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Tapering for competition: A review
Abstract
The taper is a progressive nonlinear reduction of the training load during a variable period of time, in an attempt to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of daily training and optimize sports performance. Existing research has defined the taper, identified various forms used in contemporary sport, and examined the prescription of training volume, load, intensity, duration, and type (progressive or step). The current literature reveals that tapering strategies may be associated with a competition performance improvement of about 3% (usual range 0.5–6.0%). Particular attention given to nutrition, hydration and recovery strategies during the pre-event taper may help maximize its associated positive effects. Interactions between the taper and long-haul travel, heat, and altitude should be also taken into account with particular attention. Future progress in sports science will play an important part in refining and developing existing tapering methodologies, particularly in the context of multiple peaking for team and racquet sports.
... It is reinforced by some experts that the most important goal of a coach and athlete in sports achievement is to improve technical, psychic, physiological and physical abilities as much as possible and be able to control the exercise program so that exercise does not cause overtraining [18]. It is reinforced by other literature that during high volume exercise with limited recovery can lead to accumulated fatigue that can interfere with physical and physiological adaptation [17]. The strategy of reducing training weights in the world of sports achievement is often applied before the eve of the main game for several weeks or periods called tapering [27]. ...
... Sports coaches and scientists often reduce the training load before entering the main match to manage fitness so that the highest performance is achieved [29]. The purpose of tapering is to maximize psychological adaptation, physiology and while eliminating fatigue resulting from the loading of more exercise [17]. Based on other literature that tapering aims to reduce psychological fatigue, and physiology and optimize exercise performance [27] [29][14] [6]. ...
... This is in line with previous research that tapering is proven to improve athlete performance and has been widely demonstrated in the world of sports achievements that take place two weeks before the competition [6]. Exercise load in sports achievement can be described as a combination and combination of the volume, intensity and frequency of exercise [17]. Therefore trainers are required to determine the extent to which the exercise load is reduced and able to maintain or improve psychological, physiological and physical adaptations [17] [14]. ...
... Alternately, if inadequate rest is provided, the athlete may still be fatigued during the competition, resulting in suboptimal performance and increased risk of burn out (9). An optimal taper therefore requires achieving some balance between training stress and recovery (15). Although a meta-analysis by Bosquet et al. (5) that involved swimmers, cyclists, and runners suggested that 8-14 days may be the optimal length of taper, what constitutes the most appropriate length and type of taper is likely to be influenced by the demands of each sport and the athletes' previous training practices (14). ...
... Athletes may choose their taper types and durations based on their previous training load (15,26,31) and the amount of fatigue they carry into the taper process (5). The linear (36%) and step taper (33%) were the most common type of tapers used by weightlifting athletes. ...
... In fact, Travis et al. (35) recently demonstrated experimentally that during a taper, training intensity can be reduced by 25% and 1RM performances can be improved in powerlifters. It seems that for weightlifting and athletes in the strength sports, the manipulation of training intensity is quite individualized and may be influenced by a number of variables, including the training load and fatigue going into the taper (15,26), the unique physiological demands (2,7,28,42,44) of the sport, and the associated injury epidemiology (13). A limitation in the present study is that we did not differentiate between changes of intensity to competition-specific exercises vs traditional exercises. ...
Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, and Pritchard, HJ. The tapering practices of competitive weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2022—This study explored the tapering strategies of weightlifting athletes. Weightlifting athletes ( n = 146) (mean ± SD ; age: 29.2 ± 8.7 years, height: 172.5 ± 10.1 cm, body mass: 84.0 ± 17.2 kg, 4.7 ± 3.4 years of weightlifting training experience, and 3.9 ± 3.3 years of competitive weightlifting experience) completed a self-reported 4-page, 39-item internet survey on tapering practices. Subgroup analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national and international level) was conducted. Ninety-nine percent ( n = 144) of weightlifting athletes reported they used a taper. Athletes stated that their typical taper length was 8.0 ± 4.4 days, with the linear (36%) and step tapers (33%) being the most performed. Training volume decreased during the taper by 43.1 ± 14.6%, and athletes ceased all training 1.5 ± 0.6 days out from competition. Muscular strength, light technique work, and aerobic conditioning were the most common types of training performed in the taper. Athletes typically stated that tapering was performed to achieve rest and recovery, physical preparation for peak performance and mental preparation; training intensity and training duration decreased whereas training frequency remained the same or decreased; traditional exercises were performed further out from competition than weightlifting exercises; assistance exercises and some strength work were reduced; nutritional changes, foam rolling, static stretching, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of training too heavy, too hard, or too light and life–work circumstances. These results may aid athletes and coaches in strength sports to optimize tapering variables leading to improved performances.
... 69,75,76 Therefore, it is recommended to extend the duration of PPs in general and the preseason in particular, in order to promote greater resistance to fatigue and better quality of adaptations to training stimuli. 64,69,77,78 For its part, the second half of CPs is characterized by a high accumulation of matches, increasing the physical and physiological demands of the players and limiting their ability to recover between competitions. 49,69 These results in these specific periods are also supported by the findings referring to muscle damage, (CK = 147-777 u/l; LDH = 208-441 u/l) 50,53,59,60 and oxidative stress markers, 50,53,55 as well as in the T/C ratio values, with a great variability in absolute terms between sports modalities 23,55,79,80 (see Table 3). ...
... 54,57 This fact already occurs in CPs, where coaches tend to reduce workloads the day immediately before and after the matches (MD-1 and MD + 1, respectively). 44,46,64,78,81,82 In summary, the end of the PPs and the second phase of the CPs seem to be the most exhausting moments of the (continued) (continued) (continued) Biochemical markers can be useful as a means of training control. One week of set-up prior to the main championship (T2) seems to be successful to achieve an optimal state of recovery. ...
... In addition to the evolution of the workloads throughout the week mentioned previously, the internal load of the matches plays a fundamental role for the accumulation of fatigue in team sports. 78,87,88 In volleyball matches, the duration of each game point, the number of sets achieved and the limitation in the number of substitutions per set are factors that make it difficult to predict the internal load experienced by the players. 65,89 These factors may explain the findings of Mendes et al., 14 where 68% of the matches in the second round of the Super League reached 4 sets and in 91% of the matches in the second round 5 sets. ...
The aims of this study were: (1) to analyze how the periodization of workloads can induce states of accumulated fatigue in the short, medium and long term in indoor team sports and (2) to identify these periods of fatigue through the interpretation internal and external performance variables. This systematic review was carried out under PRISMA guidelines. The Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for relevant published studies between 1st January 2010 and 25th April 2021. The STROBE scale and MINORS checklist were used to assess the reporting and methodological risk of bias, respectively. Of the 2219 studies initially identified, 20 were selected for a full review. The main conclusions were that a periodic and integrative evaluation of monitoring variables of a different nature is needed to identify states of fatigue accurately and rigorously. The end of the preparatory periods (PPs) and the second phase of the competitive periods (CPs) seem to be the most exhausting moments of the season (high values of RPE, CK, LDH, and oxidative stress markers, and decrease in the T/C ratio). Specifically, congested weeks promote the development of high levels of acute and subacute fatigue (high levels of DOMS and fatigue along with low levels of RPE). Therefore, it is recommended to extend the duration of the preseason and the implementation of more active recovery days during congested weeks, in order to improve resistance to acute and subacute fatigue, and therefore avoid reaching a state of overtraining.
... As a consequence, optimization in this field of research has been restricted to predefined sets of training programs or training strategies. Among these strategies, the ones that have been most studied without a doubt are the training strategies with tapering training loads before a competition date [10,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][27][28][29][30][31]. This tapering period allows to decrease both fatigue and fitness but with a profitable balance if done for the right amount of time. ...
... In Algorithm App-1, we show the variant to Algorithm 1, for a population with unknown individual parameter values. In this case, the algorithm depends only on the parameter distribution and basically, it works by first drawing by chance a population19 and then, implementing the 1-individual MCTS algorithm with expected performance over the drawn population as an objective function. Obviously, the population drawn in order to build the MCTS training program (training population) should not be the same as the one that was drawn in order to test the different training program treatments (validation population).19 ...
... In this case, the algorithm depends only on the parameter distribution and basically, it works by first drawing by chance a population19 and then, implementing the 1-individual MCTS algorithm with expected performance over the drawn population as an objective function. Obviously, the population drawn in order to build the MCTS training program (training population) should not be the same as the one that was drawn in order to test the different training program treatments (validation population).19 Specifically, we draw a population of 480 individuals in all our simulations.1 ...
Purpose
Using a variant of the Monte-Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) algorithm, we compute optimal personalized and generic training programs for athletic performance.
Methods
We use a non-linear performance model with population variability for athletes and non-athletes previously used in the literature. Then, we simulate an in-silico test population. For each individual of this population, we compute the performance obtained after implementing several widely used training programs as well as the one obtained by our variant of the MCTS algorithm. Two cases are considered depending on individual parameters being observed and personalized programs being possible or only parameter distributions being available and only generic training programs being implementable.
Results
Compared to widely used training programs, our optimization leads to an increase in performance between 1.1 (95% CI: 0.9 – 1.4) percentage point of the performance obtained with stationary optimal training dose (pp POTD) for athletes and unknown individual characteristics to 10.0 (95% CI: 9.6 – 10.3) pp POTD for nonathletes and known individual characteristics. The value of information when using MCTS optimized training strategies, i.e . the difference between the performance that can be reached with knowledge of individual characteristics and the performance that can be reached without it is 14.7 (95% CI: 12.8 – 16.7) pp POTD for athletes and 3.0 (95% CI: 2.6 – 3.4) pp POTD for non-athletes.
... As fases consecutivas do treinamento, também conhecidas como mesociclos 6 , diferem na forma de prescrição dos parâmetros de treinamento (volume, intensidade, descanso e tipo de exercício). A periodização linear adota o aumento progressivo da intensidade e concomitante atenuação do volume de treinamento 5 , acarretando maximização do desempenho dos atletas ao final deste processo 6 . Na periodização linear o treinador busca manipular as cargas de treinamento com o intuito de que seus atletas atinjam o melhor desempenho em uma única competição ao final do macrociclo 5 . ...
... Por conseguinte, algumas hipóteses foram formuladas em virtude dos achados de duas revisões sistemáticas 6,8 . Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das fibras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de fibras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. ...
... Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das fibras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de fibras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. Por fim, considerando que a redução repentina do volume de treinamento (adotado no polimento por etapa) pode não ser efetiva para o polimento com duração de mais de duas semanas 6,8 , formulou-se a segunda hipótese da investigação: b) o polimento linear maximiza mais a força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol do que o polimento por etapa. ...
O objetivo foi analisar o efeito do tipo de polimento na força explosiva de membros inferiores (FEMI) em jovens atletas de voleibol. Participaram 42 atletas com idade entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos aleatoriamente em 3 grupos: linear (GL), por etapa (GE) e controle (GC). Todos os grupos fizeram a mesma planificação de treinamento até a fase do polimento. Somente o GC não realizou polimento. O polimento teve duração de 3semanas, adotando-se o método de polimento linear para o GL e polimento por etapa para o GE. Utilizou-se a plataforma de força para avaliar a FEMI. Este instrumento foi utilizado antes do início da temporada e na última semana de cada mesociclo. Conduziu-se a análise univariada de covariância (ANCOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar a FEMI entre os grupos em função do mesociclo. Os resultados apresentaram efeitosde tempo (F(4, 38) = 31,93, p = 0,01) e grupo (F(3, 39) = 41,87, p = 0,01). A FEMI aumentou no GL (F(2, 13) = 32,55, p = 0,01) e GE (F(2, 12) = 29,14, p = 0,01) após o polimento, fato não revelado para o GC (F(2, 11) = 3,48, p = 0,19). De maneira geral, os achados do presente estudo revelaram o aumento da FEMI após o polimento para GL e GE. Concluiu-se que o polimento foi eficaz para melhorar a FEMI de atletas de voleibol.
... As fases consecutivas do treinamento, também conhecidas como mesociclos 6 , diferem na forma de prescrição dos parâmetros de treinamento (volume, intensidade, descanso e tipo de exercício). A periodização linear adota o aumento progressivo da intensidade e concomitante atenuação do volume de treinamento 5 , acarretando maximização do desempenho dos atletas ao nal deste processo 6 . Na periodização linear o treinador busca manipular as cargas de treinamento com o intuito de que seus atletas atinjam o melhor desempenho em uma única competição ao nal do macrociclo 5 . ...
... Por conseguinte, algumas hipóteses foram formuladas em virtude dos achados de duas revisões sistemáticas 6,8 . Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das bras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de bras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. ...
... Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das bras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de bras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. Por m, considerando que a redução repentina do volume de treinamento (adotado no polimento por etapa) pode não ser efetiva para o polimento com duração de mais de duas semanas 6 Os atletas treinavam em média 2h por dia, com frequência de cinco vezes por semana. Para serem incluídos na pesquisa, os atletas deveriam: a) ser atleta de voleibol a pelo menos dois anos; b) treinar sistematicamente voleibol por pelo menos 8h por semana; e c) estar inscrito no Campeonato Estadual de Voleibol, organizado pela Federação Pernambucana de Voleibol. ...
O tipo de polimento altera a força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol? Resumo O objetivo foi analisar o efeito do tipo de polimento na força explosiva de membros inferiores (FEMI) em jovens atletas de voleibol. Participaram 42 atletas com idade entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos aleatoriamente em 3 grupos: linear (GL), por etapa (GE) e controle (GC). Todos os grupos fizeram a mesma planificação de treinamento até a fase do polimento. Somente o GC não realizou polimento. O polimento teve duração de 3 semanas, adotando-se o método de polimento linear para o GL e polimento por etapa para o GE. Utilizou-se a plataforma de força para avaliar a FEMI. Este instrumento foi utilizado antes do início da temporada e na última semana de cada mesociclo. Conduziu-se a análise univariada de covariância (ANCOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar a FEMI entre os grupos em função do mesociclo. Os resultados apresentaram efeitos de tempo (F (4, 38) = 31,93, p = 0,01) e grupo (F (3, 39) = 41,87, p = 0,01). A FEMI aumentou no GL (F (2, 13) = 32,55, p = 0,01) e GE (F (2, 12) = 29,14, p = 0,01) após o polimento, fato não revelado para o GC (F (2, 11) = 3,48, p = 0,19). De maneira geral, os achados do presente estudo revelaram o aumento da FEMI após o polimento para GL e GE. Concluiu-se que o polimento foi eficaz para melhorar a FEMI de atletas de voleibol.
... O GO realizou a periodização do tipo ondulatória 10 , temporalmente assim dividido: nas primeiras 4 semanas o volume de treino (número de séries e repetições) foi aumentado, ao passo que nas últimas 4 semanas a intensidade foi maximizada. Vale ressaltar que a carga de treinamento (volume e intensidade) no GO e GNP foi atenuada na quarta e oitava semanas, com a premissa de gerar o efeito de supercompensação 14 , considerada um princípio do treinamento físico-esportivo que tem o intuito de recuperar os sistemas orgânicos e substratos energéticos, otimizando, assim, as capacidades neuromotoras 14 . O GNP realizou os mesmos exercícios (supino em banco horizontal e leg press 45 o ) que o GO, no entanto, a carga de treino foi mantida constante, como pode ser observado na TABELA 1. ...
... O GO realizou a periodização do tipo ondulatória 10 , temporalmente assim dividido: nas primeiras 4 semanas o volume de treino (número de séries e repetições) foi aumentado, ao passo que nas últimas 4 semanas a intensidade foi maximizada. Vale ressaltar que a carga de treinamento (volume e intensidade) no GO e GNP foi atenuada na quarta e oitava semanas, com a premissa de gerar o efeito de supercompensação 14 , considerada um princípio do treinamento físico-esportivo que tem o intuito de recuperar os sistemas orgânicos e substratos energéticos, otimizando, assim, as capacidades neuromotoras 14 . O GNP realizou os mesmos exercícios (supino em banco horizontal e leg press 45 o ) que o GO, no entanto, a carga de treino foi mantida constante, como pode ser observado na TABELA 1. ...
O objetivo da investigação foi analisar o efeito da periodização ondulatória vs não periodizado no treinamento resistido sobre a força muscular em jovens adultos. Participaram 55 voluntários do sexo masculino, divididos aleatoriamente em três grupos: periodização ondulatória (GO = 18), não periodizado (GNP = 19) e controle (GC = 18). Os participantes foram submetidos a 8 semanas de treinamento resistido, exceto o GC. O GO realizou a periodização do tipo ondulatória. O GNP realizou os mesmos exercícios (supino em banco horizontal e leg press 45o) que o GO, no entanto, foi adotada a carga constante. A força muscular foi determinada por meio do teste de 10 repetições máximas. Conduziu-se a análise multivariada (MANCOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar a força muscular em função do momento da pesquisa. O teste post hoc de Bonferroni foi utilizado para identificar possíveis diferenças estatísticas. Em relação a força muscular de membros superiores, os resultados revelaram aumento no GO (∆=15%, p<0,01) e GNP (∆=5%, p<0,01) após as 8 semanas de treino, fato não reproduzido para o GC (∆=-2%, p=0,21). Concernente a força de membros inferiores, os achados também indicaram aumento no GO (∆=9%, p<0,01) e GNP (∆=4%, p<0,01) após as 8 semanas de treino, fato não reproduzido para o GC (∆=-1%, p=0,24). Pode-se concluir que a periodização ondulatória foi superior, pois proporcionou aumentos progressivos na força muscular.
