Content uploaded by Neil J Macdonald
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Neil J Macdonald
Content may be subject to copyright.
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
Journal of Coastal Research SI 50 pg - pg ICS2007 (Proceedings) Australia ISSN
Investigations into Ship Induced Hydrodynamics and Scour in Confined
Shipping Channels - 9th International Coastal Symposium
D. Taylor†, K. Hall‡ and N. MacDonald§
† Cardno Lawson Treloar
Sydney, Australia
david.taylor@cardno.com.au
‡ Civil Engineering
Queen’s University
Kingston, Canada
hallk@civil queensu.ca
§ Pacific International Engineering
Ottawa, Canada
nmacdonald@piengr.com
ABSTRACT
TAYLOR D, HALL K and MACDONALD N, J., 2007. Investigations into ship induced hydrodynamics and scour in
confined shipping channels. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 50 (Proceedings of the 9th International Coastal
Symposium), pg – pg. Gold Coast, Australia, ISBN
Deep draft ships transiting through confined channels can significantly alter surrounding hydrodynamic
conditions. Drawdown is a long-period motion, in the order of 30 to 150s, caused by the ship displacing water
from the channel. The long-period character of the drawdown wave causes relatively large near-bed currents
which are capable of inducing significant rates of sediment transport.
The Burlington Shipping Channel is a confined channel, 88m wide and 800m long, which connects Hamilton
Harbor to Lake Ontario. Significant scour levels have been observed near the entrances to the channel and along
the nearby sheet-pile channel piers. A series of investigations have been undertaken to determine the extent of
scour and the magnitude of the forces causing scour. Investigations discussed in this paper include bathymetric
and hydrodynamic data collection, and numerical modeling using the ship wake and drawdown model SGH
(Ship-Generated Hydrodynamics).
Hydrodynamic data was collected for seven ship movements to investigate hydrodynamic forces contributing to
the scour. The applicability of simulating drawdown using a two-dimensional depth-averaged ship drawdown
model such as SGH has been investigated. The model achieved a good level of calibration, particularly in the
mid-sections of the channel and near the western entrance. The investigations have confirmed the validity of
using sophisticated ship models such as SGH to investigate complex hydrodynamic and scour processes
associated with deep draft ships transiting through confined channels. These models are capable of realistically
simulating the spatial variation in sediment transport potential in confined channels and could be used to assist in
the design of appropriate channel protection.
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Numerical modeling
INTRODUCTION
Deep draft ships transiting through confined, shallow water
bodies can significantly alter the ambient hydrodynamic
conditions. These impacts are observed through two main
processes; wake and drawdown. Wake is the term given to the
stern and bow waves generated by a moving ship. The waves
propagate away from the ship and generally have periods of less
than 10s. The character of wake waves is influenced by the vessel
profile and the ship speed.
Drawdown is the observed decrease in water level surrounding
the ship as it moves through the channel and is primarily caused
by the ship's displacement of the channel cross-section (HERBICH
and SCHILLER, 1984). A feature of drawdown is the long period
nature of the waveform. Although the amplitude of the drawdown
wave may not be large, the period of this wave can be between 30
to 100 seconds. The orbital motion associated with the
drawdown wave is relatively uniform through the water column
and current speeds near the sea bed can be large. The surge wave
generated by drawdown in confined channels is a function of ship
speed, depth under the ship, drawdown height and blockage ratio
(MAYNORD, 2004). The blockage ratio is the wetted cross-section
of the ship relative to the channel.
Wake and drawdown can interact with the surrounding
shoreline and bed material, and shoreline erosion and scour due to
ship movements has been observed at numerous sites.
Hamilton Harbor is a large port facility in the Great Lakes
system and a major industrial center of Ontario, Canada. The port
is situated in a naturally enclosed basin separated from Lake
Ontario by a narrow channel, the Burlington Shipping Channel.
Recent studies have showed that sections of the Burlington
Shipping Channel bed have been significantly scoured. In
response, a series of data collection, engineering and numerical
modeling investigations have been undertaken to investigate; the
causes of scour, magnitude and spatial variation in the physical
forcing causing scour, and potential stabilization techniques. The
study has focused on ship induced drawdown which causes long
period wave motion because wake is of only secondary
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
Investigations into Ship Induced Hydrodynamics and Scour in Confined Shipping Channels
importance at the Burlington Channel due to the sheet pile edge
treatment of the channel.
