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Tapering for competition: A review
Abstract
The taper is a progressive nonlinear reduction of the training load during a variable period of time, in an attempt to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of daily training and optimize sports performance. Existing research has defined the taper, identified various forms used in contemporary sport, and examined the prescription of training volume, load, intensity, duration, and type (progressive or step). The current literature reveals that tapering strategies may be associated with a competition performance improvement of about 3% (usual range 0.5–6.0%). Particular attention given to nutrition, hydration and recovery strategies during the pre-event taper may help maximize its associated positive effects. Interactions between the taper and long-haul travel, heat, and altitude should be also taken into account with particular attention. Future progress in sports science will play an important part in refining and developing existing tapering methodologies, particularly in the context of multiple peaking for team and racquet sports.
... It is reinforced by some experts that the most important goal of a coach and athlete in sports achievement is to improve technical, psychic, physiological and physical abilities as much as possible and be able to control the exercise program so that exercise does not cause overtraining [18]. It is reinforced by other literature that during high volume exercise with limited recovery can lead to accumulated fatigue that can interfere with physical and physiological adaptation [17]. The strategy of reducing training weights in the world of sports achievement is often applied before the eve of the main game for several weeks or periods called tapering [27]. ...
... Sports coaches and scientists often reduce the training load before entering the main match to manage fitness so that the highest performance is achieved [29]. The purpose of tapering is to maximize psychological adaptation, physiology and while eliminating fatigue resulting from the loading of more exercise [17]. Based on other literature that tapering aims to reduce psychological fatigue, and physiology and optimize exercise performance [27] [29][14] [6]. ...
... This is in line with previous research that tapering is proven to improve athlete performance and has been widely demonstrated in the world of sports achievements that take place two weeks before the competition [6]. Exercise load in sports achievement can be described as a combination and combination of the volume, intensity and frequency of exercise [17]. Therefore trainers are required to determine the extent to which the exercise load is reduced and able to maintain or improve psychological, physiological and physical adaptations [17] [14]. ...
... Alternately, if inadequate rest is provided, the athlete may still be fatigued during the competition, resulting in suboptimal performance and increased risk of burn out (9). An optimal taper therefore requires achieving some balance between training stress and recovery (15). Although a meta-analysis by Bosquet et al. (5) that involved swimmers, cyclists, and runners suggested that 8-14 days may be the optimal length of taper, what constitutes the most appropriate length and type of taper is likely to be influenced by the demands of each sport and the athletes' previous training practices (14). ...
... Athletes may choose their taper types and durations based on their previous training load (15,26,31) and the amount of fatigue they carry into the taper process (5). The linear (36%) and step taper (33%) were the most common type of tapers used by weightlifting athletes. ...
... In fact, Travis et al. (35) recently demonstrated experimentally that during a taper, training intensity can be reduced by 25% and 1RM performances can be improved in powerlifters. It seems that for weightlifting and athletes in the strength sports, the manipulation of training intensity is quite individualized and may be influenced by a number of variables, including the training load and fatigue going into the taper (15,26), the unique physiological demands (2,7,28,42,44) of the sport, and the associated injury epidemiology (13). A limitation in the present study is that we did not differentiate between changes of intensity to competition-specific exercises vs traditional exercises. ...
Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, and Pritchard, HJ. The tapering practices of competitive weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2022—This study explored the tapering strategies of weightlifting athletes. Weightlifting athletes ( n = 146) (mean ± SD ; age: 29.2 ± 8.7 years, height: 172.5 ± 10.1 cm, body mass: 84.0 ± 17.2 kg, 4.7 ± 3.4 years of weightlifting training experience, and 3.9 ± 3.3 years of competitive weightlifting experience) completed a self-reported 4-page, 39-item internet survey on tapering practices. Subgroup analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national and international level) was conducted. Ninety-nine percent ( n = 144) of weightlifting athletes reported they used a taper. Athletes stated that their typical taper length was 8.0 ± 4.4 days, with the linear (36%) and step tapers (33%) being the most performed. Training volume decreased during the taper by 43.1 ± 14.6%, and athletes ceased all training 1.5 ± 0.6 days out from competition. Muscular strength, light technique work, and aerobic conditioning were the most common types of training performed in the taper. Athletes typically stated that tapering was performed to achieve rest and recovery, physical preparation for peak performance and mental preparation; training intensity and training duration decreased whereas training frequency remained the same or decreased; traditional exercises were performed further out from competition than weightlifting exercises; assistance exercises and some strength work were reduced; nutritional changes, foam rolling, static stretching, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of training too heavy, too hard, or too light and life–work circumstances. These results may aid athletes and coaches in strength sports to optimize tapering variables leading to improved performances.