... Consistent with this view, Travis et al. (21) demonstrated that powerlifters undergoing a taper can reduce training intensity by 25% and still improve 1RM performances. Based on the results of the study and other tapering transport studies, it would appear that the manipulation of training intensity during a taper might be somewhat athlete specific, with this potentially being influenced by the training load and fatigue before the taper (9,15), the unique physiological demands of the sport (1,5,16,17,24,27), and the associated injury epidemiology (8). ...
... The choice of taper type and duration may be influenced by the athletes' previous training load (9,15,18) and the fatigue they experience during the taper (4). The step (36%) and linear taper (33%) were the most commonly used tapers by the Highland Games athletes. ...
This study provides the first empirical evidence of how Highland Games heavy event athletes train and taper for Highland Games competitions. Athletes (n = 169) (mean ± SD: age 40.8 ± 10.7 years, height 181.2 ± 9.5 cm, weight 107.2 ± 23.0 kg, 18.8 ± 10.3 years of general resistance training, and 8.1 ± 6.9 years of competitive Highland Games experience) completed a self-reported 4-page online survey on training and tapering practices. Analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national, and international) was conducted. Seventy-eight percent (n = 132) of athletes reported that they used a taper. Athletes stated that their taper length was 5.2 ± 3.5 days, with the step (36%) and linear tapers (33%) being the most performed. Athletes reported that their highest training volume and intensity were 5.5 and 3.8 weeks out (respectively) from competition, and all training ceased 2.4 ± 1.4 days before competition. Training volume decreased during the taper by 34%. Athletes typically stated that, tapering was performed to achieve recovery, peak performance, and injury prevention; training intensity, frequency, and duration stayed the same or decreased; game-specific training increased with reductions in traditional exercises; the caber toss, weight for height, and heavy weight throw were performed further out from competition than other events; muscular power and strength were the most common types of training performed; static stretching, foam rolling, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of life/work circumstances, lack of sleep/rest, or training too heavy/hard. These results may aid Highland Games athletes to optimize training and tapering variables leading to improved performances.
... Si bien se ha postulado que la fatiga es un requisito para activar los mecanismos de supercompensación y aumento de las capacidades de los deportistas (Wada et al., 2020), la misma debería ser controlada a fin de evitar un estancamiento o reducción del rendimiento debido a una dosificación errónea de las cargas de entrenamiento (Mukhopadhyay, 2021). Una adecuada regulación de la fatiga resulta fundamental especialmente durante los períodos de tapering o puesta a punto, ya que en estos casos debe permitirse a los atletas una apropiada recuperación sin pérdida de adaptaciones para así llegar en óptimas condiciones a la competencia (Le Meur et al., 2012). ...
... Durante el período de 4 semanas en el que se desarrolló y con el objetivo de alcanzar un pico de rendimiento al momento del combate, se llevó a cabo una reducción paulatina del volumen manteniendo la intensidad respetando así los principios de un tapering precompetitivo (le Meur et al., 2012). Se utilizó un modelo de periodización ATR (Acumulación, Transformación, Realización) el cual tiene gran aplicación en el caso de boxeadores profesionales (Rezzonico, 2022), haciéndose coincidir el comienzo del último período (Realización) con el inicio del proceso de monitoreo de la fatiga. ...
El objetivo de esta investigación fue presentar un modelo para el monitoreo de la fatiga que pudiera ser utilizado en Boxeo, a fin de que los entrenadores dispongan de una herramienta para el control de sus deportistas durante el proceso de entrenamiento y puesta a punto. El artículo provee el estudio del caso de una boxeadora profesional, con la que se llevó a cabo el monitoreo de la fatiga previo a una disputa por los títulos mundiales de la categoría ligero, utilizando como indicadores la altura de saltos, velocidad de golpes rectos de puño y un cuestionario de percepción subjetiva sobre la calidad del sueño, nivel de estrés, fatiga y dolor muscular. Al finalizar el proceso de monitoreo se obtuvieron mejoras en la altura alcanzada para todos los saltos y en los golpes rectos aislados de izquierda, así como una reducción en la acumulación de los indicadores de fatiga, plasmando la posibilidad de considerar el uso de modelos similares con el objetivo de controlar el proceso de entrenamiento y optimizar el rendimiento. Palabras clave: Fatiga, rendimiento, recuperación, boxeo.
The objective of this research was to present a model for monitoring fatigue that could be used in Boxing, so that coaches have a tool for the control of their athletes during the training and tapering process. The article provides the case study of a professional boxer, with whom the monitoring of fatigue prior to the dispute for the world titles of the lightweight category was carried out, using as indicators the height of jumps, speed of straight fist blows and a questionnaire of subjective perception on sleep quality, stress, fatigue and muscle pain. At the end of the monitoring process, improvements were obtained in the height reached for all jumps and in isolated straight left blows, as well as a reduction in the accumulation of fatigue indicators, reflecting the possibility of considering the use of similar models with the objective of controlling the training process and optimizing performance.
... These variations are due to a combination of individual training programmes, individual perceptions of exertion to a given training session (Haddad et al., 2017) and other additional influences (illness/injury, holiday, training camps, etc). Interestingly, in some gymnasts, the observed pattern of training load leading up to competition did not show a traditional taper phase towards competition (Le Meur et al., 2012). Typically, training load is reduced towards a major competition to elicit optimal sports performance (Le Meur et al., 2012), whereas the observed pattern of training load in some gymnasts showed an increase in training load towards competition. ...
... Interestingly, in some gymnasts, the observed pattern of training load leading up to competition did not show a traditional taper phase towards competition (Le Meur et al., 2012). Typically, training load is reduced towards a major competition to elicit optimal sports performance (Le Meur et al., 2012), whereas the observed pattern of training load in some gymnasts showed an increase in training load towards competition. This may partly be explained by a discrepancy in coaches and athlete's perception of training load, where coaches have been reported to underestimate training load in other youth sports (Brink et al., 2014;Murphy et al., 2014). ...
There is currently limited research exploring the relationship between growth, training load and injury in gymnasts. Twenty-one national level, trampoline gymnasts recorded training load and injury for 8-weeks. Percentage of predicted adult height (%PAH) was calculated using the Khamis-Roche method and used to define growth spurt status. Training load was calculated using the session rate of perceived exertion and analysed as differential loads and as a 7-day exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA7day). There was a significant non-linear association between %PAH and the probability of injury when adjusting for either training load metric (differential load, P = 0.015; EWMA7day; P = 0.008), with the highest injury risk estimated at ~90% PAH (circa growth spurt). The probability of injury significantly increased with increases in EWMA7day training load (RR: 1.88 95% CI: 1.21-2.91, P = 0.005) but not with differential load. No significant interaction between %PAH, training load and the probability of injury were observed. Data suggest that competitive trampoline gymnasts are at an increased risk of injury during the adolescent growth spurt or with higher weekly training loads. Coaches should be educated and encouraged to identify periods of rapid growth and monitor training load, to reduce the risk of injury.
... It aims to allow athletes to recover from the fatigue of training, so that performance can be maximised at a specific time point. 5 While there has been considerable research into tapering for endurance sports, 6 and more recently investigations into strength sports, 7 there has been little investigations into how best to taper for individual sports like CrossFit that involve considerable concurrent training and only a few major competitions each year. 8,9 It has been suggested that experienced endurance athletes should reduce training volume by >50%, for at least one week (up to one month) before major competitions, while intensity should be maintained or slightly increased. ...
... International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 15(5)(6) ...
This is the first study to document the training and tapering practices of elite CrossFit athletes. Seventy-two CrossFit athletes (39 females, 33 males) (mean ±SD; 26.5 ± 3.6 y, 167.1 ± 9.5 cm, 74.5 ± 12.7 kg, 12.8 ± 6.5 y general training, 5.4 ± 1.7 y CrossFit training) who competed at the “Regionals” level or higher in the 2018 CrossFit Games season completed a self-reported 5-page online survey. Almost all athletes (98.6%) tapered before important competitions. Taper length was 5.4 ± 2.7 days, with the step and linear tapering styles being most commonly utilised. Strength training volume peaked 5.1 ± 4.6 weeks before competition, whereas conditioning training volume peaked 4.0 ± 4.4 weeks before competition. Strength training intensity peaked 3.1 ± 2.4 weeks before competition, whereas conditioning training intensity peaked 2.8 ± 2.2 weeks before competition. Almost all athletes (90.0%) reduced training duration during tapering, but changes to frequency and intensity were mixed. Training volume decreased by 41.2 ± 15.5% during the taper, all training ceased 2.0 ± 1.1 days before competition. Tapering was performed to achieve peak performance, recover (physically and psychologically), and reduce feelings of fatigue. Poor results from tapering were experienced when athletes tapered for too long or insufficiently. This observational data may be valuable for coaches and athletes engaged in CrossFit as well as other sports with concurrent training and competition demands.
... Furthermore, while not unanimously agreed upon (129), greater hypertrophy from increased set volume may contribute to strength gains (130). Conversely, higher volumes may lead to increased fatigue, as evidenced by the beneficial effects of tapering (131). Notably, elevated fatigue may still be present at post-testing given most of the included studies did not include a taper. ...
Background: Weekly set volume and frequency are used to manipulate resistance training (RT) dosage. Previous research has identified higher weekly set volume as enhancing muscle hypertrophy and strength gains, but the nature of the dose-response relationship still needs to be investigated. Mixed evidence exists regarding the effects of higher weekly frequency. Objective: Before meta-analyzing the volume and frequency research, all contributing RT sets were classified as direct or indirect, depending on their specificity to the hypertrophy/strength measurement. Then, weekly set volume/frequency for indirect sets was quantified as 1 for 'total,' 0.5 for 'fractional,' and 0 for 'direct.' A series of multi-level meta-regressions were performed for muscle hypertrophy and strength, utilizing 67 total studies of 2,058 participants. All models were adjusted for the duration of the intervention and training status. Results: The relative evidence for the 'fractional' quantification method was strongest; therefore, this quantification method was used for the primary meta-regression models. The posterior probability of the marginal slope exceeding zero for the effect of volume on both hypertrophy and strength was 100%, indicating that gains in muscle size and strength increase as volume increases. However, both best fit models suggest diminishing returns, with the diminishing returns for strength being considerably more pronounced. The posterior probability of the marginal slope exceeding zero for frequency's effect on hypertrophy was less than 100%, indicating compatibility with negligible effects. In contrast, the posterior probability for strength was 100%, suggesting strength gains increase with increasing frequency, albeit with diminishing returns. Conclusions: Distinguishing between direct and indirect sets appears essential for predicting adaptations to a given RT protocol, such as using the 'fractional' quantification method. This method's dose-response models revealed that volume and frequency have unique dose-response relationships with each hypertrophy and strength gain. The dose-response relationship between volume and hypertrophy appears to differ from that with strength, with the latter exhibiting more pronounced diminishing returns. The dose-response relationship between frequency and hypertrophy appears to differ from that with strength, as only the latter exhibits consistently identifiable effects.
... The taper represents a progressive reduction in training load over a specific period with the purpose of reducing both physiological and psychological stress induced by training and competitive demands to optimize athletes' performance capabilities [104]. Based on the currently available scientific literature, the properly implemented tapering strategies are capable of inducing on average 3% improvement in performance (i.e., 0.5-6.0%). ...
Although different strategies have been implemented to manage recovery-fatigue status in athletes, there is still a lack of consensus on which recovery protocols have the greatest impact and effectiveness when implemented with basketball players, including both physiological and psychological recovery methods. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review is to: (a) determine which recovery methods attain the greatest benefit in restoring the process of attenuating fatigue and (b) provide sports practitioners with guidelines on how some of the most effective recovery strategies can be used to optimize athletes’ recovery and ultimately enhance their performance. Using the PRISMA guidelines, a total of 3931 research reports were obtained through four database searches (i.e., PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, and Web of Science), from which only 25 met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The recovery protocols analyzed in this systematic review were: sleep, nutrition, hydration, ergogenic aids, cold-water immersion, compression garments, massage, acupuncture, tapering, mindfulness, and red-light irradiation. The results revealed that all recovery strategies are capable of attenuating fatigue and enhancing recovery in basketball players to a certain degree. However, an individualized approach should be promoted, where a combination of proactive recovery modalities appears to result in the most rapid rates of recovery and athletes’ ability to maintain high-level performance. Recovery should be programmed as an integral component of training regimens. Also, cooperation and communication between coaches, players, and the rest of the team staff members are essential in minimizing the risk of non-functional overreaching or injury and optimizing basketball players’ on-court performance.
... One limitation found in the included articles of this systematic scoping review was the lack 323 of information about tapering, as only two out of 35 studies mentioned the utilization of any taper strategy. Tapering is an essential component of training programs that involves reducing training volume and intensity prior to a competition, with the aim of maximizing performance (Bosquet, Montpetit, Arvisais, & Mujika 2007;Le Meur, Hausswirth, & Mujika, 2012;Murach & Bagley, 2015). The absence of information about tapering in the majority of studies limits our understanding of how it affects the effectiveness of PT interventions in handball players. ...
This systematic scoping review aimed to comprehensively identify and analyze the available evidence pertaining to the effects of plyometric training interventions on handball players. The search for relevant literature was conducted across prominent databases, including PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science Core Collection. The eligibility criteria focused on healthy handball players, without restrictions on age, sex, or competitive level, who were exposed to plyometric training interventions, either alone or in combination with other training methods. A meticulous screening process was conducted, whereby 3,195 titles were carefully evaluated, resulting in the inclusion of 35 eligible studies in this systematic scoping review, involving a total of 891 participants. Most studies on plyometric training in handball focused on indoor settings, conducted during the in-season period, and involved tier two athletes. The training frequency typically ranged from twice per week, with a duration of between 5 and 12 weeks, and incorporated some form of progressive overload. The number of total floor contacts varied between 20 and 600. There was a considerable variation in outcomes across the included studies, but most of them demonstrated a positive impact of plyometric training on improving jumping ability, sprinting speed, change of direction, strength, and balance. In conclusion, the predominant focus of the studies was on the lower limb, specifically aiming to assess the intervention influence on variables associated with strength and power. Notably, these investigations consistently highlighted favorable effects on enhancing these parameters among handball players. However, further research is needed to explore the effects of plyometric training in handball, particularly regarding exercise selection, optimal volume and intensity, rest intervals, and tapering protocols.
... Tapering has been extensively examined in relation to endurance sports (8,(16)(17)(18)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)42) with a growing body of evidence relative to strength sports (3,5,12,21,29,31,32,35,36,38,40,44,45). ...
Burke, BI, Carroll, KM, Travis, SK, Stone, ME, and Stone, MH. Two days versus four days of training cessation following a step-taper in powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-Tapering and training cessation are methods of training load management aimed at optimizing athlete preparedness leading into competition. Such practices are often used by strength sport athletes such as powerlifters (i.e., athletes who compete in the back squat [BS], bench press [BP], and deadlift [DL]). The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in maximal strength, subjective recovery and stress state, and body composition alterations in strength athletes undergoing a 1-week step-taper followed by either a 2-day (2D) or 4-day (4D) period of training cessation. Twelve powerlifters (22.3 ± 2.1 yrs; 92.1 ± 20.4 kg; 174.8 ± 7.5 cm) completed a 6-week training protocol aimed at peaking 1 repetition maximum (1RM) strength on BS, BP, and DL. Body composition, subjective recovery and stress state, and 1RM on BS, BP, and DL were assessed before an overreach week (T1) and after the periods of training cessation (T2) for each group. Alpha criterion was set at p ≤ 0.05. There were significant increases in BP (p = 0.032, g = 0.10), powerlifting total (p = 0.014, g = 0.11), and DOTS score (p = 0.006, g = 0.12) after 2D of cessation. However, after 4D of cessation, significant increases were only observed in DL (p = 0.019, g = 0.11) along with significant decreases in BP (p = 0.003, g = -0.13). There were no statistically significant changes in any other variable for either group indicating that BS, psychometric, and body composition data were maintained between T1 and T2. The results of this study support the use of 1-week step-tapers, followed by a short period of training cessation (2-4D) to maintain or improve maximal strength performance.
... Within a competitive cycle, a session with these characteristics may be a day in which some sort of active recovery type work can be conducted, perhaps after a competitive game or full match simulation the previous day. The fluctuations in both cognitive and physical load that can be seen in this hypothetical plan represent an application of tapering techniques [39] and can be tailored to suit a broad range of needs or competitive settings. ...