BURLINGTON SHIPPING CHANNEL
Hamilton Harbour is a 2,150 ha protected body of water located
on the western shoreline of Lake Ontario. It is located
approximately 60 km southwest of Toronto and is a major
industrial centre of Canada. Hamilton Harbour is the busiest
Canadian Port on the Great Lakes. It handles over 700 ship
passages and 12 million tons of cargo each year.
Hamilton Harbour evolved with Lake Ontario during the glacial
retreat approximately 9,500 to 12,500 years ago (GILBERT, 1994).
Prior to 1823, a sand spit separated Hamilton Harbour and Lake
Ontario with a shallow channel to the north of the present channel
(O’CONNNOR, 2002). The Burlington Shipping Channel was
constructed in 1823 and is 88m wide with a design depth of
approximately 9.5m to chart datum (CD). The channel is
constructed with vertical sheet pile. The bed material within the
channel and surrounding areas is generally a medium grain sand.
A variety of different bulk carrier ships frequent Hamilton
Harbor. The size of ships in the Great Lakes is limited by the
capacity of the structures which facilitate vessel movement
between the lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. In general, the ship
specifications are relatively uniform due to the size constraints of
the St Lawrence Seaway. The most common ship type is the
SeawayMax class which are the maximum sized vessel allowed in
the St Lawrence Seaway. The maximum dimension of ships in the
St Lawrence Seaway are:-
• Length: 225.5m,
• Beam: 23.7m, and
• Draft: 8.1m.
Certain sections of the seaway can accommodate larger ships
however these ships are unable to pass into the Atlantic Ocean.
Depending on water levels, ships can move through some inner
sections of the St Lawrence Seaway (including Hamilton Harbour)
with a draft up to 9.5m.
SHIP DRAWDOWN IN CONFINED CHANNELS
Drawdown caused by deep draft ships in confined channels has
been widely observed and studied. SCHIJF (1949) developed the
concept of the limiting speed in confined channels. This concept
results in a self-propelled ship not being able to exceed a speed
where the flow velocity (ship speed plus return velocity under the
ship) is equal to the celerity of a gravity wave.
A number of analytical methods have been developed from the
initial work of SCHIJF (1949) to estimate peak long period currents
due to ship movements including PIANC (1987) and MAYNORD
(1996). These methods have been shown to provide reasonable
estimates of velocities and
drawdown height away from the ship when applied to channels
with simple cross-sections, for example rectangles or trapeziums.
In these cases, the decay of the surge wave can be neglected. The
analytical methods are unable to evaluate ship effects near channel
transitions MAYNORD (2004).
In recent years, considerable effects have been undertaken to
develop numerical tools to investigate ship effects on spatial scale.
STOCKSTILL and BERGER (1999) documented an extension of the
finite element model HIVEL2D to investigate ship effects. The
2D shallow water equations were modified to include the ship hull
as a pressure source. The depth-averaged approximation can be
made because the wavelength of the surge wave is in the same
order of magnitude as the ship length, which is much greater than
the depth in most navigation channels. The HIVEL2D drawdown
model has been shown to produce good estimates of currents
speeds and surge wave heights in a number of studies including
STOCKSTILL and BERGER (1999), STOCKSTILL and BERGER (2001)
and MAYNORD (2004).
STUDY APPROACH
A number of investigations were undertaken in 2005 and 2006
Figure 1. Burlington Shipping Channel Bathymetry, May 2005 (Scour areas are shown in dark blue).
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
Taylor
et al
to study ship hydrodynamics and associated scour along the
Burlington Shipping Channel. Those relevant to this study are
briefly described below.
Site Data Collection
Bathymetric and hydrodynamic data was collected to examine
the extent of scour and the physical forcing contributing to it.
Figure 1 is produced from bathymetric survey conducted in May,
2005. Areas in dark blue indicate depths up to 14mCD, which is
significantly greater than the design depth of the channel.
The areas of scour are most pronounced across the eastern
(Lake Ontario) entrance to the channel. There is also a smaller
extent of scour observed surrounding the western (Hamilton
Harbor) entrance and along the channel centerline.
In response to the scour observed in Figure 1, a field data
collection exercise was undertaken in August to September 2005,
to collect hydrodynamic data from a series of three locations in the
channel during the transit of deep draft ships. Acoustic Doppler
Current Profiler (ADCP) instruments were deployed at a total of
three locations for seven ship movements. The locations are
indicated on Figure 1 (HCCL-1, HCCL-2 and NWRI). The
ADCP instruments were configured to record currents in 0.3m
bins through the water column every 0.5s. Ensembles were
averaged every 5s. The dimensions (length, beam and draft) and
approximate transit velocity were recorded for each ship
movement.