... 69,75,76 Therefore, it is recommended to extend the duration of PPs in general and the preseason in particular, in order to promote greater resistance to fatigue and better quality of adaptations to training stimuli. 64,69,77,78 For its part, the second half of CPs is characterized by a high accumulation of matches, increasing the physical and physiological demands of the players and limiting their ability to recover between competitions. 49,69 These results in these specific periods are also supported by the findings referring to muscle damage, (CK = 147-777 u/l; LDH = 208-441 u/l) 50,53,59,60 and oxidative stress markers, 50,53,55 as well as in the T/C ratio values, with a great variability in absolute terms between sports modalities 23,55,79,80 (see Table 3). ...
... 54,57 This fact already occurs in CPs, where coaches tend to reduce workloads the day immediately before and after the matches (MD-1 and MD + 1, respectively). 44,46,64,78,81,82 In summary, the end of the PPs and the second phase of the CPs seem to be the most exhausting moments of the Biochemical markers can be useful as a means of training control. One week of set-up prior to the main championship (T2) seems to be successful to achieve an optimal state of recovery. ...
... In addition to the evolution of the workloads throughout the week mentioned previously, the internal load of the matches plays a fundamental role for the accumulation of fatigue in team sports. 78,87,88 In volleyball matches, the duration of each game point, the number of sets achieved and the limitation in the number of substitutions per set are factors that make it difficult to predict the internal load experienced by the players. 65,89 These factors may explain the findings of Mendes et al., 14 where 68% of the matches in the second round of the Super League reached 4 sets and in 91% of the matches in the second round 5 sets. ...
The aims of this study were: (1) to analyze how the periodization of workloads can induce states of accumulated fatigue in the short, medium and long term in indoor team sports and (2) to identify these periods of fatigue through the interpretation internal and external performance variables. This systematic review was carried out under PRISMA guidelines. The Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for relevant published studies between 1st January 2010 and 25th April 2021. The STROBE scale and MINORS checklist were used to assess the reporting and methodological risk of bias, respectively. Of the 2219 studies initially identified, 20 were selected for a full review. The main conclusions were that a periodic and integrative evaluation of monitoring variables of a different nature is needed to identify states of fatigue accurately and rigorously. The end of the preparatory periods (PPs) and the second phase of the competitive periods (CPs) seem to be the most exhausting moments of the season (high values of RPE, CK, LDH, and oxidative stress markers, and decrease in the T/C ratio). Specifically, congested weeks promote the development of high levels of acute and subacute fatigue (high levels of DOMS and fatigue along with low levels of RPE). Therefore, it is recommended to extend the duration of the preseason and the implementation of more active recovery days during congested weeks, in order to improve resistance to acute and subacute fatigue, and therefore avoid reaching a state of overtraining.
... As a consequence, optimization in this field of research has been restricted to predefined sets of training programs or training strategies. Among these strategies, the ones that have been most studied without a doubt are the training strategies with tapering training loads before a competition date [10,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][27][28][29][30][31]. This tapering period allows to decrease both fatigue and fitness but with a profitable balance if done for the right amount of time. ...
... In Algorithm App-1, we show the variant to Algorithm 1, for a population with unknown individual parameter values. In this case, the algorithm depends only on the parameter distribution and basically, it works by first drawing by chance a population19 and then, implementing the 1-individual MCTS algorithm with expected performance over the drawn population as an objective function. Obviously, the population drawn in order to build the MCTS training program (training population) should not be the same as the one that was drawn in order to test the different training program treatments (validation population).19 ...
... In this case, the algorithm depends only on the parameter distribution and basically, it works by first drawing by chance a population19 and then, implementing the 1-individual MCTS algorithm with expected performance over the drawn population as an objective function. Obviously, the population drawn in order to build the MCTS training program (training population) should not be the same as the one that was drawn in order to test the different training program treatments (validation population).19 Specifically, we draw a population of 480 individuals in all our simulations.1 ...
Purpose
Using a variant of the Monte-Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) algorithm, we compute optimal personalized and generic training programs for athletic performance.
Methods
We use a non-linear performance model with population variability for athletes and non-athletes previously used in the literature. Then, we simulate an in-silico test population. For each individual of this population, we compute the performance obtained after implementing several widely used training programs as well as the one obtained by our variant of the MCTS algorithm. Two cases are considered depending on individual parameters being observed and personalized programs being possible or only parameter distributions being available and only generic training programs being implementable.