Representative learning design (RLD) in sport is a well-established concept in both theory and practice. The goal of RLD is to faithfully replicate competition environments in training settings to benefit improvement in athletic performance. There is currently little research that considers how representative an activity needs to be to facilitate learning transfer, and how that level of representativeness might fluctuate between activities or sessions, and across competitive cycles. Similarly, there is no existing research that specifically considers the elevated workload (in cognitive and physical load) of highly representative training, and the potential impacts of chronic overuse of these highly demanding activities. This paper addresses these limitations, making a case for the application of RLD that considers the level of representativeness (fidelity) and the demands placed on athletes (load) from both a cognitive and physical perspective. This paper also suggests several categorisations of training activities that are based on their relative representativeness, level of imposed demands, and the intended outcomes of the activity with reference to the perception–action cycle. The two core concepts of fidelity and load are combined for a new approach to representative training that allows practitioners to balance the benefits of representative training with the risks of imposing excessive load on athletes.
... According to this understanding of the essence of the stage of direct preparation and depending on the previous load, its content is built and the duration and magnitude of the load are determined, and the effectiveness and course of restorative reactions are evaluated (Bobrovnik, 2014;Ritchie, Allen & Kirkland, 2018;Botonis, Toubekis & Platanou, 2019). Determining the optimal amount of load during the construction of a "narrowing" is carried out exclusively by foreign authors based on such indicators as the volume and intensity of loads, as well as the number of training sessions in certain structural formations of the training process (Le Meur, Hausswirth & Mujika, 2012;Bazyler et al., 2017;Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018). ...
The purpose of the study was to develop an optimal model of the stage of direct preparation for competitions of highly qualified multieventers in athletics and experimentally justify its effectiveness. Materials and methods. 5 highly qualified multieventers, whose sports qualification is the Master of Sports of Ukraine, participated in the pedagogical experiment. The average age of the participants was (M±SD) 25.2±1.79 years. Research methods: theoretical analysis and generalization of data from literary sources; pedagogical experiment (the study was conducted from 2019 to 2021 according to the scheme of a sequential pedagogical experiment: from 2019 to 2020 - the ascertaining stage and from 2020 to 2021 - the formative stage); pedagogical observation of training and competitive activities; pedagogical testing (running 60 m from a high start, running 2 x 200 m with a rest interval of 1 min, triple jump from a standing position, throwing a ball with two hands from below on range, the running version of the PWC170(V) test was used for estimation of physical capacity and aerobic productivity of athletes); mathematical and statistical methods. Results. The total amount of training work of the studied multieventers at the stage of the formative experiment was reduced to 3148 min, compared to the ascertainment stage (4999 min), however, their intensity increased to an average of 6.11 points/min, compared to 5.72 points/min at the ascertainment stage. We managed to optimize the training process due to the developed models of microcycles at the stage of direct preparation for competitions, in which attention was focused on the leading types of each of the multieventers. Conclusions. Reducing the amount of load at the stage of direct preparation for competitions with a simultaneous increase in their intensity allowed the athletes to reach the peak of their sports form, as evidenced by the results of the main competitions of each of the athletes. The analysis of indicators of physical and functional fitness of highly qualified track and field athletes made it possible to establish that most of the results at the stage of the formative experiment improved statistically in a reliable way by an average of 2.6-6.5 %, which confirms the effectiveness of the proposed 8-week model of the stage of direct preparation for the competition and allows to recommend it for practical use in the training process of multieventers at the stage of maximum fulfillment of individual capabilities.
... Stimulus pelatihan yang tidak memadai dapat mengakibatkan hilangnya sebagian kinerja adaptasi anatomi dan fisiologis yang dikenal sebagai detraining (Mujika & Padilla, 2000). Oleh karena itu, atlet dan pelatihnya harus menentukan sejauh mana beban pelatihan dapat dikurangi dengan cara mengorbankan komponen pelatihan sambil mempertahankan atau bahkan meningkatkan adaptasi (Le Meur et al., 2012). Setelah acara selesai dilaksanakan, selanjutnya dilakukan foto bersama antara peserta dengan pemateri. ...
Kegiatan pelatihan penyusunan program latihan fisik cabang olahraga bagi pelatih di Kabupaten Probolinggo ini bertujuan untuk membekali para pelatih cabang olahraga di Kabupaten Probolinggo dalam menyusun program latihan fisik untuk persiapan dalam menghadapi Pekan Olahraga Provinsi Jawa Timur (PORPROV) tahun 2023. Metode pelaksanaan berupa pelatihan secara luring dengan tahapan persiapan dan survey lokasi pelatihan, koordinasi dengan Koni Kabupaten Probolinggo, penyusunan rencana pelaksanaan kegiatan finalisasi dan koordinasi penyelenggaraan program, penyiapan dan penyediaan sarana dan prasarana dalam kegiatan pelatihan, pelaksaanaan kegiatan selama 2 hari dan rencana tindak lanjut. hasil evaluasi melalui kuesioner kepuasan peserta terhadap pelaksanaan kegiatan didapatkan hasil bahwa dari nilai maksimal 5, secara materi mendapatkan nilai 3,41, narasumber 4,03 dan fasilitas yang diberikan mendapat nilai 3,02. Output yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan ini adalah kemampuan pelatih dalam menyusun program latihan fisik dalam menyiapkan atletnya khususnya untuk Pekan Olahraga Provinsi (PORPROV) Jawa Timur 2023.
... O termo tapering em ciências do esporte tem sido utilizado para descrever a fase do treinamento antecedente as diversas competições realizadas pelos atletas, sendo o momento da periodização em que a carga de treino é reduzida visando à minimização do estresse fisiológico, biomecânico e psicológico, acarretando a maximização da performance 1,2 . É neste momento que treinadores buscam a recuperação completa e supercompensação do efeito somativo das cargas geradas em microciclos anteriores promovendo picos de performance, sendo uma estratégia prática utilizada para otimizar o desempenho antes de uma competição importante, sobretudo aplicado em esportes de endurance, em que as competições alvo acontecem em períodos específicos do macrociclo de treinamento 2,3,4 De acordo com Mujika 5 , o tapering pode ser modulado por meio da manipulação das variáveis de carga de treino (volume, intensidade e frequência), duração e tipo de tapering (exponencial de queda lenta e rápida, linear e etapas). Esta manipulação pode implicar na redução dos efeitos negativos (fadiga acumulada) gerados pelo treinamento diário, sem, no entanto perder os efeitos positivos (adaptações fisiológicas) 6,7 . ...
O tapering é o momento da periodização em que a carga de treino é reduzida visando à minimização do estresse fisiológico, biomecânico e psicológico, acarretando a otimização da performance. O objetivo foi apresentar e discutir as características e monitoramento do tapering no triathlon. A partir dos critérios de seleção estabelecidos, foram encontrados 7 artigos. As evidências apontam que no tapering para triatletas treinados deve ocorrer redução do volume de treinamento na natação em torno de 41% a 60%, no ciclismo e corrida de 21% a 60%. Deve-se manter a intensidade durante o tapering com a utilização do tipo exponencial de queda rápida, durando de 8 a 14 dias no ciclismo e corrida, bem como, 21 dias na natação. O período pré tapering determina a magnitude dos efeitos do tapering, com expectativa do aumento de performance de 3% na competição. Palavras-chave: Educação física e treinamento; Resistência física; Tapering; Desempenho atlético; Triathlon. BUCK KH, BRAZ TV, VILELA JUNIOR GB, LOPES CR. Características e monitoramento do tapering no triathlon: uma revisão sistemática. R. bras. Ci. e Mov 2017;25(3):150-158. ABSTRACT: Tapering is the time of periodization when training load is reduced in order to lower the physiological, biomechanical and psychological stress thus leading to an improved performance. This paper aims to present and discuss the characteristics and monitoring of taper in triathlon. According to the established search criteria, 7 papers were found. Current evidence show that volume training should be lowered in 41% to 60% for swimming and 21% to 60% for cycling and running in the tapering for trained triathletes. Training intensity must be maintained during rapid exponential fall mode taper. It should last from 8 to 14 days for running and cycling and 21 days for swimming. The pre tapering period determines the magnitude of tapering results, and a 3% performance increase is expected in the competition.
... Taurine seems to have 3 distinct effects on performance: small, medium, and large. It should be noted that even small improvements in performance in some sports can translate into significant differences in competitive results (43,50 Table 2 Characteristics of included studies related to anaerobic outputs (n 5 9) ...
Taurine is a well-known free amino acid that has gained prominence in recent years despite its little or no role in protein formation. Few studies on the ergogenic effect of taurine exist with inconsistent results. The answer to the question of whether performance markers demonstrate the benefit of taurine remains unclear. This study aimed to reach a consensus about whether taurine supplementation is effective on aerobic (time to exhaustion [TTE], maximal oxygen uptake [V̇O2max], and rating of perceived exertion) and anaerobic (power outputs, fatigue index, jumping, and blood lactate level) performance outputs. Google Scholar, PubMed databases, clinical trial websites, and gray literature were reviewed until November 2021. Mean differences (MDs) were pooled using random or fixed-effects models according to the heterogeneity degree of the related output. Although 18 studies were detected for the meta-analysis between 2001 and 2021, 16 studies were grouped. Only randomized controlled trials (single or double-blind) were considered. Taurine supplementation had a significant effect on vertical (MD = 3.60; 95% confidence interval [CI] [2.32 to 4.89], p = 0.00001) and countermovement (MD = 8.50; 95% CI [4.78 to 12.22], p = 0.00001) jump performance when compared with a placebo group. Taurine supplementation had no significant effect on the V̇O2max level and rate of perceived exertion (respectively, MD = 20.54 mL/kg/min; 95% CI [26.84 to 5.75], p = 0.87; MD = 20.24; 95% CI [20.74 to 0.27], p = 0.35) when compared with a placebo group. Overall, it looks to be effective for jumping performance and TTE. Taurine supplementation may be useful for people who want to improve these performance outputs.
... Taurine seems to have 3 distinct effects on performance: small, medium, and large. It should be noted that even small improvements in performance in some sports can translate into significant differences in competitive results (43,50 Table 2 Characteristics of included studies related to anaerobic outputs (n 5 9) ...
Background: Taurine is a well-known free amino acid that has gained prominence in recent years despite its little or no role in protein formation. Few studies on the ergogenic effect of taurine exist with inconsistent results. The question on whether performance markers show the benefit from the taurine remains open. This study aimed to reach a consensus about whether taurine supplementation is effective on aerobic (time to exhaustion, VO2max, and rating of perceived exertion) and anaerobic (jumping, blood lactate level) performance outputs.
Methods: Google Scholar, Pubmed databases, clinical trial websites, and grey literature were reviewed until November 2021. Mean differences (MDs) were pooled using random or fixed-effects models according to the heterogeneity degree of related outcomes. Although 17 studies were detected for the meta-analysis between 2001-2021, 15 studies were grouped. Only randomized controlled trials (single or double-blind) were considered.
Results: Taurine supplementation had a significant effect on vertical (MD =3.60; 95% CI 2.32 to 4.89, p <0.00001) and countermovement (MD = 8.50; 95% CI 4.78 to 12.22, p <0.00001) jump performance when compared to a placebo group. Taurine supplementation had no significant effect on VO2max level and rate of perceived exertion (respectively, MD = −0.54 ml/kg/min; 95% CI −6.84 to 5.75, p=0.87; MD = −0.24; 95% CI −0.74 to 0.27, p=0.35) when compared to a placebo group.
Conclusion: Taurine improves potentially jumping performance and time to exhaustion.
... Mood refers to the set of positive and negative feelings that vary in intensity and duration [11], such as depression, tension, anger, fatigue, confusion, and vigor. Studies have shown a positive relationship between mood state and the "iceberg" profile (increased stamina and reduced other feelings) and sports performance [12][13][14]. According to Rouveix et al. [15], mood status can be changed due to alterations in body composition. ...
(1) Background: Psychological parameters are relevant in the practice of judo. Previous studies have shown that parameters such as anxiety or motivation can have a negative or positive impact on the athlete’s performance and general well-being, depending on the athlete’s perception. This systematic review aimed to summarize the studies examining the influence of various psycho- logical parameters on well-being and performance in judo athletes; (2) Methods: We followed pre- ferred reporting elements for systematic reviews and meta-analyses. We searched the Web of Sci- ence database for studies that explained the role of these parameters in elite athletes. Of the 286 articles initially identified, 17 met our eligibility criteria and were included in the review. In total, we analyzed data from 721 judo athletes; (3) Results: The studies found have demonstrated the impact of various psychological parameters during high-level performance and how these param- eters can influence and lead an athlete to win or lose a competition. The feelings of tension, anger, anxiety, and nervousness were significantly increased in athletes who were facing defeat, while a decrease in the same segments and an increase in motivation among athletes who were experiencing better performance was observed. Further research under standardized conditions is needed to bet- ter understand the effects of these parameters on judo athletes; (4) Conclusions: Considering the athlete’s psychological state can affect performance, and it is therefore important to monitor and train these factors.
... Several individual and running-associated variables (e.g., age, sex, motivation, environment, race distance, nutrition, preparation phases, competition level) have been shown to affect runners' training patterns [30][31][32]. To improve running adaptations and performance, it is recommended to plan and conduct training with great precision over different loading phases (including high volume, high intensity, and workout diversity) [33]. Public beliefs indicate that preparation for an endurance event requires long endurance runs performed within the pre-competition days/weeks in order to reach a high workload [32,34]. ...
Accompanied by the growing popularity of distance running, the prevalence of vegan and vegetarian diets in endurance runners has increased across the globe and especially in German-speaking (D-A-CH: Germany, Austria, Switzerland) countries. The present study aimed to investigate and compare the epidemiological characteristics associated with diet types and running behaviors of recreational endurance runners. From a total number of 7422 runners who started to fill in the online survey, 3835 runners completed the questionnaire. After data clearance, 2455 distance runners (mean age: 37 years; 56% females, 44% males) were selected as the final sample and classified as 1162 omnivores (47.4%), 529 vegetarians (21.5%), and 764 vegans (31.1%). Sociodemographic information and general characteristics in training and competition were evaluated using a questionnaire-based approach. A significant association was found between diet type and race distance (p < 0.001). In females, vegan ultra-marathoners and omnivorous half-marathoners had better individual running records among dietary groups. Sex differences in running performance had a minimizing trend with increasing race distance. Most runners reported independent race preparation (90%) over less than four months (73%). From an epidemiological viewpoint, the present findings suggest a central role of plant-based diets in running performance and behaviors among active distance runners in D-A-CH countries and that vegetarian and vegan diets are compatible with competitive running.
... Concerning the pre and post-anaerobic fatigue test, at t-1, both sexes followed a similar pattern in terms of anaerobic power records compared to the muscle fatigue test. In t-1, the different powers decrease compared to t-0, to then increase progressively to t-4, which would be explained by the training and progressive tapering of sports planning (Le Meur et al., 2012;Vachon et al., 2021). Before the anaerobic test, the difference in the autonomic parameters between the groups decreased progressively until t-3, where the frequency domain values are practically unified. ...
Objective: To study the differences in cardiac autonomic modulation in response to muscle fatigue caused by high-intensity exercise during two consecutive competition periods in young swimmers.
Methods: Twenty-six competitive swimmers, selected by their training volume, were separated in two groups, females (n = 12 [46%], age: 13.5 ± 1.4 years) and males (n = 14 [54%], age: 13.9 ± 1.7 years), aged between 10 and 16 years, were evaluated five times as follow: (i) 21 days before the first competition (t-0); (ii) two days before (t-1; t-3); and (iii) two days after (t-2; t-4) of the first and second competitions. Morphological measurements (body mass, percentage of total body fat and height), blood pressure, power, and resting heart rate variability (RR with Polar band) were recorded before and after Wingate test at each time.
Results: Body fat was higher in females compared to males. However, no differences were found in other morphological parameters. An intra-subject analysis grouped by sex in cardiovascular parameters shows longitudinal variations in systolic pressure and mean pressure among females. Additionally, females depicted higher, very low frequency (VLF, which is intrinsically generated by the heart and strongly associated with emotional stress) after physical fatigue compared to males at t-1. Further, before the competition, the high frequency (HF) component of HRV (parasympathetic drive) was higher in males than females at t-0 and t-4.
Conclusion: Our data revealed that males displayed greater parasympathetic reactivity after an anaerobic muscle fatigue test during their competition periods. Contrarily, females had a less cardiac autonomic modulation when comparing the pre-post Wingate test after two consecutive competition periods.
... Por exemplo, se normalmente se treina jogos reduzidos 3 versus 3 em quadra inteira, durante 5 minutos, a uma intensidade de 80% a 90% da frequência cardíaca máxima. No período de tapering, pode-se executar os jogos reduzidos 3 versus 3 em quadra inteira ou quadra reduzida, com duração inferior a 5 minutos (entre 2 a 3 minutos) e, mantendo a intensidade de 80% a 90% da frequência cardíaca máxima.Estratégias regenerativas também auxiliam na etapa de tapering, como a liberação miofascial, a massagem, a crioterapia, a terapia de contraste, hidratação, suplementação alimentar, entre outros recursos (LeMeur et al, 2012;Pritchard et al, 2016;Grgic & Mikulic, ...