Numerical Model Investigations – SGH
Following the field data and desktop engineering studies, an
applied research study was undertaken to investigate the ship
induced hydrodynamics along the whole channel. The field data
provided snapshot information on ship induced forces at particular
locations. A suitability calibrated numerical model is able to
investigate these forces along the whole channel.
SGH (Ship-Generated Hydrodynamics) is a sophisticated ship
wake and drawdown model which is capable of efficiently
investigating ship induced hydrodynamics over a large model
domain with complex bathymetry. It is a 2D depth-averaged,
finite difference model which can simultaneously simulate wake
and drawdown processes due to deep draft ships. The motivation
behind its development was the need to investigate the combined
impacts of drawdown and wake along the St Lawrence River.
SGH is a proprietary software product of Pacific International
Engineering and was developed as part of the sediment transport
software SedSim (DAVIES and MACDONALD, 1999). The
investigations at Burlington Channel have applied the drawdown
module of SGH only.
SGH uses the same technique as the US Army Corp of
Engineers’ model HIVEL2D to model a vessel as a moving
pressure field (STOCKSTILL and BERGER, 1999). A spatial
representation of the vessel hull is specified. SGH consists of two
computational domains. The first is a temporally varying domain
which propagates along with the ship which defines the pressure
field induced by the hull. This domain features high resolution to
define the hull profile accurately. The pressure field from this grid
are superimposed on the overall model domain and all other
parameters are solved at each location on the grid. Open or closed
boundary can be specified, and ambient hydrodynamic conditions,
for example currents, can be specified along model boundaries.
Energy absorption can be specified within the model to minimize
reflections along boundaries. The model is sensitive to the shape
of the vessel hull.
A full description of the development of SGH including model
source terms is contained in MACDONALD and DAVIES (2003).
RESULTS
Field Data
Hydrodynamic data for a total of seven vessel movements were
collected between 30 August 2005 and 2 September 2005. Table
1 summarizes the ship movements and the locations of the
instruments. (Figure 1 indicates the location of the instrument
sites). The largest currents were recorded at site HCCL-1 (eastern
entrance). Near-bed current speeds were up to 1.6m/s. At sites
HCCL-2 (mid-channel) and NWRI (western entrance) current
speeds were up to 1.1m/s and 0.8m/s respectively. The velocity
profile during the peak of the drawdown was relatively uniform
through the water column. Figure 2 is a plot of the velocity in five
vertical bins (Bin 1 near-bed, Bin 48 near free-surface) at Location
HCCL-1 during the transit of CSL Niagara. A full summary of the
data collection exercise is contained in HCCL (2005).
The ADCP current data collected at Burlington Channel was
found to be consistent with HERBICH and SCHILLER (1984). In all
cases, the direction of the peak near-bed current was in the
opposite direction to the motion of the ship. The magnitude of
observed currents is dependant on the direction of ship motion. At
Location NWRI, largest currents were observed during the west
bound movement of ships, and at Location HCCL-1 largest
Table 1: Summary of Vessel Movements during ADCP Data Collection
ADCP Instrument Locations
Name Direction Beam
(m) Length
(m) Draft
(m) Ship Velocity
(m/s) HCCL-1 HCCL-2 NWRI
CSL Niagara West bound 23.76 225.5 9.5 3
Catherine
Desgagnes East bound 16.92 125.05 7.58 1.7
CSL Niagara East bound 23.76 225.5 8 3
Canadian
Enterprise West bound 23.12 225.5 8 2.7
Canadian
Enterprise East bound 23.12 225.5 7.3 3
Canadian Transport West bound 23.12 225.5 7.9 3.5
CSL Tadoussac East bound 23.76 225.5 8.6 3.4
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
Investigations into Ship Induced Hydrodynamics and Scour in Confined Shipping Channels
currents were observed during east bound ship movements. At
Location HCCL-2 a significant difference in current magnitudes
between east and west bound ships was not observed.
During the data collection exercise, the remnant weather system
from Hurricane Katrina moved through southern Ontario. This
event produced large waves (approximately 3m) at the entrance to
the Burlington Channel and a storm surge of approximately
0.15m. The largest observed currents at the eastern entrance
during the storm were significantly lower than during the recorded
ship movements.