Results
Compared to widely used training programs, our optimization leads to an increase in performance between 1.1 (95% CI: 0.9 – 1.4) percentage point of the performance obtained with stationary optimal training dose (pp POTD) for athletes and unknown individual characteristics to 10.0 (95% CI: 9.6 – 10.3) pp POTD for nonathletes and known individual characteristics. The value of information when using MCTS optimized training strategies, i.e . the difference between the performance that can be reached with knowledge of individual characteristics and the performance that can be reached without it is 14.7 (95% CI: 12.8 – 16.7) pp POTD for athletes and 3.0 (95% CI: 2.6 – 3.4) pp POTD for non-athletes.
... As fases consecutivas do treinamento, também conhecidas como mesociclos 6 , diferem na forma de prescrição dos parâmetros de treinamento (volume, intensidade, descanso e tipo de exercício). A periodização linear adota o aumento progressivo da intensidade e concomitante atenuação do volume de treinamento 5 , acarretando maximização do desempenho dos atletas ao final deste processo 6 . Na periodização linear o treinador busca manipular as cargas de treinamento com o intuito de que seus atletas atinjam o melhor desempenho em uma única competição ao final do macrociclo 5 . ...
... Por conseguinte, algumas hipóteses foram formuladas em virtude dos achados de duas revisões sistemáticas 6,8 . Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das fibras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de fibras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. ...
... Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das fibras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de fibras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. Por fim, considerando que a redução repentina do volume de treinamento (adotado no polimento por etapa) pode não ser efetiva para o polimento com duração de mais de duas semanas 6,8 , formulou-se a segunda hipótese da investigação: b) o polimento linear maximiza mais a força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol do que o polimento por etapa. ...
O objetivo foi analisar o efeito do tipo de polimento na força explosiva de membros inferiores (FEMI) em jovens atletas de voleibol. Participaram 42 atletas com idade entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos aleatoriamente em 3 grupos: linear (GL), por etapa (GE) e controle (GC). Todos os grupos fizeram a mesma planificação de treinamento até a fase do polimento. Somente o GC não realizou polimento. O polimento teve duração de 3semanas, adotando-se o método de polimento linear para o GL e polimento por etapa para o GE. Utilizou-se a plataforma de força para avaliar a FEMI. Este instrumento foi utilizado antes do início da temporada e na última semana de cada mesociclo. Conduziu-se a análise univariada de covariância (ANCOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar a FEMI entre os grupos em função do mesociclo. Os resultados apresentaram efeitosde tempo (F(4, 38) = 31,93, p = 0,01) e grupo (F(3, 39) = 41,87, p = 0,01). A FEMI aumentou no GL (F(2, 13) = 32,55, p = 0,01) e GE (F(2, 12) = 29,14, p = 0,01) após o polimento, fato não revelado para o GC (F(2, 11) = 3,48, p = 0,19). De maneira geral, os achados do presente estudo revelaram o aumento da FEMI após o polimento para GL e GE. Concluiu-se que o polimento foi eficaz para melhorar a FEMI de atletas de voleibol.
... As fases consecutivas do treinamento, também conhecidas como mesociclos 6 , diferem na forma de prescrição dos parâmetros de treinamento (volume, intensidade, descanso e tipo de exercício). A periodização linear adota o aumento progressivo da intensidade e concomitante atenuação do volume de treinamento 5 , acarretando maximização do desempenho dos atletas ao nal deste processo 6 . Na periodização linear o treinador busca manipular as cargas de treinamento com o intuito de que seus atletas atinjam o melhor desempenho em uma única competição ao nal do macrociclo 5 . ...
... Por conseguinte, algumas hipóteses foram formuladas em virtude dos achados de duas revisões sistemáticas 6,8 . Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das bras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de bras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. ...
... Assim, considerando que os dois métodos de polimento (linear e por etapa) geram alterações neurais positivas (tamanho das bras musculares e a velocidade do recrutamento de bras musculares), construiu-se a seguinte hipótese: a) as duas estratégias de polimento geram melhora na força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol. Por m, considerando que a redução repentina do volume de treinamento (adotado no polimento por etapa) pode não ser efetiva para o polimento com duração de mais de duas semanas 6 Os atletas treinavam em média 2h por dia, com frequência de cinco vezes por semana. Para serem incluídos na pesquisa, os atletas deveriam: a) ser atleta de voleibol a pelo menos dois anos; b) treinar sistematicamente voleibol por pelo menos 8h por semana; e c) estar inscrito no Campeonato Estadual de Voleibol, organizado pela Federação Pernambucana de Voleibol. ...