RESUMO Os programas de treinamento físico específicos direcionados aos jogadores de basquete precisam ser devidamente organizados e efetivos, para provocar as adaptações fisiológicas desejadas e, por conseguinte, aprimorar o desempenho. O tapering surge como uma estratégia pedagógica bem documentada na literatura científica, que auxilia os preparadores físicos a otimizar o rendimento em momentos-chave da competição. Todavia, para se obter os benefícios do tapering é necessário saber manipular com proeficiência variáveis como o volume, intensidade, frequência e\ou duração das cargas. Soma-se a isto, o controle sistemático da carga externa e interna contribuem para entender a direção do programa de treinamento, conseguindo identificar os elementos estressores e a capacidade de recuperação dos jogadores. No basquete, as pesquisas sobre o emprego do tapering demonstram resultados positivos no desempenho em diferentes formatos de intervenção. Nesta revisão de literatura foi possível constatar que o gerenciamento da fadiga durante o período de intensificação das cargas e, aumento da prontidão dos jogadores na etapa de tapering, é uma tarefa complexa.
... Logo, 8 semanas de treino adotando 4 semanas de polimento linear como estratégia de periodização foi eficiente para maximizar o rendimento dos jovens atletas, corroborando outras pesquisas (Mujika, 2010;Hellard et al., 2013). De fato, a redução linear do volume de treino nas semanas antecedentes a competição-alvo pode gerar adaptações neurais importantes, por exemplo, a melhora da sincronização da utilização de fibras musculares na realização de gestos técnicos (Le Meur, Hausswirth, & Mujika, 2012), o que, de certo modo, pode explicar os achados na fase pósteste para ambos os grupos. ...
... O termo tapering em ciências do esporte tem sido utilizado para descrever a fase do treinamento antecedente as diversas competições realizadas pelos atletas, sendo o momento da periodização em que a carga de treino é reduzida visando à minimização do estresse fisiológico, biomecânico e psicológico, acarretando a maximização da performance 1,2 . É neste momento que treinadores buscam a recuperação completa e supercompensação do efeito somativo das cargas geradas em microciclos anteriores promovendo picos de performance, sendo uma estratégia prática utilizada para otimizar o desempenho antes de uma competição importante, sobretudo aplicado em esportes de endurance, em que as competições alvo acontecem em períodos específicos do macrociclo de treinamento 2,3,4 De acordo com Mujika 5 , o tapering pode ser modulado por meio da manipulação das variáveis de carga de treino (volume, intensidade e frequência), duração e tipo de tapering (exponencial de queda lenta e rápida, linear e etapas). Esta manipulação pode implicar na redução dos efeitos negativos (fadiga acumulada) gerados pelo treinamento diário, sem, no entanto perder os efeitos positivos (adaptações fisiológicas) 6,7 . ...
O tapering é o momento da periodização em que a carga de treino é reduzida visando à minimização do estresse fisiológico, biomecânico e psicológico, acarretando a otimização da performance. O objetivo foi apresentar e discutir as características e monitoramento do tapering no triathlon. A partir dos critérios de seleção estabelecidos, foram encontrados 7 artigos. As evidências apontam que no tapering para triatletas treinados deve ocorrer redução do volume na natação em torno de 41% a 60%, no ciclismo e corrida de 21% a 60%. Deve-se manter a intensidade durante o tapering com a utilização do tipo exponencial de queda rápida, durando de 8 a 14 dias no ciclismo e corrida, bem como, 21 dias na natação. O período pré tapering determina a magnitude dos efeitos do tapering, com expectativa do aumento de performance de 3% na competição.
... Therefore, the small differences in the number of omnivores versus vegetarians and vegans (13% vs. 9% and 8%) training under supervision are not robust to further interpretations, and even more so while no difference between dietary groups were detected for the type of training supervision (performance assessment, trainer, sports scientist, or doctor specialized in sports medicine) in the present study. As a pivotal indicator for optimizing adaptations and improving running performance, training should be planned and conducted with great precision in different phases of overload (e.g., high volumes, great intensity, and diversity of workouts) [42]. Preparation for an endurance event with a high training volume and long endurance runs has been associated with improved performance and faster race times [43,44]. ...
As a key modulator of training adaptations and racing performance, nutrition plays a critical role in endurance runners’ success, and the training/racing behaviors of runners are potentially affected by their diet types. The present study aimed to investigate whether distance runners with a vegan diet (i.e., devoid of foods or ingredients from animal sources), vegetarian diet (i.e., devoid of meat and flesh foods), and omnivorous diet (i.e., a mixed diet with no restriction on food sources) have different training and racing patterns in general and based on race distance subgroups. A total of 3835 recreational runners completed an online survey. Runners were assigned to dietary (om-nivorous, vegetarian, and vegan) and race distance (<21 km, half-marathon, and mara-thon/ultra-marathon) groups. In addition to sociodemographic information, a complete profile of data sets focusing on running and racing behaviors/patterns was evaluated using a question-naire-based epidemiological approach. There were 1272 omnivores (47% females), 598 vegetarians (64% females), and 994 vegans (65% females). Compared to vegans and vegetarians, omnivorous runners prepared for a longer time period for running events, had a higher number of half-marathons and marathons completed with a better finish time, and had more reliance on training under supervision (p < 0.05). The present findings indicate an important association of diet types with patterns of training and racing amongst endurance runners that may be related to different motives of omnivorous, vegetarian, and vegan runners for participating in events.
... The concept of long-term fatigue accumulation has appeared repeatedly in the literature without clear elucidation of what is accumulating and how/why this is occurring [13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. Fatigue accumulation refers to the fatigue that summates over repeated bouts of training that is believed to be additive to pre-existing fatigue. ...
It has been suggested that improper post-exercise recovery or improper sequence of training may result in an ‘accumulation’ of fatigue. Despite this suggestion, there is a lack of clarity regarding which physiological mechanisms may be proposed to contribute to fatigue accumulation. The present paper explores the time course of the changes in various fatigue-related measures in order to understand how they may accumulate or lessen over time following an exercise bout or in the context of an exercise program. Regarding peripheral fatigue, the depletion of energy substrates and accumulation of metabolic byproducts has been demonstrated to occur following an acute bout of resistance training; however, peripheral accumulation and depletion appear unlikely candidates to accumulate over time. A number of mechanisms may contribute to the development of central fatigue, postulating the need for prolonged periods of recovery; however, a time course is difficult to determine and is dependent on which measurement is examined. In addition, it has not been demonstrated that central fatigue measures accumulate over time. A potential candidate that may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue is muscle damage, which shares similar characteristics (i.e., prolonged strength loss). Due to the delayed appearance of muscle damage, it may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue. Overall, evidence for the presence of fatigue accumulation with resistance training is equivocal, making it difficult to draw the conclusion that fatigue accumulates. Considerable work remains as to whether fatigue can accumulate over time. Future studies are warranted to elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the concept of fatigue accumulation.
... The taper refers to a gradual reduction in training load for athletes in the days or weeks before a competitive event (Houmard, 1991;Banister et al., 1999;Mujika and Padilla, 2003;Wilson and Wilson, 2008;Mujika, 2009;Le Meur et al., 2012). Its main aim is to help maximize the physiological adaptations that arise from training by providing athletes with an opportunity to recover from the considerable fatigue that accumulates during training. ...
For marathoners the taper refers to a period of reduced training load in the weeks before race-day. It helps runners to recover from the stresses of weeks of high-volume, high-intensity training to enhance race-day performance. The aim of this study was to analyse the taper strategies of recreational runners to determine whether particular forms of taper were more or less favorable to race-day performance.
Methods: We analyzed the training activities of more than 158,000 recreational marathon runners to define tapers based on a decrease in training volume (weekly distance). We identified different types of taper based on a combination of duration (1–4 weeks of decreasing training) and discipline (strict tapers progressively decrease training in the weeks before the marathon, relaxed tapers do not) and we grouped runners based on their taper type to determine the popularity of different types of taper and their associated performance characteristics.
Results: Kruskal-Wallis tests (H(7)≥ 521.11, p < 0.001), followed by posthoc Dunns tests with a Bonferroni correction, confirmed that strict tapers were associated with better marathon performance than relaxed tapers ( p < 0.001) and that longer tapers of up to 3 weeks were associated with better performance than shorter tapers ( p < 0.001). Results indicated that strict 3-week tapers were associated with superior marathon finish-time benefits (a median finish-time saving of 5 min 32.4 s or 2.6%) compared with a minimal taper ( p < 0.001). We further found that female runners were associated with greater finish-time benefits than men, for a given taper type ( ≤ 3-weeks in duration), based on Mann Whitney U tests of significance with p < 0.001.
Conclusion: The findings of this study for recreational runners are consistent with related studies on highly-trained athletes, where disciplined tapers were associated with comparable performance benefits. The findings also highlight how most recreational runners (64%) adopt less disciplined (2-week and 3-week) tapers and suggest that shifting to a more disciplined taper strategy could improve performance relative to the benefits of a less disciplined taper.
... The adaptable nature of virtual cycling platforms allows preparation for many different kinds of competitions, decreasing the need for athletes and coaches to travel to different training venues, thereby avoiding jetlag and fatigue (Fowler et al., 2017), reducing the time lost to periodization and tapering, and costs normally associated with travel (Le Meur et al., 2012). In addition, coaching staff can assist athletes remotely, regardless of location or time zones. ...
Virtual online training has emerged as one of the top 20 worldwide fitness trends for 2021 and continues to develop rapidly. Although this allows the cycling community to engage in virtual training and competition, critical evaluation of virtual training platforms is limited. Here, we discuss the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats associated with virtual training technology and cycling in an attempt to enhance awareness of such aspects. Strengths include immersive worlds, innovative drafting mechanics, and versatility. Weaknesses include questionable data accuracy, inadequate strength and reliability of power-speed algorithms. Opportunities exist for expanding strategic partnerships with major cycling races, brands, and sponsors and improving user experience with the addition of video capture and “e-coaching.” Threats are present in the form of cheating during competition, and a lack of uptake and acceptance by a broader community.
... Finally, it must be noted that, although significant, only small effects were observed in favour of alternative set structures over TS for inducing greater velocity and power adaptations. Nevertheless, even small improvements in performance in some sports may translate to meaningful differences in competitive outcomes [105,106]. ...
Background
The acute effects of resistance training (RT) set structure alteration are well established; however, less is known about their effects on chronic training adaptations.Objective
The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to synthesise the available evidence on the effectiveness of traditional (TS), cluster (CS) and rest redistribution (RR) set structures in promoting chronic RT adaptations, and provide an overview of the factors which might differentially influence the magnitude of specific training adaptations between set structure types.Methods
This review was performed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines encompassing the literature search of five databases. Studies in English that compared muscular strength, endurance, and/or hypertrophy adaptations, as well as vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts in the slopes of force–velocity profiles between TS and CS or RR set structures (i.e., alternative set structures) were included. Risk of bias assessment was performed using a modified Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were performed where possible.Results17 studies met the inclusion criteria, none had more than one risk of bias item assessed as high risk. Pooled results revealed that none of the set structures were more effective at inducing strength (standardised mean difference (SMD) = − 0.06) or hypertrophy (SMD = − 0.03). TS were more effective at improving muscular endurance compared to alternative set structures (SMD = − 0.38), whereas alternative set structures tended to be more effective for vertical jump performance gains (SMD = 0.13), but this effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.190). Greater velocity and power outputs at submaximal loads (SMD = 0.18) were observed when using alternative set structures compared to TS. In addition, alternative set structures promoted greater shifts of the slope of force–velocity profiles towards more velocity dominant profiles compared to TS (SMD = 0.28). Sub-group analyses controlling for each alternative set structure independently showed mixed results likely caused by the relatively small number of studies available for some outcomes.Conclusion
Modifying TS to an alternative set structure (CS or RR) has a negligible impact on strength and hypertrophy. Using CS and RR can lead to greater vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts to more velocity dominant force–velocity profiles compared to training using TS. However, TS may provide more favourable effects on muscle endurance when compared to CS and RR. These findings demonstrate that altering TS to alternative set structures may influence the magnitude of specific muscular adaptations indicating set structure manipulation is an important consideration for RT program design.Protocol registrationThe original protocol was prospectively registered (CRD42019138954) with the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews).
... The primary goal of athletes and coaches being to improve performance in competition, the way to achieve this is through overcompensation caused by load [17]. For this effect to succeed, the training must be planned with great precision to involve phases of overload (e.g., high volumes, great intensity, and diversity of exercises) [18]. A tapering phase-marked by a reduction in load volume, but with sustained frequency and intensity-is used in many sports to incorporate more specific exercises [17,19]. ...
Endurance sports like trail running constitute an extensive individual modality causing numerous physiological changes to occur in the athlete. In this sense, an adequate monitoring of training load appears to be essential to improve competition performance. The aim of this study was twofold: (i) to analyze trail runners' weekly load variations in the four weeks leading up to a trail running competition, and (ii) to determine the relationship between the runners' pacing in competitions and their physical fitness and workload parameters. Twenty-five amateur male trail runners (age: 36.23 ± 8.30 years old; minimum International Trail Running Association performance index: 600) were monitored daily for the duration of a season (52 weeks). External load (distance covered, pace) and internal load (rate of perceived exertion) were measured daily. Additionally, weekly workload measures of acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR), training monotony, and training strain were calculated. The runners were also assessed for maximal aerobic speed (MAS) every four months. No significant differences in workload measures (p > 0.05) were observed in the four weeks leading up to each short trail competition; however, leading up to the long trail, ultra-trail medium, and ultra-trail long/extra-long competitions, the differences in the runners' workload measures were significant (p < 0.05). In the short trail, pace was found to be moderately correlated with the ACWR of total distance (r = −0.334) and with training monotony of rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (r = −0.303). In the ultra-trail, a large correlation was observed between pace and elevation accumulated (r = 0.677). We concluded that significant workload differences from one week to the next only occurred in preparation for longer-distance competitions, with sudden acute load decreases and very low ACWR values reported mainly in weeks 1 and 2 of the taper. Meaningful relationships were found between performance (pace) and MAS for longer trails and between pace and MAS for ultra-trail competitions.
... However, the MAPT must be assessed in every game because it may be different across games, as it can be affected by the substitutions. These considerations should be taken into account in order to improve coaching interventions in water polo (Burke and Mujika, 2014;Le Meur et al., 2012). ...
In water polo competitions, teams play four periods, each period consisting of eight minutes of actual playing time: a total of 32 minutes (Standard Actual Play Time, SAPT). Substitutions are permitted and a player may be substituted several times. The aim of this article was to provide reference data on played time, taking into consideration the field play position of the players. 352 male water polo players of 18 different nationalities were studied during two consecutive FINA World Championships. 180 games were analyzed and 1980 measurements of the game Measured Actual Play Time (MAPT) were taken. A time density index (DI) was calculated for each athlete using SAPT and MAPT. No statistically significant differences between the field positions were found with regard to age, as was the case in relation to teams between Game MAPT, Tournament MAPT and DI. However, when looking at the diverse field positions (field players, FP; center forward, CF; center back, CB), there were statistically significant differences: Game MAPT FPvsCB p = 0.03 and FPvsCF p = 0.03; Tournament MAPT FPvsCB p = 0.03; DI FPvsCB p = 0.03 and FPvsCF p = 0.04. In these competitions the water polo player had on average a MAPT value of 17.4 ± 6.1 min (54.6 ± 9.5% DI); there were athletes who played 2.3 min (7.1% DI) and others who played up to 31.6 min (95.3% DI). The MAPT in water polo is extremely variable among athletes and must be considered for a correct performance analysis. High-level water polo players require different training strategies depending on their MAPT.
Athletes have presented a deficiency in relative energy in recent years, which calls for appropriate nutritional guidance based on the estimated energy requirement (EER)—the target amount of daily energy intake (EI). The calculation of EER requires longitudinal physical activity level (PAL) data, which has received insufficient attention. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify the changes in PAL by training periodization using the doubly labeled water (DLW) method, combined with the current status of EI by competition characteristics.
The participants comprised four male sprint athletes and five male endurance athletes at the national level. The experimental periods were normal training (NT) and tapering training (TT) periods. PAL was measured using the DLW method, and EI was measured by the dietary record method.
PAL of the sprint athletes in the NT periods was significantly higher than in TT periods. EI had no significant differences between the two periods. PAL and EI of the endurance athletes had no significant differences beteen the two periods.
These findings indicated that in sprint athletes, different PAL was observed between the two periods, with the TT period suggesting a lower value than the NT period. In endurance athletes, it had similar PAL values between the two periods. This suggests that the degree of influence of the training period on PAL may vary depending on the athletic events. Furthermore, the EI was not adjusted for changes in PAL, and the participants observed the status of energy-deficient regardless of discipline or training period.
Objective
To assess the responses to taper in endurance athletes using meta-analysis.
Methods
Systematic searches were conducted in China National Knowledge Infrastructure, PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and EMBASE databases. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of outcome measures were calculated as effect sizes.