SGH Model
Model Validity
The SGH drawdown model utilizes two-dimensional shallow
water equations to calculate the wave profile. The assumption has
been shown to be valid by STOCKSTILL and BERGER (1999) in the
investigation of drawdown in the Mississippi River. The
requirement for this assumption to be valid is outlined in Equation
1 where L is the wavelength of the surge wave and d is the
channel depth.
dL
>>
(1)
In the study area, the wavelength is much greater than the water
depth and therefore the 2D approximation is appropriate. In
certain situations, the neglect of vertical accelerations can lead to
over prediction of the wave celerity. The ratio of this over-
prediction is calculated by Equation 2 which is from WHITLAM
(1974).
2
22
3
4
1Ld
C
C
actual
computed
π
+= (2)
Based on the observed wavelength of the drawdown at
Burlington Channel (Table 2), the amount of over-prediction of
wave celerity is less than 0.3%. The two-dimensional nature of
the SGH drawdown model means the solution is not accurate in
the immediate vicinity of the vessel. This outcome does not
significantly impact of the application of the SGH model at
Burlington Channel because of primary interest in this study is the
characteristic of the drawdown wave along the channel piers,
which are situated more than one ship beam from sailing line of
the vessels.
Model Setup
A high resolution model of the Burlington Channel has been
developed. The model bathymetry has been derived from detailed
digital bathymetry model of Hamilton Harbor. The grid domain
has the following features:
• Origin: 597000mE, 4793850mN (UTMz17 NAD83),
• Grid dimensions: X=700, Y=200,
• Grid spacing: 3m (x and y), and
• Rotation: +36 degree (from X-axis).
The model extends approximately 650m east and west of the
Burlington Channel to allow the model to develop dynamic
equilibrium during each simulation before the ship enters the
channel. Open boundary conditions along the Hamilton Harbor
and Lake Ontario boundaries of the model were specified based on
recorded water level measurements during each vessel movement.
Parameters for each ship movement have been based on
observations recorded during the data collection exercise. Vessel
hull characteristics have been based on the hull profile of the
Algosoo. The Algosoo is a Great Lakes bulk carrier which has
been investigated using the SGH model in previous studies
(MACDONALD et al, 2003). This ship is similar in hull
characteristics to the six largest ship movements observed during
the data collection exercise. The hull profile of the Algosoo was
scaled to produce the correct length, beam and draft characteristics
of each ship in this study. Analysis of the data collected during
each ship movement indicated that the ambient current in the
model domain was minimal. Therefore fixed boundary conditions
with zero velocity were specified along all open boundaries.
An important consideration in the development of the
Burlington Channel model has been the treatment of boundary
conditions along the sheet pile piers of the channel. The nature of
this type of vertical boundary is that the influence of the boundary
layer is an order magnitude smaller than the computational mesh
size adopted in this study. A conventional setup of the SGH
would lead to the adoption of a 'no-slip' boundary condition along
the piers. This type of boundary specification creates a physically
unrealistic solution from the SGH model at this site. The impact
of the zero velocity condition along the 'no-slip' boundary
propagates a significant distance into the modeled channel. A
'slip' boundary condition was implemented in the Burlington
Channel model by allowing the velocity in the direction of the
channel piers to be non-zero along the pier.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
45:00 45:10 45:20 45:30 45:40 45:50 46:00
Time (mm:ss)
Velocity (mm/s)
1 15 32 48
Figure 2. Vertical velocity profile at Location HCCL-1, east bound movement of CSL Niagara (Bin 1 – lower water column, Bin 48 –
upper water column.
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
Taylor
et al
Model Calibration
Simulations were undertaken for each of the seven ship
movements. Figure 3 is a time series plot of model (solid red) and
measured (dashed blue) current speed, current direction and water
level during the movement of Canadian Transport (west bound) at
Location HCCL-2 (mid-channel).
Tables 2 and 3 present quantitative summaries of the current
magnitude and water level calibration respectively for all available
field data. Location HCCL-2, in the mid-section of the Channel,
achieves the best calibration. Location NWRI also achieves
reasonable calibration with modeled current magnitudes and water
levels within approximately 0.1m/s and 0.1m respectively of
measured data. Scour is evident in the vicinity surrounding this
location and the model is able to describe the magnitude of the
scour forces at this site.
Location HCCL-1 provides the poorest calibration with current
speeds on average 0.2m/s to 0.3m/s different to the measured data.