O tipo de polimento altera a força explosiva de membros inferiores em atletas de voleibol? Resumo O objetivo foi analisar o efeito do tipo de polimento na força explosiva de membros inferiores (FEMI) em jovens atletas de voleibol. Participaram 42 atletas com idade entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos aleatoriamente em 3 grupos: linear (GL), por etapa (GE) e controle (GC). Todos os grupos fizeram a mesma planificação de treinamento até a fase do polimento. Somente o GC não realizou polimento. O polimento teve duração de 3 semanas, adotando-se o método de polimento linear para o GL e polimento por etapa para o GE. Utilizou-se a plataforma de força para avaliar a FEMI. Este instrumento foi utilizado antes do início da temporada e na última semana de cada mesociclo. Conduziu-se a análise univariada de covariância (ANCOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar a FEMI entre os grupos em função do mesociclo. Os resultados apresentaram efeitos de tempo (F (4, 38) = 31,93, p = 0,01) e grupo (F (3, 39) = 41,87, p = 0,01). A FEMI aumentou no GL (F (2, 13) = 32,55, p = 0,01) e GE (F (2, 12) = 29,14, p = 0,01) após o polimento, fato não revelado para o GC (F (2, 11) = 3,48, p = 0,19). De maneira geral, os achados do presente estudo revelaram o aumento da FEMI após o polimento para GL e GE. Concluiu-se que o polimento foi eficaz para melhorar a FEMI de atletas de voleibol.
... Antrenman yükü, gerçekleştirilen toplam fiziksel antrenman performansıdır ve antrenman hacmi, yoğunluğu ve sıklığının birleşimidir (32,33). ...
... "Taper" uygulamaları, günlük antrenmanın fizyolojik ve psikolojik stresini azaltmak ve antrenmanın frekans, yoğunluk ve hacminde yapılacak değişiklikler ile spor performansını optimize etmek için tasarlanmıştır (16,23,32,34,35). "Taper" döneminde uygulanan antrenmanın hacim, süre ve şiddetine bağlı olarak bazı fizyolojik adaptasyonlar oluşmaktadır (1,13,19). ...
... Bir antrenman birimlik programdaki yükleme evresi, bir yüklenmenin veya birçok yüklenmenin organizmadaki etki süresi olarak tanımlanmaktadır (32,33). Literatürde, "taper" süresi ile sporcuların performans gelişimleri arasında anlamlı ilişkiler tespit edilmiştir (10,14,23,24,36). ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of taper training on the performances of athletes by examining the studies conducted on taper training. Qualitative research methods were used to interpret the studies on taper applications published between 1981-2018. Document analysis was used as data collection method and the obtained data were analysed by content analysis method.
1-4 weeks duration in taper is the most suitable period for optimal performance in sport. Taper has an effect of 7-14 days. When this period continues for another 14 days, significant performance improvement is achieved. As the training load is reduced during the taper, fatigue decreases, recovery occurs in shorter time and the performance of the athlete is improved. During the taper period training volume is reduced, the intensity is maintained or slightly reduced. By reducing the intensity, volume and/or frequency of training, a reduction in the load of the training occurs, as well. Careful planning of the reduction in the training volume minimizes the detraining effect. Following the taper training; blood volume, number of red blood cells, blood lactate, maximal heart rate, level of some hormone and enzyme levels, running economy and muscle glycogen stores of the athletes are increased.
In conclusion; taper training contributes to improvement in athletic performance.
... Based on this information, the purpose of this study was to analyse the effect of tapering duration on power and anaerobic capacity in road cyclists. Considering the notes of Mujika [7] and Le Meur et al. [13], the hypothesis of the present investigation was that two weeks of tapering would be enough to optimize the power and anaerobic capacity of road cyclists. ...
... to greatly mitigate muscle damage from training [13] and/or to increase the speed of recruitment of fast-twitch muscle fibers [23], which, cautiously, may explain the findings of the present study. Another possible explanation may be the low volume reduction (to 85% of the total volume) between the last microcycle in the ''Specific II'' phase and the first week of tapering. ...