Results
14 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Significant improvements were found between pre- and post-tapering in time–trial (TT) performance (SMD = −0.45; P < 0.05) and time to exhaustion (TTE) performance (SMD = 1.28; P < 0.05). However, There were no improvements in maximal oxygen consumption (V˙O2max) and economy of movement (EM) (P > 0.05) between pre- and post-tapering. Further subgroup analysis showed that tapering combined with pre-taper overload training had a more significant effect on TT performance than conventional tapering (P < 0.05). A tapering strategy that reduced training volume by 41–60%, maintained training intensity and frequency, lasted ≤7 days, 8–14 days, or 15–21 days, used a progressive or step taper could significantly improve TT performance (P < 0.05).
Conclusions
The tapering applied in conjunction with pre-taper overload training seems to be more conducive to maximize performance gains. Current evidence suggests that a ≤21-day taper, in which training volume is progressively reduced by 41–60% without changing training intensity or frequency, is an effective tapering strategy.
Introducción:
El control de cargas de entrenamiento es importante para optimizar el rendimiento. Por lo tanto, se deben documentar metodologías que mejoren la preparación de selecciones nacionales en eventos como los juegos olímpicos.
Objetivo:
Determinar si los datos del GPS en combinación con medidas subjetivas de bienestar, fatiga y recuperación son apropiados para el control de las cargas durante un periodo preparatorio para los Juegos Olímpicos.
Metodología:
Participaron 22 jugadores profesionales sub-23 durante 5 microciclos y 27 sesiones de entrenamiento. Se recopilaron datos de carga externa a través de un sistema global de posicionamiento (GPS): Distancia total (DT), zonas de rendimiento Z0 (0-15 km/h), Z1 (15.1-18 km/h), Z2 (18.1-24 km/h), Z3 (>24.1 km/h)), velocidad máxima (Vmax (km/h)), aceleraciones (>2.5m/s2) y desaceleraciones (<2.5m/s2). También, se obtuvo la carga interna a través de medidas subjetivas de percepción del esfuerzo (RPE), calidad de la recuperación (TQR), predisposición para entrenar (RTT%) derivada de las variables de calidad del sueño, dolor muscular, niveles de energía, estado de ánimo, estrés, calidad de la alimentación y la salud. Luego se calculó la ratio subjetiva de fatiga-recuperación (F-R). Se aplicó un test ANOVA, análisis de componentes principales (ACP) y una regresión múltiple lineal.
Resultados:
Las variables DT (p=0.00 TE=0.22), Z0 (p= 0.00 TE=0.08), Z2 (p=0.00 TE= 0.05), Vmax (p=0.00 TE=0.42), suma de aceleración y deceleración (p=0.00 TE=0.08) y valores relativos de la carga/min (p=0.00 TE=0.17) se identificaron como variables más sensibles al cambio de la carga entre microciclos. El RTT% y ratio subjetivo F-R mostraron un tamaño del efecto moderado (p=0.04 TE=0.06 y p=0.06 TE=0.06), pero fueron sensibles al cambio entre los microciclos. El ACP extrajo 15 variables GPS y 11 variables subjetivas que explicaron el 78% de la varianza de la carga de entrenamiento.
Conclusión:
Utilizar datos GPS junto con medidas subjetivas implicadas en la fatiga-recuperación puede ser una buena estrategia para el control de la carga de entrenamiento en futbolistas.
During the Cybathlon Global Edition 2020, athletes compete in a Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) bike race. In this event, athletes with a spinal cord injury cover a distance of 1200 m on an adapted bike by using electrostimulation to activate their leg muscles in order to evoke a pedalling movement. This report reviews the training regimen, as designed by the PULSE Racing team, and the experience of one athlete in preparation for the Cybathlon Global Edition 2020. The training plan was designed to vary exercise modes in order to optimize physiological adaptations and minimize monotony for the athlete. Additional constraints due to coronavirus pandemic, e.g., postponement of the Cybathon Global Edition and modification from a live cycling track to a virtual stationary race, along with the health concerns of the athlete, e.g. unwanted effects from the FES and bladder infection, required creativity to ensure an effective and safe training protocol. The individual needs of the athlete and task requirements for the FES bike race made the design of a suitable training programme challenging, emphasizing the importance of monitoring. Several objective and subjective measures to assess the athlete’s health and progress are presented, all with their own advantages and disadvantages. Despite these limitations, the athlete achieved a gold medal in the FES bike race Cybathlon Global Edition 2020 through discipline, team collaboration and the athlete’s own motivation.
A aplicação de uma adequada carga de treinamento é um dos fatores fundamentais para proporcionar adaptações positivas com consequente melhora do desempenho. O método da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) da sessão tem sido proposto como uma das melhores alternativas para quantificar a carga de treinamento, principalmente pela sua fácil compreensão e a pela sua relativa simplicidade. O objetivo do presente estudo de caso foi quantificar a magnitude da carga de treinamento através da PSE da sessão em dois atletas de CrossFit® e comparar a carga de treinamento com outras modalidades esportivas. A carga de treinamento média durante as 11 semanas foi 173,5 UA (unidade arbitrárias) para o sujeito A e 190,6 UA para o sujeito B. Após á análise de diversos estudos que avaliaram a CT média pelo método de PSE da sessão, todos os esportes apresentaram scores de PSE da sessão maiores do que os observados no treino de CrossFit® utilizado no presente estudo. Em conclusão, os resultados apresentados sugerem que o método da PSE da sessão é uma importante ferramenta que pode ser usada para controlar a carga de treinamento e possivelmente evitar o overreaching não funcional e o overtraining.
O objetivo da pesquisa foi analisar o efeito do treinamento mental sobre o desempenho de jovens nadadores. A amostra foi composta por 35 nadadores com idade entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos aleatoriamente em dois grupos: experimental (GE, n = 17) e controle (GC, n = 18). O estudo teve duração de 8 semanas. Ambos os grupos fizeram a mesma planificação de treinamento físico/técnico. O GC assistiu vídeos de propagandas, ao passo que o GE realizou o treinamento mental. Foram realizadas 3 sessões semanais de treinamento mental intercaladas com o período de 48 horas. Utilizou-se o melhor tempo em segundos para determinar o desempenho nas provas de 100m e 200m livre. A maturação biológica foi avaliada por intermédio da maturação somática. Conduziu-se a análise multivariada de covariância (MANOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar o desempenho nas provas de 100m e 200m livre entre os grupos (GE e GC) em função da fase da investigação (pré e pós-teste). Os resultados apresentaram efeitos de tempo (F(2, 33) = 32,65, p = 0,01) e grupo (F(2, 33) = 57,31, p = 0,001). Foi identificada diferença significante do desempenho nos 100m livre (F(2, 33) = 33,70, p = 0,01, d = 0,5) e 200m livre (F(2, 33) = 37,09, p = 0,01, d = 0,5) entre GE e GC após as 8 semanas. Os achados apontaram relação da maturação somática com o desempenho nos 100m (F(1, 34) = 43,55, p = 0,01) e 200m livre (F(1, 34) = 34,82, p = 0,01). Concluiu-se que o treinamento mental foi eficiente para maximizar o desempenho nas provas de 100m e 200m livre de jovens atletas de natação.
Background:
We examined changes in autonomic nervous system function, anaerobic power, and fatigue over two days of simulated CrossFit competition in CrossFit athletes. In addition, we determined the relationship between these internal training load variables and variables characterizing two weeks of tapering preceding the competition.
Methods:
In total, 21 participants (Intervention group, n=10, INT; Control group, n=11, CON) completed the assessments. INT performed the assessments at baseline (pre-Day 1), during the competition (post-Day 1 and pre-Day 2), and after the competition (post-Day 2), while CON performed only the baseline assessments.
Results:
Autonomic nervous system function, anaerobic power, and fatigue did not differ between the beginning of Day 1 and Day 2. Autonomic nervous system function was impaired at the end of each day. Anaerobic power and fatigue did not change during either day.
Conclusions:
Finally, the two training weeks preceding the two days of simulated competition were related to anaerobic power but not autonomic nervous system function or fatigue. CrossFit coaches and athletes should be aware of the limited effects of step taper on heart rate variability and fatigue.
Previous studies on periodization have led to the view that most athletes fail to peak at major events. These conclusions might be based on definitions of “peak performance” that are too narrow. In this study, a track and field athlete was defined as succeeding in a competition if their outcome was within the acceptable range from the best result of the season. The data are from seven championship finals and semifinals together with 42 Diamond League competitions from the 2010s, altogether 7,087 individual results. All field events and running events up to 400 m were included. The majority of athletes succeeded in major events (67.0% in sprint and 57.5% in field events). Overall, championship finals elicit success rates that are more than 70% higher than the basic level achieved in Diamond League competitions (p < 0.001). Success rates were systematically higher (over 60% higher) for the top three versus other competitors in every race (p < 0.001). When an acceptable range is adopted for the definition of what a successful result is, the majority of athletes manage to peak at the most important competitions. In addition, finishing in the top three in championship finals typically requires a peak performance.
Bu çalışmanın amacı Covid-19 nedeniyle ara verilen KKTC Futbol K-Pet Süper Ligine geriye kalan 8 maçın oynanması için ara, hazırlık periyodu ve yarışma periyodu sorunlarının incelenmesidir. Covid-19 nedeniyle 7 Mart 2020 ile 18 Mayıs 2020 tarihleri arasında 72 gün ara verilmiş, 16 takımlı ve 30 maçlı sezonun oynanan 22 maç sonrası geriye kalan 8 maç oynanamamış ve ara verilmek zorunda kalınmıştır. Burada örnek alınan bir lig takımında bu süre içerisinde 17 sporcu üzerinde yapılan sorgulamada 3 oyuncu hiç antrenman yapamamış, 7 oyuncu ev/bahçede core antrenman, 4 oyuncu bisiklet antrenmanı ve 3 oyuncu koşu/kuvvet ve top antrenmanı yapmıştır. Bu süre içerisinde 7 oyuncunun vücut ağırlıkları aynı kalmış, 5 oyuncunun artmış ve 5 oyuncunun ise vücut ağırlıkları azalmıştır. 72 günlük aranın arkasına 18 Mayıs ile 20 Haziran 2020 tarihleri arası 33 günlük bir Hazırlık Periyodu uygulanmıştır. 21 Haziran-22 Temmuz 2020 tarihleri arasında 31 günlük bir Müsabaka Periyodu uygulanmış ve bu süre içerisinde geriye kalan 8 maç oynanmıştır. Normal olarak KKTC K-Pet Süper Ligi 15 Eylül 2019 ile Mayıs 2020 ortalarında 8 ayda sonlanması yerine Temmuz 2020 ortalarına kadar uzamış ve 11 ay sürmüştür. Çok istisna olan Covid-19 nedeniyle uzayan lig ve karşılaşılan sorunlar ulaşılabilen literatür ışığında çözülmeye çalışılmıştır.
Physiatrists are uniquely qualified to serve as sports medicine physicians and care for the recreational and competitive athlete as well as those who exercise for health-related benefits. Physiatrists are trained extensively in musculoskeletal medicine and injury, functional rehabilitation, and coordinating and leading a team of professionals to optimize care of patients. The sports medicine team includes the athlete, his or her family, specialty and primary care physicians, athletic trainers, physical and massage therapists, chiropractors, dieticians, psychologists, and coaches. Physiatrists are also skilled in prehabilitation, or preventive rehabilitation, which is an important aspect of care for any athlete involved in routine physical training.
Exercise physiology, emergency medical care, and more routine medical care are also important to any well-rounded sports medicine physician. This chapter covers the breadth of sports medicine for the physiatrist, including the general role and medicolegal aspects of being a team physician, sporting event administration with a particular focus on emergency preparedness, athletic conditioning and training principles, injury prevention and functional rehabilitation, biomechanics of sports, pharmacology in sports, emergency assessment and care of the athlete, common medical and neurologic conditions in athletes, and a review of specific populations of athletes and their common ailments, including a special focus on athletes with disabilities and adaptive sports medicine. This chapter is not intended to be a musculoskeletal medicine chapter because other chapters in this text cover in-depth musculoskeletal issues that overlap with the musculoskeletal injuries seen in athletes.
The low oxidative demand and muscular adaptations accompanying eccentric exercise hold benefits for both healthy and clinical populations. Compression garments have been suggested to reduce muscle damage and maintain muscle function. This study investigated whether compression garments could benefit metabolic recovery from eccentric exercise. Following 30-min of downhill walking participants wore compression garments on one leg (COMP), the other leg was used as an internal, untreated control (CONT). The muscle metabolites phosphomonoester (PME), phosphodiester (PDE), phosphocreatine (PCr), inorganic phosphate (Pi) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were evaluated at baseline, 1-h and 48-h after eccentric exercise using 31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Subjective reports of muscle soreness were recorded at all time points. The pressure of the garment against the thigh was assessed at 1-h and 48-h following exercise. There was a significant increase in perceived muscle soreness from baseline in both the control (CONT) and compression (COMP) leg at 1-h and 48-h following eccentric exercise (p < 0.05). Relative to baseline, both CONT and COMP showed reduced pH at 1-h (p < 0.05). There was no difference between CONT and COMP pH at 1-h. COMP legs exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) elevated skeletal muscle PDE 1-h following exercise. There was no significant change in PCr/Pi, Mg2+ or PME at any time point or between CONT and COMP legs. Eccentric exercise causes disruption of pH control in skeletal muscle but does not cause disruption to cellular control of free energy. Compression garments may alter potential indices of the repair processes accompanying structural damage to the skeletal muscle following eccentric exercise allowing a faster cellular repair.
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is a familiar experience for the elite or novice athlete. Symptoms can range from muscle tenderness to severe debilitating pain. The mechanisms, treatment strategies, and impact on athletic performance remain uncertain, despite the high incidence of DOMS. DOMS is most prevalent at the beginning of the sporting season when athletes are returning to training following a period of reduced activity. DOMS is also common when athletes are first introduced to certain types of activities regardless of the time of year. Eccentric activities induce micro-injury at a greater frequency and severity than other types of muscle actions. The intensity and duration of exercise are also important factors in DOMS onset. Up to six hypothesised theories have been proposed for the mechanism of DOMS, namely: lactic acid, muscle spasm, connective tissue damage, muscle damage, inflammation and the enzyme efflux theories. However, an integration of two or more theories is likely to explain muscle soreness. DOMS can affect athletic performance by causing a reduction in joint range of motion, shock attenuation and peak torque. Alterations in muscle sequencing and recruitment patterns may also occur, causing unaccustomed stress to be placed on muscle ligaments and tendons. These compensatory mechanisms may increase the risk of further injury if a premature return to sport is attempted.
A number of treatment strategies have been introduced to help alleviate the severity of DOMS and to restore the maximal function of the muscles as rapidly as possible. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have demonstrated dosage-dependent effects that may also be influenced by the time of administration. Similarly, massage has shown varying results that may be attributed to the time of massage application and the type of massage technique used. Cryotherapy, stretching, homeopathy, ultrasound and electrical current modalities have demonstrated no effect on the alleviation of muscle soreness or other DOMS symptoms. Exercise is the most effective means of alleviating pain during DOMS, however the analgesic effect is also temporary. Athletes who must train on a daily basis should be encouraged to reduce the intensity and duration of exercise for 1–2 days following intense DOMS-inducing exercise. Alternatively, exercises targeting less affected body parts should be encouraged in order to allow the most affected muscle groups to recover. Eccentric exercises or novel activities should be introduced progressively over a period of 1 or 2 weeks at the beginning of, or during, the sporting season in order to reduce the level of physical impairment and/or training disruption. There are still many unanswered questions relating to DOMS, and many potential areas for future research.
Ensuring athletes achieve an appropriate quality and/or quantity of sleep may have significant implications for performance and recovery and reduce the risk of developing overreaching or overtraining. Indeed, sleep is often anecdotally suggested to be the single best recovery strategy available to elite athletes. A number of nutritional factors have been suggested to improve sleep, including valerian, melatonin, tryptophan, a high glycaemic index diet before bedtime, and maintenance of a balanced and healthy diet. Conversely, consumption of alcohol and caffeine and hyper-hydration may disturb sleep. Strategies such as warming the skin, hydrotherapy, and adoption of appropriate sleep hygiene (maintenance of good sleep habits and routines) are other tools to aid in sleep promotion. Ensuring athletes gain an appropriate quality and quantity of sleep may be important for optimal athletic performance.
The training and competitive programmes of elite athletes incorporate travel schedules, often long journeys, across multiple time zones. In such cases, travel causes both transient fatigue and a malaise known as "jet-lag" that persists for some days. Jet-lag is due to the disturbance of the body's circadian rhythms: diurnal and performance rhythms are displaced, depending on the direction of travel and the number of time zones crossed in flight. Attention to diet and hydration is relevant during the flight and following disembarkation until adjustment to the new meridian is complete. The consequences of jet-lag on rhythms in digestion may be compounded if food preparation and hygiene are inadequate in training camps or competitive venues overseas. The irony of travel is that it often places athletes at a greater risk of failing to meet their specific nutrition goals or succumbing to illness, at a time when the demands or outcomes of performance are of greatest importance. In addition, gastrointestinal infections related to travelling are frequent among athletes. Fastidious planning and organization among the support staff is recommended before the journey to prevent any such problems arising. Equally, athletes often need special education initiatives to assist them to cope with the challenges of a new and unusual food supply, or altered access to food.