At HCCL-1 current speeds were generally under predicted. The
poor water level calibration at HCCL-1 is in part a result of the
measured data having local wave influences. The data for
Location HCCL-1 related to ships which have a different profile to
the reference hull (Algosoo).
DISCUSSION
The investigations into ship-induced hydrodynamics at
Burlington Channel have confirmed the complex nature of this
phenomena. At the Burlington Channel, observed currents at the
entrances and mid-sections of the channel indicated that there was
significant potential for sediment transport during ship
movements. The hydrodynamic data indicates that at the
entrances, current magnitude is a function of the ratio between the
channel cross-section and the cross-section of the adjoining water
body. At the eastern entrance which joins the relatively open
water of Lake Ontario, current magnitudes were greater than at the
western entrance which adjoins Hamilton Harbour. The surge
wave currents are also more complex at the eastern entrance.
Considering the streamlines of the return flow at both entrances; at
the western entrance they are already partially aligned with
channel before the entrance because of the surrounding shoreline.
At the eastern entrance the streamlines undergo significant
direction changes causing flow acceleration in the vicinity of the
entrance. It is likely that three-dimensional processes are more
significant at the eastern entrance compared to the western
entrance. SGH is a two-dimensional model and therefore cannot
fully represent this process.
The Burlington Channel SGH model overall produced a good
Figure 3. Model Hydrodynamic Calibration at HCCL-2 –
Canadian Transport (west bound)
Table 3: Correlation Coefficient (R2) and Root Mean Square Error (m/s) for the modeled and measured current magnitudes.
HCCL-1 HCCL-2 NWRI
Name Direction R2 RMS Error (m/s) R2 RMS Error (m/s) R2 RMS Error (m/s)
CSL Niagara West bound 0.83 0.24
Catherine Desgagnes East bound 0.67 0.23 0.26 0.10
CSL Niagara East bound 0.77 0.33 0.62 0.05
Canadian Enterprise West bound 0.83 0.11
Canadian Enterprise East bound 0.84 0.20 0.71 0.10
Canadian Transport West bound 0.96 0.09 0.67 0.11
CSL Tadoussac East bound 0.97 0.31 0.63 0.12
Table 4: Correlation Coefficient (R2) and Root Mean Square Error (m/s) for the modeled and measured water levels.
HCCL-1 HCCL-2 NWRI
Name Direction R2 RMS Error (m) R2 RMS Error (m) R2 RMS Error (m)
CSL Niagara West bound 0.23 0.17
Catherine Desgagnes East bound 0.46 0.15 0.87 0.07
CSL Niagara East bound 0.62 0.11 0.92 0.03
Canadian Enterprise West bound 0.91 0.08
Canadian Enterprise East bound 0.81 0.13 0.84 0.05
Canadian Transport West bound 0.94 0.06 0.95 0.10
CSL Tadoussac East bound 0.79 0.15 0.90 0.07
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
Investigations into Ship Induced Hydrodynamics and Scour in Confined Shipping Channels
representation of the observed peak current speed conditions at
three locations along the channel piers. The accuracy of the SGH
model of the Burlington Channel is similar in magnitude to that
reported by MAYNORD (2004) with a HIVEL2D of a confined
channel. Calibration at Locations NWRI and HCCL-2 is generally
better than at HCCL-1. Overall the two-dimensional assumption
of the SGH model has been shown to be valid; which is
demonstrated by the good level of hydrodynamic calibration in the
mid-sections of the channel and near the western entrance where
scour has been observed.
The calibration process confirmed that the SGH model is
sensitive to specification of the vessel hull profile. In these
investigations, a common hull profile was adopted for all seven
calibration simulations, and the hull was simply scaled to
represent the correct draft, beam and length characteristics. The
adopted hull profile was based on the Great Lakes bulk carrier the
Algosoo. The calibration between the model and observed data
was generally the best during Ship Movements 4 to 6 which are
associated with two vessels (Canadian Transport and Canadian
Enterprise) most similar in characteristics to the Algosoo. The
Catherine Desgagnes hull profile differed significantly from the
adopted profile which is reflected in the poorer calibration of the
model during this ship movement.
The observed scour patterns at the entrances to the Burlington
Channel are consistent with observations near channel
constrictions. Extensive research into scour near open channel
constrictions including STRAUB (1934), GILL (1981) and MOLINAS
et al (1988) have shown that scour is concentrated at the upstream
end. This is consistent with the long-term scour pattern in the
Burlington Channel being a result of the largest observed currents
at each entrance. That is, when flow is directed into the channel.