... The high negative effect size for the anaerobic power and capacity found between weeks 3 and 4 of the tapering is pointed out, indicating that this event may be true for many amateur road cyclists. This finding reinforces the hypothesis of the present investigation, which considered the notes of some researchers [9,13]. These scientists point out that power and anaerobic capacity improvement occurs as early as the second week of tapering and that perhaps 4 weeks is not recommended. ...
The linear tapering method duration can be determinant for sport performance. Objective.-The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of linear tapering duration method on anaerobic power and capacity in road cyclists. Materials and methods.-Seventeen male road cyclists, aged between 18 and 30 years were randomly selected within the study criteria. Participants performed 16 weeks of training, adopting the undulating periodization with weekly variation of the training load. The tapering phase lasted 4 weeks, using the linear tapering method, reducing only the training volume: 85% in the first, 70% in the second, 55% in the third and 40% in the fourth week. The Wingate test was used to evaluate anaerobic power and capacity. Wingate was performed by the cyclists before the start of the season, at the end of the last week of each mesocycle (Preparatory I, Specific I and Specific II) and at the end of each week in the tapering phase. Results.-The results revealed a time effect for anaerobic power (P < 0.01) and capacity (P < 0.01), with an increase after the preparatory phase I compared to pre-experimental (P = 0.01), maintenance until phase specific II (P = 0.01), maintenance in the third week of tapering (P > 0.05), finishing with attenuation in the fourth week of tapering (P = 0.01). Conclusion.-It was concluded that 2 weeks of tapering was enough to improve the anaerobic power and capacity in road cyclists.
... I love you. IX Tapering is a phase of training that aims to enhance performance through reductions in training load that minimise fatigue (97). If a taper is to be effective, it is imperative that it does not produce additional fatigue, or reduce training to such an extent that adaptations are lost and thus performance decreased (111). ...
... If a taper is to be effective, it is imperative that it does not produce additional fatigue, or reduce training to such an extent that adaptations are lost and thus performance decreased (111). It is one of the most important phases in a training cycle, enabling athletes to express the results of prior training when it counts, in competition (97). Hence, if performance is to be improved, coaches and athletes should utilise tapering strategies that are proven to be effective. ...
... Tapering is a reduction in training load to recover from the fatigue of training, and it is performed before important competitions to allow optimal performance at specific events (21,97,111). It is important, therefore, that athletes and coaches know how to maximize strength for key events by tapering correctly. ...
Maximal strength is a physical quality imperative to success in strength sports and can also play a role in enhancing performance within many other sports. Tapering is a reduction in training load frequently undertaken prior to competitions in order to minimise training related fatigue and thus improve athletic performance. There is currently limited research for athletes and coaches to utilise when planning tapering to maximise strength at key events. This thesis investigated how strength-trained men can best structure the taper period to improve strength performance and attempted to identify the mechanisms underlying any performance improvements.
Two literature reviews (Chapters Two and Three) were performed to provide background information regarding training for maximal strength and summarise current knowledge on tapering for maximal strength. The literature revealed that maximal strength training should involve high intensity training (>80% one repetition maximum (1RM)), for multiple sets, with at least two sessions per week for each major muscle group. The current literature indicated that reductions in training volume (by 30-70%) with maintained, or slight increases, in intensity were most effective for improving maximal strength. However, optimal magnitudes of change during the taper were unclear. Short periods of training cessation (less than a week) were also found to be effective at enhancing, or maintaining, maximal strength.
The first study (Chapter Four) used a qualitative approach to determine strategies currently utilised by 11 elite New Zealand powerlifters (age = 28.4 ± 7.0 years, best Wilks score = 431.9 ± 43.9 points). Athletes reduced training volume by 58.9 ± 8.4%, while maintaining (or slightly reducing) training intensity. The taper lasted 2.4 ± 0.9 weeks, with the final resistance training session 3.7 ± 1.6 days out from competition. Tapering was performed to achieve maximal recovery, and practices were largely informed through trial and error, with changes based upon ‘feel’. Athletes usually removed accessory exercises and focused primarily upon the competition lifts during the taper.
The first training study (Chapter Five) involved a cross-over design to determine the effects of two durations, 3.5 or 5.5 days, of training cessation on performance following four-weeks of training. Eight resistance trained males (age = 23.8 ± 5.4 years, bodyweight (BW) = 79.6 ± 10.2 kg, relative deadlift 1RM = 1.90 ± 0.30 times BW) completed the study. Combined data showed significant performance improvements, compared to pre-training, for both countermovement jump (CMJ) height (P = 0.022) and isometric bench press (IBP) relative peak force (P = 0.011) following short term training cessation (both small effect size (ES) = 0.30). This significant improvement was not present on the final training day, showing that training cessation was an effective means of enhancing strength and power. No significant differences were observed between 3.5 and 5.5 days of training cessation for any measure. These results suggest that a short period of strength training cessation can have positive effects on maximal strength expression, perhaps due to decreased neuromuscular fatigue.