Strategies to manage the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) are widespread, though are often based on anecdotal evidence. The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of a combination of manual massage and compressive clothing and compressive clothing individually as recovery strategies after muscle damage. Thirty-two female volunteers completed 100 plyometric drop jumps and were randomly assigned to a passive recovery (n = 17), combined treatment (n = 7), or compression treatment group (n = 8). Indices of muscle damage (perceived soreness, creatine kinase activity, isokinetic muscle strength, squat jump, and countermovement jump performance) were assessed immediately before and after 1, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours of plyometric exercise. The compression treatment group wore compressive tights for 12 hours after damage and the combined treatment group received a 30-minute massage immediately after damaging exercise and wore compression stockings for the following 11.5 hours. Plyometric exercise had a significant effect on all indices of muscle damage (p < 0.05). The treatments significantly reduced decrements in isokinetic muscle strength, squat jump performance, and countermovement jump performance and reduced the level of perceived soreness in comparison with the passive recovery group (p < 0.05). The addition of sports massage to compression after muscle damage did not improve performance recovery, with recovery trends being similar in both treatment groups. The treatment combination of massage and compression significantly moderated perceived soreness at 48 and 72 hours after plyometric exercise (p < 0.05) in comparison with the passive recovery or compression alone treatment. The results indicate that the use of lower limb compression and a combined treatment of manual massage with lower limb compression are effective recovery strategies following EIMD. Minimal performance differences between treatments were observed, although the combination treatment may be beneficial in controlling perceived soreness.
This study examined the impact of heat acclimation on improving exercise performance in cool and hot environments. Twelve trained cyclists performed tests of maximal aerobic power (VO2max), time-trial performance, and lactate threshold, in both cool [13°C, 30% relative humidity (RH)] and hot (38°C, 30% RH) environments before and after a 10-day heat acclimation (∼50% VO2max in 40°C) program. The hot and cool condition VO2max and lactate threshold tests were both preceded by either warm (41°C) water or thermoneutral (34°C) water immersion to induce hyperthermia (0.8-1.0°C) or sustain normothermia, respectively. Eight matched control subjects completed the same exercise tests in the same environments before and after 10 days of identical exercise in a cool (13°C) environment. Heat acclimation increased VO2max by 5% in cool (66.8 ± 2.1 vs. 70.2 ± 2.3 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1), P = 0.004) and by 8% in hot (55.1 ± 2.5 vs. 59.6 ± 2.0 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1), P = 0.007) conditions. Heat acclimation improved time-trial performance by 6% in cool (879.8 ± 48.5 vs. 934.7 ± 50.9 kJ, P = 0.005) and by 8% in hot (718.7 ± 42.3 vs. 776.2 ± 50.9 kJ, P = 0.014) conditions. Heat acclimation increased power output at lactate threshold by 5% in cool (3.88 ± 0.82 vs. 4.09 ± 0.76 W/kg, P = 0.002) and by 5% in hot (3.45 ± 0.80 vs. 3.60 ± 0.79 W/kg, P < 0.001) conditions. Heat acclimation increased plasma volume (6.5 ± 1.5%) and maximal cardiac output in cool and hot conditions (9.1 ± 3.4% and 4.5 ± 4.6%, respectively). The control group had no changes in VO2max, time-trial performance, lactate threshold, or any physiological parameters. These data demonstrate that heat acclimation improves aerobic exercise performance in temperate-cool conditions and provide the scientific basis for employing heat acclimation to augment physical training programs.
Environmental heat stress can challenge the limits of human cardiovascular and temperature regulation, body fluid balance, and thus aerobic performance. This minireview proposes that the cardiovascular adjustments accompanying high skin temperatures (T(sk)), alone or in combination with high core body temperatures (T(c)), provide a primary explanation for impaired aerobic exercise performance in warm-hot environments. The independent (T(sk)) and combined (T(sk) + T(c)) effects of hyperthermia reduce maximal oxygen uptake (Vo(2max)), which leads to higher relative exercise intensity and an exponential decline in aerobic performance at any given exercise workload. Greater relative exercise intensity increases cardiovascular strain, which is a prominent mediator of rated perceived exertion. As a consequence, incremental or constant-rate exercise is more difficult to sustain (earlier fatigue) or requires a slowing of self-paced exercise to achieve a similar sensation of effort. It is proposed that high T(sk) and T(c) impair aerobic performance in tandem primarily through elevated cardiovascular strain, rather than a deterioration in central nervous system (CNS) function or skeletal muscle metabolism. Evaporative sweating is the principal means of heat loss in warm-hot environments where sweat losses frequently exceed fluid intakes. When dehydration exceeds 3% of total body water (2% of body mass) then aerobic performance is consistently impaired independent and additive to heat stress. Dehydration augments hyperthermia and plasma volume reductions, which combine to accentuate cardiovascular strain and reduce Vo(2max). Importantly, the negative performance consequences of dehydration worsen as T(sk) increases.
A marked reduction in the training load in the lead-up to major competitions allows athletes to reduce the fatigue induced by intense training and improve competition performance. This tapered training phase is based on the reduction in training volume while maintaining pretaper training intensity and frequency. In parallel to training load reductions, nutritional strategies characterised by lowered energy intakes need to be implemented to match lowered energy expenditure. The Ramadan intermittent fast imposes constrained nutritional practices on Muslim athletes, inducing a shift to a greater reliance on fat oxidation to meet energy needs and a possible increase in protein breakdown. The training load is often reduced during Ramadan to match the absence of energy and fluid intake during daylight, which implies a risk of losing training induced adaptations. Should coaches and athletes decide to reduce the training load during Ramadan, the key role of training intensity in retaining training induced adaptations should be kept in mind. However, experienced elite Muslim athletes are able to maintain their usual training load during this month of intermittent fasting without decrements in measures of fitness and with only minor adverse effects.
Authors of most field studies have not observed decrements in physiologic function and performance with increases in dehydration, although authors of well-controlled laboratory studies have consistently reported this relationship. Investigators in these field studies did not control exercise intensity, a known modulator of body core temperature.
To directly examine the effect of moderate water deficit on the physiologic responses to various exercise intensities in a warm outdoor setting.
Semirandomized, crossover design.
Field setting. Patients or Other
Seventeen distance runners (9 men, 8 women; age = 27 +/- 7 years, height = 171 +/- 9 cm, mass = 64.2 +/- 9.0 kg, body fat = 14.6% +/- 5.5%).
Participants completed four 12-km runs (consisting of three 4-km loops) in the heat (average wet bulb globe temperature = 26.5 degrees C): (1) a hydrated, race trial (HYR), (2) a dehydrated, race trial (DYR), (3) a hydrated, submaximal trial (HYS), and (4) a dehydrated, submaximal trial (DYS). Main Outcome Measure(s): For DYR and DYS trials, dehydration was measured by body mass loss. In the submaximal trials, participants ran at a moderate pace that was matched by having them speed up or slow down based on pace feedback provided by researchers. Intestinal temperature was recorded using ingestible thermistors, and participants wore heart rate monitors to measure heart rate.
Body mass loss in relation to a 3-day baseline was greater for the DYR (-4.30% +/- 1.25%) and DYS trials (-4.59% +/- 1.32%) than for the HYR (-2.05% +/- 1.09%) and HYS (-2.0% +/- 1.24%) trials postrun (P < .001). Participants ran faster for the HYR (53.15 +/- 6.05 minutes) than for the DYR (55.7 +/- 7.45 minutes; P < .01), but speed was similar for HYS (59.57 +/- 5.31 minutes) and DYS (59.44 +/- 5.44 minutes; P > .05). Intestinal temperature immediately postrun was greater for DYR than for HYR (P < .05), the only significant difference. Intestinal temperature was greater for DYS than for HYS postloop 2, postrun, and at 10 and 20 minutes postrun (all: P < .001). Intestinal temperature and heart rate were 0.22 degrees C and 6 beats/min higher, respectively, for every additional 1% body mass loss during the DYS trial compared with the HYS trial.
A small decrement in hydration status impaired physiologic function and performance while trail running in the heat.
New methods and devices for pursuing performance enhancement through altitude training were developed in Scandinavia and the USA in the early 1990s. At present, several forms of hypoxic training and/or altitude exposure exist: traditional ‘live high-train high’ (LHTH), contemporary ‘live high-train low’ (LHTL), intermittent hypoxic exposure during rest (IHE) and intermittent hypoxic exposure during continuous session (IHT). Although substantial differences exist between these methods of hypoxic training and/ or exposure, all have the same goal: to induce an improvement in athletic performance at sea level. They are also used for preparation for competition at altitude and/or for the acclimatization of mountaineers.
The underlying mechanisms behind the effects of hypoxic training are widely debated. Although the popular view is that altitude training may lead to an increase in haematological capacity, this may not be the main, or the only, factor involved in the improvement of performance. Other central (such as ventilatory, haemodynamic or neural adaptation) or peripheral (such as muscle buffering capacity or economy) factors play an important role.
LHTL was shown to be an efficient method. The optimal altitude for living high has been defined as being 2200–2500 m to provide an optimal erythropoietic effect and up to 3100m for non-haematological parameters. The optimal duration at altitude appears to be 4 weeks for inducing accelerated erythropoiesis whereas <3 weeks (i.e. 18 days) are long enough for beneficial changes in economy, muscle buffering capacity, the hypoxic ventilatory response or Na+/K+-ATPase activity. One critical point is the daily dose of altitude. A natural altitude of 2500 m for 20–22 h/day (in fact, travelling down to the valley only for training) appears sufficient to increase erythropoiesis and improve sea-level performance. ‘Longer is better’ as regards haematological changes since additional benefits have been shown as hypoxic exposure increases beyond 16 h/day. The minimum daily dose for stimulating erythropoiesis seems to be 12 h/day. For non-haematological changes, the implementation of a much shorter duration of exposure seems possible.
Athletes could take advantage of IHT, which seems more beneficial than IHE in performance enhancement. The intensity of hypoxic exercise might play a role on adaptations at the molecular level in skeletal muscle tissue. There is clear evidence that intense exercise at high altitude stimulates to a greater extent muscle adaptations for both aerobic and anaerobic exercises and limits the decrease in power. So although IHT induces no increase in V̇O2max due to the low‘altitude dose’, improvement in athletic performance is likely to happenwith high-intensity exercise (i.e. above the ventilatory threshold) due to an increase in mitochondrial efficiency and pH/lactate regulation. We propose a new combination of hypoxic method (which we suggest naming Living High-Training Low and High, interspersed; LHTLHi) combining LHTL (five nights at 3000 m and two nights at sea level) with training at sea level except for a few (2.3 per week) IHT sessions of supra-threshold training. This review also provides a rationale on how to combine the different hypoxic methods and suggests advances in both their implementation and their periodization during the yearly training programme of athletes competing in endurance, glycolytic or intermittent sports.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of cold water face immersion on post-exercise parasympathetic reactivation, inferred from heart rate (HR) recovery (HRR) and HR variability (HRV) indices. Thirteen men performed, on two different occasions, an intermittent exercise (i.e., an all-out 30-s Wingate test followed by a 5-min run at 45% of the speed reached at the end of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness test, interspersed with 5 min of seated recovery), randomly followed by 5 min of passive (seated) recovery with either cold water face immersion (CWFI) or control (CON). HR was recorded beat-to-beat and vagal-related HRV indices (i.e., natural logarithm of the high-frequency band, LnHF, and natural logarithm of the square root of the mean sum of squared differences between adjacent normal R-R intervals, Ln rMSSD) and HRR (e.g., heart beats recovered in the first minute after exercise cessation) were calculated for both recovery conditions. Parasympathetic reactivation was faster for the CWFI condition, as indicated by higher LnHF (P = 0.004), Ln rMSSD (P = 0.026) and HRR (P = 0.002) values for the CWFI compared with the CON condition. Cold water face immersion appears to be a simple and efficient means of immediately accelerating post-exercise parasympathetic reactivation.
A key element of the physical preparation of athletes is the taper period in the weeks immediately preceding competition. Existing research has defined the taper, identified various forms used in contemporary sport, and examined the prescription of training volume, load, intensity, duration, and type (progressive or step). Current limitations include: the lack of studies on team, combative, racquet, and precision (target) sports; the relatively small number of randomized controlled trials; the narrow focus on a single competition (single peak) compared with multiple peaking for weekly, multi-day or multiple events; and limited understanding of the physiological, neuromuscular, and biomechanical basis of the taper. Future research should address these limitations, together with the influence of prior training on optimal tapering strategies, and the interactions between the taper and long-haul travel, heat, and altitude. Practitioners seek information on how to prescribe tapers from season to season during an athlete's career, or a team's progression through a domestic league season, or multi-year Olympic or World Cup cycle. Practical guidelines for planning effective tapers for the Vancouver 2010 and London 2012 Olympics will evolve from both experimental investigations and modelling of successful tapers currently employed in a wide range of sports.
The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of cold water immersion (CWI) on postexercise parasympathetic reactivation. Ten male cyclists (age, 29 +/- 6 yr) performed two repeated supramaximal cycling exercises (SE(1) and SE(2)) interspersed with a 20-min passive recovery period, during which they were randomly assigned to either 5 min of CWI in 14 degrees C or a control (N) condition where they sat in an environmental chamber (35.0 +/- 0.3 degrees C and 40.0 +/- 3.0% relative humidity). Rectal temperature (T(re)) and beat-to-beat heart rate (HR) were recorded continuously. The time constant of HR recovery (HRRtau) and a time (30-s) varying vagal-related HR variability (HRV) index (rMSSD(30s)) were assessed during the 6-min period immediately following exercise. Resting vagal-related HRV indexes were calculated during 3-min periods 2 min before and 3 min after SE(1) and SE(2). Results showed no effect of CWI on T(re) (P = 0.29), SE performance (P = 0.76), and HRRtau (P = 0.61). In contrast, all vagal-related HRV indexes were decreased after SE(1) (P < 0.001) and tended to decrease even further after SE(2) under N condition but not with CWI. When compared with the N condition, CWI increased HRV indexes before (P < 0.05) and rMSSD(30s) after (P < 0.05) SE(2). Our study shows that CWI can significantly restore the impaired vagal-related HRV indexes observed after supramaximal exercise. CWI may serve as a simple and effective means to accelerate parasympathetic reactivation during the immediate period following supramaximal exercise.
Delayed onset muscle soreness is a common problem that can interfere with rehabilitation as well as activities of daily living. The purpose of this study was to test the impact of therapeutic massage, upper body ergometry, or microcurrent electrical stimulation on muscle soreness and force deficits evident following a high-intensity eccentric exercise bout. Forty untrained, volunteer female subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups or to a control group. Exercise consisted of high-intensity eccentric contractions of the elbow flexors. Resistance was reduced as subjects fatigued, until they reached exhaustion. Soreness rating was determined using a visual analog scale. Force deficits were determined by measures of maximal voluntary isometric contraction at 90 degrees of elbow flexion and peak torque for elbow flexion at 60 degrees/sec on a Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction and peak torque were determined at the 0 hour (before exercise) and again at 24 and 48 hours postexercise. Treatments were applied immediately following exercise and again at 24 hours after exercise. The control group subjects rested following their exercise bout. Statistical analysis showed significant increases in soreness rating and significant decreases in force generated when the 0 hour was compared with 24- and 48-hour measures. Further analysis indicated no statistically significant differences between massage, microcurrent electrical stimulation, upper body ergometry, and control groups.
The purpose of this study was to compare two ways of estimating both fatigue and fitness indicators from a systems model of the effects of training on performance. The model was applied to data concerning the training of a hammer thrower. The variations in performance were mathematically related to the successive amounts of training. The model equation was composed of negative (NF) and positive (PF) functions. The NF and PF were associated with the fatigue and fitness estimated in previous studies. Using another method, fatigue and fitness indicators were estimated from a combination of NF and PF. The influence of training on performance was negatively associated with fatigue (NI), and positively to fitness (PI). The changes in performance were well described by the model in the present study (r = 0.96, N = 19, P < 0.001). Significant correlations were observed between PF and PI (r = 0.90, P < 0.001) on the other. The absolute values and the time variations of PI and NI were closer to the change in performance than NF and PF. The NF and PF were accounted for mainly by the accumulation of amounts of training. On the other hand, NI and PI were accounted for rather by the impact of these amounts of training on performance.
This study investigated the effect of training on performance and assessed the response to taper in elite swimmers (N = 18), using a mathematical model that links training with performance and estimates the negative and positive influences of training, NI and PI. Variations in training, performance, NI, and PI were studied during 3-, 4-, and 6-wk tapers. The fit between modeled and actual performance was significant for 17 subjects; r2 ranged from 0.45 to 0.85, P < 0.05. Training was progressively reduced during tapers. Performance improved during the first two tapers: 2.90 +/- 1.50% (P < 0.01) and 3.20 +/- 1.70% (P < 0.01). Performance improvement in the third taper was not significant (1.81 +/- 1.73%). NI was reduced during the first two tapers (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively), but not during the third. PI did not change significantly during tapers. Thus, the present results show that the model used is a valuable method to describe the effects of training on performance. Performance improvement during taper was attributed to a reduction in NI. PI did not improve with taper, but it was not compromised by the reduced training periods.