In the mid-sections of the channel there is an absence of
significant scour, with the exception of the channel centerline
caused by propeller induced turbulence. The field data and model
results indicate that currents in the mid-sections of the channel are
approximately equal in magnitude, but act in opposite directions
depending on ship direction. Within the mid-sections of the
channel, scour is most evident along the channel centerline which
is caused by propeller induced currents. The data collection and
modeling investigations undertaken in this study suggest that ship
generated surge waves do not cause significant scour in the middle
sections of the Burlington Channel because ships transiting in
opposite directions cause forces of similar magnitude but which
act in opposite directions.
CONCLUSIONS
The investigations into ship hydrodynamics and scour at
Burlington Channel have highlighted the significant sediment
transport potential which can be induced by ships transiting
through confined channels. Hydrodynamic data indicated that at
channel entrances, current processes can be complex and
magnitudes are significantly higher than in the mid-sections of the
channel due to flow acceleration.
The SGH model achieved a good level of calibration,
particularly in the mid-sections of the channel and near the
western entrance. This study has confirmed the validity of depth-
averaged drawdown models such as SGH to investigate ship
induced hydrodynamics and scour potential. Hydraulic
transitions, such as strongly confined channel entrances like the
eastern entrance of the Burlington Channel, are best investigated
through field observations due to the complex hydrodynamic
processes surrounding these areas. An applied application of
models such as SGH is to assist in the design of appropriate
channel protection along confined channels.
LITURETURE CITED
MAYNORD, S.T., 2004. Ship effects at the bankline of navigation
channels. Maritime Engineering, 157(MA2), 93-100.
SCHIJF J.B., 1949. Proceedings of the 17th International
Navigation Congress. (Lisbon, Portugal 1949). Section 1
Subject 2, pp. 67-78.
GILBERT R., 1994. A field guide to the glacial and postglacial
landscape of southeastern Ontario A field guide to the glacial
and postglacial landscape of southeastern Ontario. Geological
Survey of Canada. Bulletin 453 pp 74.
O’CONNNOR K.M., 2002. Remedial action plan for Hamilton
Harbour: Stage 2 Update 2002. Prepared for Hamilton
Harbour RAP Stakeholder Forum. ISBN 0-9733779-0.
MAYNORD, S.T., 1996. Return velocity and drawdown in
navigation channels. US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1996, Technical
Report HL-96-7.
STOCKSTILL R.L., and BERGER R.C., 1999. A two -dimensional
flow model for vessel-generated currents. Prepared for the
U.S. Army Engineer District, Rock Island, U.S. Army District,
St Louis and U.S. Army District, St Paul. ENV report 10.
STOCKSTILL R.L. , and BERGER R.C., 2001. Simulating barge
drawdown and currents in channel and backwater areas.
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering.
Vol 127(5), pp290-298.
HCCL. , 2005. Burlington Channel Ship Movement and Channel
Scour Investigation. HCCL, Kingston, Canada.
HERBICH J.B., and SCHILLER R.E., 1984. Surges and Waves
Generated by Ships in a Constricted Channel”. In EDGE B.L.
(ed.) Coastal Engineering – 1984. New York, USA. ACSE,
pp. 3213-3226.
MACDONALD N.J. (2003). Numerical Modelling of Coupled
Drawdown and Wake. Proc Canadian Coastal Conf. 2003,
Kingston, ON. 16 pp.
DAVIES M.H., and MACDONALD N.J., 2001. SedSim2001 –
Transport Modelling Tools. Prepared for the Canadian
Hydraulics Centre, Ottawa. HYD-TR-063 Engineering,
Ottawa.
WHILTAM G.B., 1974. Linear and nonlinear waves. John Wiley,
New York.
STRAUB L.G., 1934. “Effect of Channel Contraction Works upon
Regimen of Moveable Bed Streams”. Transactions, American
Geophysical Union..
GILL M. A. 1981. “Bed Erosion in Rectangular Long Contraction”.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. Vol 107 (HY3).
MOLINAS A., KHEIREDLIN K., and WU B., 1998. “Shear Stress
around Vertical Wall Abutments”. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering. Vol 124(8), pp 828-830.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Riggs Engineering and HCCL,
Canada for allowing their data to be utilized in these
investigations. Pacific International Engineering, Ottawa
generously provided SGH and technical assistance for this project.
The work at Queen’s University was made possible through
funding by Cardno Lawson Treloar, Sydney.
