWRI-XVWLFH7KLV
policy is attributable to the jurisdiction of the court – to ensure adherence to the law
in the interpretation and application of the treaty – a function that can effectively be
executed in English, because it is expected that any party seeking interpretation of
the treaty at the level of the East-African Court of Justice should be able to litigate in
English. However, when the precepts of the EAC treaty are conceptualised as forming
part of East-African law (and, consequently, the inherent assumption that residents of
the partner states are expected to understand the treaty as a form of law), languages
other than English become indispensable in the legal discourses. This view explains the
EAC Secretariat’s move to make the treaty available in Kiswahili. It will be important
to consider making legislation and policy (emanating from the EAC) available in
Kiswahili, especially if said legislation and policy substantially affect the lives of
citizens in member states. As observed elsewhere, before Kiswahili becomes entrenched
in Burundi and Rwanda, the Secretariat should design mechanisms to make the treaty,
legislation and policies accessible to citizens of EAC member states. In the health
sector, language management dynamics are critical. This is especially the case within the
increasingly acceptable preventative paradigm, as contrasted to the curative paradigm, in
public health discourse. With a high incidence of preventable diseases such as malaria,
HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis in the region, information on their epidemiology needs to
be disseminated to the citizenry in languages they understand. In this role, indigenous
languages can and should complement Kiswahili.
Language in information communication technologies (ICTs) and the
media sector
Language has a critical role to play in unlocking the potential of information
communication technologies (ICTs) and the media sector in development initiatives in
the EAC. Mwaniki (2002) observes that contrary to commonly held assumptions that
ICTs will ensure human advance everywhere, there is a growing recognition that ICTs
and media (and their direct effects) are value-neutral: they can be used to promote human
development and to oppress. However, ICTs and the media can facilitate human advance
if certain structural prerequisites (language being one of them) are factored into the
roll-out of ICTs and media for development. The EAC will have to critically consider
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274 Munene Mwaniki
the language factor in efforts to integrate ICTs and the media sector in development
initiatives in the region. ICTs reliant on Internet service provider (ISP) input should
be accessible in at least Kiswahili, while the language issue does not arise for end-user
input-reliant ICTs such as mobile telephony, because the user determines the language
in which to communicate. The EAC should, however, come up with policies (if not
the infrastructure) to support the development of fast and reliable data-capable mobile
telephony in the region. The community should also come up with policies and, if need
be, infrastructure to expand the reach of community radio stations which broadcast
in various East-African indigenous languages. There are fears in some quarters that
community radio stations have the potential to foment civil strife, but as democracy
becomes more entrenched in the region and becomes the norm rather than the exception,
WKHEHQH¿WVWREHUHDSHGIURPWKHVHFRPPXQLW\UDGLRVWDWLRQVLQIDFLOLWDWLQJGLVFRXUVHV
that engender development will far outweigh their perceived threats to regional stability.
&RQFOXVLRQ7KHFHQWUDOLW\RIODQJXDJHPDQDJHPHQWLQWKH($&
From the preceding discussion, it is evident that language management is not only an
LPSRUWDQWDUHDRIVFKRODUO\DQGVFLHQWL¿FLQTXLU\EXWDOVRDFULWLFDODVSHFWRISUDFWLFDO
interventions designed to ease language problems – especially in multilingual settings.
Language management clearly has a role to play in the operations of private sector
entities in multilingual contexts, and in the operations of supranational organisations,
which by their very nature straddle many language jurisdictions. Within the EAC,
language management plays a critical role in the processes of political integration,
economic development, education and social development, the legal and health sectors,
as well as the ICT and media sectors. With the EAC still at its nascent stage, it remains
to be seen how language management dynamics will unfold, but indications are that
language is critical in EAC operations – its existing language regime only needs to
be further entrenched and expanded within the bounds of the organisation’s strategic
REMHFWLYHVLQFOXGLQJFRQVLGHULQJ)UHQFKIRURI¿FLDOVWDWXV
It is not in the business of supranational organisations to overtly promote the development
of the indigenous languages of member countries. By their very nature, supranational
organisations are strategic organisations. Rather, supranational organisations exist to
SXUVXHFHUWDLQVWUDWHJLFJRDOVIRUWKHEHQH¿WRIWKHLUPHPEHUVHVSHFLDOO\LQWKHDUHDVRI
commerce, infrastructure development, diplomacy, defence and security, immigration
and macro-economic management, and not the micro-management of social and cultural
affairs – the promotion of indigenous languages, included. If and when a supranational
organisation decides to pursue this kind of endeavour it is only a bonus, rather than a
legitimate expectation.
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275
Language management and the East African Community
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