This study examined the ability of well-trained eumenorrheic women to increase muscle glycogen content and endurance performance in response to a high-carbohydrate diet (HCD; approximately 78% carbohydrate) compared with a moderate-carbohydrate diet (MD; approximately 48% carbohydrate) when tested during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Six women cycled to exhaustion at approximately 80% maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2 max)) after each of the randomly assigned diet and exercise-tapering regimens. A biopsy was taken from the vastus lateralis before and after exercise in each trial. Preexercise muscle glycogen content was high after the MD (625.2 +/- 50.1 mmol/kg dry muscle) and 13% greater after the HCD (709.0 +/- 44.8 mmol/kg dry muscle). Postexercise muscle glycogen was low after both trials (MD, 91.4 +/- 34.5; HCD, 80.3 +/- 19.5 mmol/kg dry muscle), and net glycogen utilization during exercise was greater after the HCD. The subjects also cycled longer at approximately 80% VO(2 max) after the HCD vs. MD (115:31 +/- 10:47 vs. 106:35 +/- 8:36 min:s, respectively). In conclusion, aerobically trained women increased muscle glycogen content in response to a high-dietary carbohydrate intake during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, but the magnitude was smaller than previously observed in men. The increase in muscle glycogen, and possibly liver glycogen, after the HCD was associated with increased cycling performance to volitional exhaustion at approximately 80% VO(2 max).
Monitoring physical performance is of major importance in competitive sports. Indices commonly used, like resting heart rate, VO2max, and hormones, cannot be easily used because of difficulties in routine use, of variations too small to be reliable, or of technical challenges in acquiring the data.
We chose to assess autonomic nervous system activity using heart rate variability in seven middle-distance runners, aged 24.6 +/- 4.8 yr, during their usual training cycle composed of 3 wk of heavy training periods, followed by a relative resting week. The electrocardiogram was recorded overnight twice a week and temporal and frequency indices of heart rate variability, using Fourier and Wavelet transforms, were calculated. Daily training loads and fatigue sensations were estimated with a questionnaire. Similar recordings were performed in a sedentary control group.
The results demonstrated a significant and progressive decrease in parasympathetic indices of up to -41% (P < 0.05) during the 3 wk of heavy training, followed by a significant increase during the relative resting week of up to +46% (P < 0.05). The indices of sympathetic activity followed the opposite trend, first up to +31% and then -24% (P < 0.05), respectively. The percentage increasing mean nocturnal heart rate variation remained below 12% (P < 0.05). There was no significant variation in the control group.
This study confirmed that heavy training shifted the cardiac autonomic balance toward a predominance of the sympathetic over the parasympathetic drive. When recorded during the night, heart rate variability appeared to be a better tool than resting heart rate to evaluate cumulated physical fatigue, as it magnified the induced changes in autonomic nervous system activity. These results could be of interest for optimizing individual training profiles.
A between groups design was used to compare recovery following eccentric muscle damage under 2 experimental conditions.
To determine if a compression sleeve donned immediately after maximal eccentric exercise would enhance recovery of physical function and decrease symptoms of soreness.
Prior investigations using ice, intermittent compression, or exercise have not shown efficacy in relieving symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). To date, no study has shown the effect of continuous compression on DOMS, yet this would offer a low cost intervention for patients suffering with the symptoms of DOMS.
Twenty nonimpaired non-strength-trained women participated in the study. Subjects were matched for age, anthropometric data, and one repetition maximum concentric arm curl strength and then randomly placed into a control group (n = 10) or an experimental compression sleeve group (n = 10). Subjects were instructed to avoid pain-relieving modalities (eg, analgesic medications, ice) throughout the study. The experimental group wore a compressive sleeve garment for 5 days following eccentric exercise. Subjects performed 2 sets of 50 passive arm curls with the dominant arm on an isokinetic dynamometer with a maximal eccentric muscle action superimposed every fourth passive repetition. One repetition maximum elbow flexion, upper arm circumference, relaxed elbow angle, blood serum cortisol, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and perception of soreness questionnaires were collected prior to the exercise bout and daily thereafter for 5 days.
Creatine kinase was significantly elevated from the baseline value in both groups, although the experimental compression test group showed decreased magnitude of creatine kinase elevation following the eccentric exercise. Compression sleeve use prevented loss of elbow motion, decreased perceived soreness, reduced swelling, and promoted recovery of force production.
Results from this study underline the importance of compression in soft tissue injury management.
The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of an increase in training frequency on exercise-induced fatigue by using a systems model with parameters free to vary over time. Six previously untrained subjects undertook a 15-wk training experiment composed of 1) an 8-wk training period with three sessions per week (low-frequency training), 2) 1 wk without training, 3) a 4-wk training period with five sessions per week [high frequency training (HFT)], and 4) 2 wk without training. The systems input ascribed to training loads was computed from interval exercises and expressed in arbitrary units. The systems output ascribed to performance was evaluated three times each week using maximal power sustained over 5 min. The time-varying parameters of the model were estimated by fitting modeled performances to the measured ones using a recursive least squares method. The variations over time in the model parameters showed an increase in magnitude and duration of fatigue induced by a single training bout. The time needed to recover performance after a training session increased from 0.9 +/- 2.1 days at the end of low-frequency training to 3.6 +/- 2.0 days at the end of HFT. The maximal gain in performance for a given training load decreased during HFT. This study showed that shortening recovery time between training sessions progressively yielded a more persistent fatigue induced by each training.
The purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude of the swimming performance change during the final 3 weeks of training (F3T) leading to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Olympic swimmers who took part in the same event or events at the Telstra 2000 Grand Prix Series in Melbourne, Australia, (26 - 27 August 2000), and 21 - 28 d later at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games (16 - 23 September 2000) were included in this analysis. A total of 99 performances (50 male, 49 female) were analysed. The overall performance improvement between pre- and post-F3T conditions for all swimmers was 2.18 +/- 1.50 % (p < 0.0001), (range - 1.14 % to 6.02 %). A total of 91 of the 99 analysed performances were faster after the F3T and only 8 were slower. The percentage improvement with F3T was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in males (2.57 +/- 1.45 %) than in females (1.78 +/- 1.45 %). In conclusion, the pre-Olympic F3T elicited a significant performance improvement of 2.57 % for male and 1.78 % for female swimmers at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. The magnitude was similar for all competition events, and was achieved by swimmers from different countries and performance levels. These data provide a quantitative framework for coaches and swimmers to set realistic performance goals based on individual performance levels before the final training phase leading to important competitions.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the physiological and psychological effects of massage on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
Eighteen volunteers were randomly assigned to either a massage or control group. DOMS was induced with six sets of eight maximal eccentric contractions of the right hamstring, which were followed 2 h later by 20 min of massage or sham massage (control). Peak torque and mood were assessed at 2, 6, 24, and 48 h postexercise. Range of motion (ROM) and intensity and unpleasantness of soreness were assessed at 6, 24, and 48 h postexercise. Neutrophil count was assessed at 6 and 24 h postexercise.
A two factor ANOVA (treatment v time) with repeated measures on the second factor showed no significant treatment differences for peak torque, ROM, neutrophils, unpleasantness of soreness, and mood (p > 0.05). The intensity of soreness, however, was significantly lower in the massage group relative to the control group at 48 h postexercise (p < 0.05).
Massage administered 2 h after exercise induced muscle injury did not improve hamstring function but did reduce the intensity of soreness 48 h after muscle insult.
As a result of the inefficiency of metabolic transfer, >75% of the energy that is generated by skeletal muscle substrate oxidation is liberated as heat. During exercise, several powerful physiological mechanisms of heat loss are activated to prevent an excessive rise in body core temperature. However, a hot and humid environment can significantly add to the challenge that physical exercise imposes on the human thermoregulatory system, as heat exchange between body and environment is substantially impaired under these conditions. This can lead to serious performance decrements and an increased risk of developing heat illness. Fortunately, there are a number of strategies that athletes can use to prevent and/or reduce the dangers that are associated with exercise in the heat. In this regard, heat acclimatisation and nutritional intervention seem to be most effective. During heat acclimatisation, the temperature thresholds for both cutaneous vasodilation and the onset of sweating are lowered, which, in combination with plasma volume expansion, improve cardiovascular stability. Effective nutritional interventions include the optimisation of hydration status by the use of fluid replacement beverages. The latter should contain moderate amounts of glucose and sodium, which improve both water absorption and retention.
Objectives
The purpose of this study was to investigate the physiological and psychological effects of massage on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
Methods
Eighteen volunteers were randomly assigned to either a massage or control group. DOMS was induced with six sets of eight maximal eccentric contractions of the right hamstring, which were followed 2 h later by 20 min of massage or sham massage (control). Peak torque and mood were assessed at 2, 6, 24, and 48 h postexercise. Range of motion (ROM) and intensity and unpleasantness of soreness were assessed at 6, 24, and 48 h postexercise. Neutrophil count was assessed at 6 and 24 h postexercise.
Results
A two factor ANOVA (treatment v time) with repeated measures on the second factor showed no significant treatment differences for peak torque, ROM, neutrophils, unpleasantness of soreness, and mood (p > 0.05). The intensity of soreness, however, was significantly lower in the massage group relative to the control group at 48 h postexercise (p < 0.05).
Conclusions
Massage administered 2 h after exercise induced muscle injury did not improve hamstring function but did reduce the intensity of soreness 48 h after muscle insult.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to determine if post-exercise massage has an effect on delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and physical performance in women collegiate athletes.DesignThis study used a randomized pre-test post-test control group design.ParticipantsTwenty-two NCAA Division I women basketball and volleyball players participated. On the day of predicted peak soreness, the treatment group (n=11) received a thigh massage using effleurage, petrissage and vibration while the control group (n=11) rested.Outcome measuresPaired t-tests were used to assess differences between pre and post massage measures (α=0.05) for vertical jump displacement, timed shuttle run, quadriceps length and pressure-pain threshold in the thigh.ResultsA significant increase (slowing) was found in shuttle run times for the control group (p=0.0354). There were significant changes in vertical jump displacement (p=0.0033), perceived soreness (p=0.0011) and algometer readings (p=0.0461) for the massage group.Conclusions
This study supports the use of massage in women collegiate athletes for decreasing soreness and improving vertical jump.
TAPERING IS A TECHNIQUE OF SYSTEMATICALLY DECREASING TRAINING LOAD TO FACILITATE A PHYSIOLOGIC FITNESS PEAK. THE TAPER IS A COMPLEX TECHNIQUE BECAUSE LOAD CAN BE REDUCED THROUGH THE MANIPULATION OF NUMEROUS VARIABLES, SUCH AS TRAINING INTENSITY, VOLUME, DURATION, AND FREQUENCY. AN EXTENSIVE BODY OF RESEARCH HAS BEEN DEDICATED TO ANALYZING THE OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF THESE VARIABLES. THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE WAS TO BRIDGE THE GAP BETWEEN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, AS IT PERTAINS TO THE TAPER.
The performance of a top-class athlete can be improved by appropriate training. The fitness training should be closely related to the activities of the athlete during competition. Furthermore, the capacity of the athlete should be known. For that purpose, Yo-Yo tests can be used since they have been shown to be sensitive and to give valid measures of performance in many sports. The fitness training can be divided into aerobic, anaerobic and specific muscle training. Each type of training has a number of subcategories, which allows for a precise execution of the training when the aim of the training is known. A critical factor when training elite athletes is when to do what, i.e. to plan the training. An example of the preparation of the Danish National soccer team for the European Championship 2004 is given in the text with examples of physiologi-cal measurements and testing, which also takes individuals' needs into account.
The number of travellers undertaking long-distance flights has continued to increase. Such flights are associated with travel fatigue and jet lag, the symptoms of which are considered here, along with their similarities, differences, and causes. Difficulties with jet lag because of sleep loss and decreased performance are emphasised. Since jet lag is caused mainly by inappropriate timing of the body clock in the new time zone, the pertinent properties of the body clock are outlined, with a description of how the body clock can be adjusted. The methods, both pharmacological and behavioural, that have been used to alleviate the negative results of time-zone transitions, are reviewed. The results form the rationale for advice to travellers flying in different directions and crossing several time zones. Finally, there is an account of the main problems that remain unresolved.
A nonlinear model of training responses was utilized to test whether a 2-phase taper could be more effective than a traditional linear taper. Simulations were conducted using model parameters previously determined in 6 nonathletes trained on a cycle ergometer (non-ATH) and 7 elite swimmers trained in sport-specific conditions (ATH). Linear and 2-phase tapers were compared after a 28-day overload period at 120% of normal training. The 2-phase taper was assumed to be identical to the optimal linear taper, except for the final 3 days during which the training load was varied to maximize the final performance. The optimal linear taper was characterized by a mean training reduction by 32 +/- 6% during 35 +/- 6 days in non-ATH and by 49 +/- 18% during 33 +/- 16 days in ATH. The last 3 days of the 2-phase taper were characterized by a significant increase in training load by 23 +/- 18% in non-ATH and 29 +/- 42% in ATH (p < 0.005). The optimal taper characteristics were not statistically different between non-ATH and ATH. The maximal performance reached with the 2-phase taper was higher by 0.04 +/- 0.02% in non-ATH and 0.01 +/- 0.01% in ATH than with the optimal linear taper (p < 0.001). Positive and negative influences of training on performance were estimated as indicators of adaptation and fatigue, respectively. The negative influence was completely removed during both tapers, whereas the positive influence was slightly further enhanced during the 2-phase pattern. In conclusion, simulations showed that a 20 to 30% increase in training at the end of the taper, as compared to a prolonged reduction in training, allowed additional adaptations without compromising the removal of fatigue.
Twelve women, who differed in physical condition and body size, were heat acclimated utilizing either a daily or intermittent (every 3rd day) exposure pattern in an environmental chamber. The women walked for 100 min at 5.2 km/h up a 2.5% grade on a motor-driven treadmill Climatic chamber conditions were 46.5°C Ta, 24.5°C Twb ± 0.5°C. Although individual acclimation varied, significant reduction in heat strain was observed in all subjects, e.g., the ability to complete the assigned task with increasing ease, a decrease in working heart rate, a decrease in rectal temperature rise, a decrease in mean skin temperature, an increase in sweat rate, an increase in evaporative rate, and a decrease in heat storage. The pattern of heat exposures, daily or every third day, had no discernible effect on the rate of heat acclimation. The highly conditioned subjects showed less physiological strain, particularly during the first few heat exposures, and maintained some relative advantage throughout the series of 10 exposures. Body size, in the range studied, appeared to exert little influence on the amount of thermal strain.
Seven elite male cross-country skiers trained for 3 weeks at an altitude of 1900 m. Haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]), haematocrit (Hct) (obtained from venous blood), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and energy expenditure during a standard submaximal workload were measured before and after training at altitude, and 1 year later while training at sea level (control). Both [Hb] and Hct increased significantly, and the skiers with the lowest initial [Hb] and Hct experienced the largest increases during training at altitude. The increase in blood lactate (BLa) concentration (using haemolysed capillary blood) during a standard submaximal exercise test was significantly lower after training at altitude than before it or 1 year later (control). A significant correlation was found between the magnitude of increase in [Hb] and Hct and the difference in the lactate response to the standard submaximal workload pre- and post-altitude training. Although VO2 max remained unchanged, lower BLa concentration during the submaximal test probably reflects an improved ability to exercise at higher submaximal workloads shortly after training at altitude compared with pre-altitude training. It is suggested that subjects with low initial [Hb] and Hct improve their aerobic performance capacity most during altitude training.
This study examined some of the physiological and performance effects of three different tapers in highly trained athletes. After 8 wk of training, nine male middle-distance runners were randomly assigned to one of three different 7-day tapers: a high-intensity low-volume taper (HIT), a low-intensity moderate-volume taper (LIT), or a rest-only taper (ROT). After the first taper, subjects resumed training for 4 wk and performed a second taper and then resumed training for 4 wk and completed the remaining taper, so that each subject underwent all three tapers. Performance was measured before and after each taper by a treadmill run to fatigue at a velocity equivalent each subject's best 1,500-m time. Voluntary isometric strength and evoked contractile properties of the quadriceps were measured before and after each taper, as were muscle glycogen concentration and citrate synthase activity (from needle biopsies) and total blood and red cell volume by 125I and 51Cr tagging. Maximal O2 consumption was unaffected by all three tapers, but running time to fatigue increased significantly after HIT (+22%). It was unaffected by LIT (+6%) and ROT (-3%) procedure. Citrate synthase activity increased significantly with HIT and decreased significantly with ROT. Muscle glycogen concentration increased significantly after ROT and HIT, and strength increased after all three tapers. Total blood volume increased significantly after HIT and decreased after ROT.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The hypothesis that high-altitude weight loss can be prevented by increasing energy intake to meet energy requirement was tested in seven men, 23.7 +/- 4.3 (SD) yr, taken to 4,300 m for 21 days. Energy intake required to maintain body weight at sea level was found to be 3,118 +/- 300 kcal/day, as confirmed by nitrogen balance. Basal metabolic rate (BMR), determined by indirect calorimetry, increased 27% on day 2 at altitude and then decreased and reached a plateau at 17% above the sea level BMR by day 10. Energy expended during strenuous activities was 37% lower at altitude than at sea level. Fecal excretion of energy, nitrogen, total fiber, and total volatile fatty acids was not significantly affected by altitude. Energy intake at altitude was adjusted after 1 wk, on the basis of the increased BMR, to 3,452 +/- 452 kcal/day. Mean nitrogen balance at altitude was negative (-0.25 +/- 0.71 g/day) before energy intake was adjusted but rose significantly thereafter (0.20 +/- 0.71 and 0.44 +/- 0.66 g/day during weeks 2 and 3). Mean body weight decreased 2.1 +/- 1.0 kg over the 3 wk of the study, but the rate of weight loss was significantly diminished after the increase in energy intake (201 +/- 75 vs. 72 +/- 48 g/day). Individual regression lines drawn through 7-day segments of body weight showed that in four of seven subjects the slopes of body weight were not significantly different from zero after the 2nd wk. Thus weight loss ceased in four of seven men in whom increased BMR at altitude was compensated with increased energy intake.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Recent application of modeling techniques to physical training has opened the possibility for prediction from training. Solution of the inverse problem, determining a training program to produce a desired performance at a specific time, is also possible and may yield strategies for achieving better training and tapering (complete or relative rest for a period before competition) regimens for competitive athletes. A mathematical technique derived from model theory is described in this paper that allows the design of an optimal strategy of physical preparation for an individual to do well in a single future competitive event or cluster of events. Simulation results, using default parameters of a training model, suggest that presently accepted forms of taper for competition may remain too rigorous and short in duration to achieve the best result possible from the training undertaken.
Heat acclimatisation/acclimation involves a complex of adaptations which includes decreased heart rate, rectal temperature, perceived exertion as well as increased plasma volume and sweat rate. These adaptations serve to reduce physiological strain, improve an athlete's ability to exercise in a hot environment, and reduce the incidence of some forms of heat illness. Few differences exist in the ability of men and women to acclimatise to heat. Typically, older runners do not perform in the heat as well as younger runners, but physical training can negate differences between these groups. Hormonal adaptations (e.g. aldosterone, vasopressin) during heat acclimatisation encourage fluid-electrolyte retention and cardiovascular stability. Athletes with high maximal aerobic power (VO2max) acclimatise to heat faster (and lose adaptations slower when they are inactive in a cool environment) than athletes with low VO2max values. Physical training in a cool environment improves physiological responses to exercise at high ambient temperatures. In attempting to optimise heat acclimatisation, athletes should maintain fluid-electrolyte balance, exercise at intensities greater than 50% VO2max for 10 to 14 days, and avoid factors (e.g. sleep loss, infectious disease) which are known to reduce heat tolerance. Once acclimatisation has been achieved, inactivity results in a decay of favourable adaptations, after only a few days or weeks.
This review has grouped many studies on different populations with different protocols to show the interactive effects of intensity, frequency and duration of training as well as the effects of initial fitness levels and programme length on cardiorespiratory fitness as reflected by aerobic power (V̇O2max). Within each level of exercise duration, frequency, programme length or initial fitness level, the greatest improvements in aerobic power occur when the greatest challenge to aerobic power occurs i.e., when intensity is from 90 to 100% of V̇O2max. The pattern of improvement where different intensities are compared with different durations suggests that when exercise exceeds 35 minutes, a lower intensity of training results in the same effect as those achieved at higher intensities for shorter durations. Frequencies of as low as 2 per week can result in improvements in less fit subjects but when aerobic power exceeds 50 ml/kg/min, exercise frequency of at least 3 times per week is required. As the levels of initial fitness improve, the change in aerobic power decreases regardless of the intensity, frequency or duration of exercise.
Although these pooled data suggest that maximal gains in aerobic power are elicited with intensities between 90 to 100% V̇O2 max, 4 times per week with exercise durations of 35 to 45 minutes, it is important to note that lower intensities still produce effective changes and reduce the risks of injury in non-athletic groups.
Thirteen subjects participated in an exercise program of bicycling and running 40 min/day, 6 days/wk. After 10 wk they continued to train either 26 of 13 min/day for an additional 15 wk. Intensity and frequency for the additional 15 wk remained the same as the last 3 wk of training. This study was undertaken to gain further insights into whether the increases in maximum uptake (VO2 max), endurance, and cardiac size can be maintained with reduced training durations. The average increases in VO2 max in response to 10 wk training were between 10 and 20% during the bicycle and treadmill testing. After reduced training, VO2 max continued to remain at the training levels in both groups. Short-term endurance (approx 5 min) was also maintained by both groups. Long-term endurance (2 h or more) remained the same in the 26-min group but decreased significantly (10%, 139-123 min) in the 13-min group. Calculated left ventricular mass increased 15-20% after training and remained elevated after reduced training in both groups. We conclude that it is possible to maintain almost all of the performance increases with up to a two-thirds reduction of training duration. Nevertheless, the data provide initial evidence that all aspects of the endurance-trained state may not be regulated uniformly in reduced training, particularly since VO2 max and short-term endurance were maintained, but long-term endurance decreased in the 13-min group.
Experiments have been performed upon human volunteers in an Isolation Unit to investigate the effects of different routines of sleep and wakefulness upon circadian rhythms in deep body temperature and some urinary constituents. Irregular sleeping routines, whether as a single randomly-timed 8-hour sleep or as two randomly-arranged 4-hour sleep periods, were associated with free-running rhythms with periods greater than 24 hours, even though mealtimes continued to be taken as customary times of day. If one of the 4-hour sleep periods - the anchor sleep - was taken at the same time each day (0000-0400; 0400-0800; 0800-1200 or 1200-1600), but the other sleep continued to be taken at irregular times, then, after a few days, the circadian rhythms became stabilized with periods indistinguishable from 24 hours. There was a shift in phase of the stabilized rhythms when compared with the phase during control conditions, the size of which indicated that the time of sleep, rather than mealtimes, was synchronizing the rhythms. Some of the implications of these findings for people working shifts or other irregular schedules are discussed.
This study examined the effect of three exercise-diet regimens on muscle glycogen supercompensation and subsequent performance during a 20.9-km run. A diet containing 15% carbohydrate (CHO,L), 50% CHO (M), or 70% (CHO (H) was arranged in three trials as follows: trial A = 3 days L, 3 days H; trial B = 3 days M, 3 days H; trial C = 6 days M. For each trial a 5-day depletion-taper exercise sequence was conducted on the treadmill at 73% VO2 max. The runs were 90, 40, 40, 20, and 20 min, respectively. A day of rest preceded the 20.9-km performance run. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the gastrocnemius on days 4 and 7 (both prior to and after the performance run). Trials A, B, and C elevated muscle glycogen to 207, 203, and 159 mmol glucosyl units/kg wet tissue (mmG), respectively. The performance run in both trials A and B utilized significantly more glycogen than in trial C: 5.0 and 5.1 mmG/km vs. 3.1 mmG/km. There were, however, no differences in either performance run times or post-performance run glycogen levels between the trials. These data demonstrate that (1) muscle glycogen can be elevated to high levels with a moderate exercise-diet regimen; (2) initial muscle glycogen levels influence the amount subsequently utilized during exercise; (3) carbohydrate loading is of no benefit to performance for trained runners during a 20.9-km run.
Athletes and researchers could benefit from a simple and universally accepted technique to determine whether humans are well-hydrated, euhydrated, or hypohydrated. Two laboratory studies (A, B) and one field study (C) were conducted to determine if urine color (Ucol) indicates hydration status accurately and to clarify the interchangeability of Ucol, urine osmolality (Uosm), and urine specific gravity (Usg) in research. Ucol, Uosm, and Usg were not significantly correlated with plasma osmolality, plasma sodium, or hematocrit. This suggested that these hematologic measurements are not as sensitive to mild hypohydration (between days) as the selected urinary indices are. When the data from A, B, and C were combined, Ucol was strongly correlated with Usg and Uosm. It was concluded that (a) Ucol may be used in athletic/industrial settings or field studies, where close estimates of Usg or Uosm are acceptable, but should not be utilized in laboratories where greater precision and accuracy are required, and (b) Uosm and Usg may be used interchangeably to determine hydration status.
The association between diet and body composition was investigated in 6 elite female swimmers subjected to a 13-month nutritional supervision and in 11 female untrained subjects matched for fat-free mass. The impact of a 2-month interruption of training on diet and body composition was also studied in the swimmers. A positive correlation was observed between the percentage of dietary energy as fat and percent body fat in the untrained subjects (r = 0.68, p < 0.05). When values of the swimmers were incorporated in the regression analysis, the correlation coefficient remained the same. Following detraining for 2 months, a 4.8-kg body weight gain, including 4.3 kg fat mass, was observed. The energy equivalent of these morphological changes was 170 MJ and corresponded to about the amount of energy that would have been normally expended during this detraining period. In conclusion, these results suggest that the association between diet and body composition is not altered by exercise training, and that body fat gain occurs in response to detraining, perhaps to promote the restoration of energy and fat balance.
More is known about the time course for the acquisition of human heat acclimation during exercise than its decay or loss. Pioneering research in the 1940s led to our early understanding of the heat acclimation process and its subsequent decay with further knowledge concerning the associated physiological mechanisms in later years. For both hot-dry and hot-humid environments, nearly complete exercise-heat acclimation occurs after 7 to 10 days of exposure. However, about two-thirds to 75% of the physiological adjustments and improvements in performance are seen in 4 to 6 days. Individuals with high levels of aerobic fitness are partially but not fully acclimated to the heat. Most of the early studies on decay or loss of heat acclimation are flawed by very small samples, incomplete heat acclimation or inappropriate measurements. Nevertheless, these studies are pioneering in a sense because they indicate that the retention of heat acclimation is quite variable between individuals and environments. Retention of the benefits of heat acclimation appears to remain longer for dry compared to humid heat. High levels of aerobic fitness seem associated with greater retention of heat acclimation. Further well-designed and definitive studies on decay or loss of heat acclimation appear necessary.
This paper defines a training theory with which to predict the effectiveness of various formats of taper in optimizing physical performance from a standardized period of training and taper. Four different taper profiles: step reduction vs exponential (exp) decay and fast vs slow exp decay tapers, were simulated in a systems model to predict performance p(t) resulting from a standard square-wave quantity of training for 28 days. The relative effectiveness of each of the profiles in producing optimal physical improvement above pre-taper criterion physical test standards (running and cycle ergometry) was determined. Simulation showed that an exp taper was better than a step-reduction taper, and a fast exp decay taper was superior to a slow exp decay taper. The results of the simulation were tested experimentally in field trials to assess the correspondence between simulation and real-training criterion physical tests in triathlon athletes. The results showed that the exp taper (tau = 5 days) group made a significantly greater improvement above a pre-taper standard (P < or = 0.05) than the step-reduction taper group in cycle ergometry, and was better, but not significantly so, in a 5-km run. A fast exp taper group B (tau = 4 days) performed significantly better (P < or = 0.05) in maximal, cycle ergometry above a pre-taper training standard than a slow exp taper group A (tau = 8 days) and was improved more, but not significantly so, than group A in a 5-km criterion run. The mean improvement on both physical tests by exp decay taper groups all increased significantly (P < or = 0.05) above their pre-taper training standard. Maximum oxygen uptake increased significantly in a group of eight remaining athletes during 2 weeks of final taper after three athletes left early for final preparations at the race site.
This study examined some physiological and performance responses to a 6-d taper, and the influence of training intensity and volume on these responses.
After 15 wk of training, 8 well-trained male middle-distance runners were randomly assigned to either a moderate volume taper (MVT, N = 4) or a low volume taper (LVT, N = 4), consisting of either a 50% or a 75% progressive reduction in pretaper low intensity continuous training (LICT) and high intensity interval training (HIIT). Blood samples were obtained and 800-m running performance was measured before and after taper.
Performance was not significantly enhanced by either taper protocol (post- vs pre-taper times 124.9 +/- 4.5 vs 126.1 +/- 4.2 s with LVT, 126.2 +/- 8.0 vs 125.7 +/- 6.6 s with MVT). For the entire group of 8 subjects, red cell count, hemoglobin (Hb), mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular Hb concentration significantly decreased with taper, while reticulocyte count increased. Performance changes for all subjects correlated with changes in postrace peak blood lactate concentration (r = 0.87, P < 0.01). Taper LICT correlated with changes in Hb (r = 0.77), hematocrit (r = 0.81), reticulocyte count (r = 0.73), creatine kinase (r = 0.72), and total testosterone (r = -0.78), and with posttaper red cell distribution width (r = -0.75) and lymphocyte count (r = -0.82). Taper HIIT correlated nonsignificantly with changes in red cell count (r = -0.66) and total testosterone (r = 0.68).
It is concluded that taper-induced physiological changes in trained middle-distance runners are mainly hematological, and that distinct physiological changes are elicited from LICT and HIIT during taper. Middle-distance runners can progressively reduce their usual training volume by at least 75% during a 6-d taper.
Detraining is the partial or complete loss of training-induced adaptations, in response to an insufficient training stimulus. Detraining characteristics may be different depending on the duration of training cessation or insufficient training. Short term detraining (less than 4 weeks of insufficient training stimulus) is analysed in part I of this review, whereas part II will deal with long term detraining (more than 4 weeks of insufficient training stimulus). Short term cardiorespiratory detraining is characterised in highly trained athletes by a rapid decline in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and blood volume. Exercise heart rate increases insufficiently to counterbalance the decreased stroke volume, and maximal cardiac output is thus reduced. Ventilatory efficiency and endurance performance are also impaired. These changes are more moderate in recently trained individuals. From a metabolic viewpoint, short term inactivity implies an increased reliance on carbohydrate metabolism during exercise, as shown by a higher exercise respiratory exchange ratio, and lowered lipase activity, GLUT-4 content, glycogen level and lactate threshold. At the muscle level, capillary density and oxidative enzyme activities are reduced. Training-induced changes in fibre cross-sectional area are reversed, but strength performance declines are limited. Hormonal changes include a reduced insulin sensitivity, a possible increase in testosterone and growth hormone levels in strength athletes, and a reversal of short term training-induced adaptations in fluid-electrolyte regulating hormones.
This part II discusses detraining following an insufficient training stimulus period longer than 4 weeks, as well as several strategies that may be useful to avoid its negative impact. The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) of athletes declines markedly but remains above control values during long term detraining, whereas recently acquired VO2max gains are completely lost. This is partly due to reduced blood volume, cardiac dimensions and ventilatory efficiency, resulting in lower stroke volume and cardiac output, despite increased heart rates. Endurance performance is accordingly impaired. Resting muscle glycogen levels return to baseline, carbohydrate utilisation increases and the lactate threshold is lowered, although it remains above untrained values in the highly trained. At the muscle level, capillarisation, arterial-venous oxygen difference and oxidative enzyme activities decline in athletes and are completely reversed in recently trained individuals, contributing significantly to the long term loss in VO2max. Oxidative fibre proportion is decreased in endurance athletes, whereas it increases in strength athletes, whose fibre areas are significantly reduced. Force production declines slowly, and usually remains above control values for very long periods. All these negative effects can be avoided or limited by reduced training strategies, as long as training intensity is maintained and frequency reduced only moderately. On the other hand, training volume can be markedly reduced. Cross-training may also be effective in maintaining training-induced adaptations. Athletes should use similar-mode exercise, but moderately trained individuals could also benefit from dissimilar-mode cross-training. Finally, the existence of a cross-transfer effect between ipsilateral and contralateral limbs should be considered in order to limit detraining during periods of unilateral immobilisation.
Oedema is one of the most frequent signs of chronic venous insufficiency and may be present at all stages of this disorder. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of four different types of elastic compression stockings on oedema prevention in patients with varicose veins.
An increase in foot volume after elevation of the leg was evaluated by strain gauge plethysmography in 20 limbs with varicose veins and 14 normal limbs, and the effects of four different compression stockings--8, 14, 22 and 30-40 mmHg--were compared.
All stockings significantly reduced the foot volume increase compared with the no stockings patient group and the normal group. There was no significant difference in the volume increase in the normal group for all four stockings, while there was a significantly smaller volume increase in the 22 mmHg stocking compared to the 14 mmHg stocking in the patient group. Between the 22 mmHg and 30-40 mmHg stockings or between the 14 mmHg and 8 mmHg stockings, there was no significant difference in the volume increase.
Elastic stockings, even with a pressure as low as 8 mmHg, can prevent oedema in patients with varicose veins, as well as in normal controls. However, the 22 mmHg and 30-40 mmHg stockings were better at preventing foot oedema in patients with varicose veins than those exerting less compression.