The second training study (Chapter Six) also had a cross-over design to determine the effects of two variations in intensity (+5% or -10%) during a one week strength taper with volume reductions (-70%), following four-weeks of training. Eleven strength-trained males (age = 21.3 ± 3.3 years, BW = 92.3 ± 17.6 kg, relative 1RM deadlift = 1.90 ± 0.20 times BW) completed the study. Combined data for both groups showed significant improvements in CMJ height over time (P < 0.001), with significant improvements across all time points (pre- to post-training P = 0.010, ES = 0.23; pre-training to post-taper P = 0.001, ES = 0.37; and, post-training to post-taper P = 0.002, ES = 0.14). Combined data for CMJ flight time: contraction time also showed significant improvements over time (P = 0.004), with significant improvements from pre- to post-training (P = 0.012, ES = 0.27). Combined data for isometric mid-thigh pull (MTP) relative peak force showed significant improvements over time (P = 0.033), with significant increases found from pre- to post-training (P = 0.013, ES = 0.25). The higher intensity taper produced small ES improvements following the taper for CMJ height (ES = 0.43), CMJ flight time: contraction time (ES = 0.42) and MTP relative peak force (ES = 0.37). In contrast, the lower intensity taper only produced a small ES improvement for CMJ height (ES = 0.30). However, differences between groups were not significant. These results indicate that a strength taper with volume reductions can have positive effects on maximal strength and power performance, with a tendency for higher intensity tapering to be more effective.
This thesis has documented current tapering practices of strength athletes and demonstrated both short term training cessation and volume reduced strength tapers as effective methods of improving maximal strength following training. When tapering, athletes should make substantial training volume reductions with little changes to training intensity. During a taper, training should focus on competition specific strength exercises, and strength training should cease a few days prior to important events.
... 6,7 The tapering is indicated as a periodization prescription technique that has the premise of reducing the training load (specifically the volume) of all components of the training sessions, although the intensity is maintained. 8,9 Studies have shown positive effects of tapering on performance of athletes. 6,10-12 Le Meur et al. 9 stress that the use of the tapering strategy at the end of the competitive season may reduce the levels of muscle damage markers, increase serum anabolic hormone levels, increase enzyme activity and of the rate of recruitment of rapidly contracting muscle fibers. ...
... 8,9 Studies have shown positive effects of tapering on performance of athletes. 6,10-12 Le Meur et al. 9 stress that the use of the tapering strategy at the end of the competitive season may reduce the levels of muscle damage markers, increase serum anabolic hormone levels, increase enzyme activity and of the rate of recruitment of rapidly contracting muscle fibers. ...
... 14 The initial focus on tapering phase was four weeks, adopting the linear tapering method. 9 Thus, only training volume was reduced: 85% for the first, 70% for the second, 55% for the third and 40% in the fourth week, following Mujika, Chaouachi and Chamari's indications. 7 The 100-m freestyle performance was evaluated before the beginning of the season, at the end of the last week of each mesocycle and at the end of each week in the tapering phase, totaling 8 evaluations. ...
Objective: The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of tapering duration on 100-m freestyle performance in swimmers. Method: This is an experimental research with 16 weeks’ duration. Participants were 37 male swimmers aged between 15 and 17 years. The 100-m freestyle performance was evaluated before of the season start (pre-experiment), at the end of last week of each mesocycle (Preparatory, Specific I and Specific II) and the end of each week in the tapering phase. The performance was evaluated from the simulation of the 100-m freestyle race. Results: It was identified time effect for the 100-m freestyle performance (p < 0.001). Conclusion: It was concluded that two weeks of tapering were enough for the enhancement of 100-m freestyle performance.
... The mood state includes feelings of depression, tension, anger, fatigue, confusion and vigour. Studies have shown a positive relationship between the mood state and the "iceberg" profile (increased vigour and the other feelings reduced) and sports performance [6,8,9]. According to Rouveix et al. [10], the mood state may be modified because of a change in body composition. ...
... Researchers highlight that rapid weight reduction, characterised by unhealthy methods (use of laxative/diuretic/appetite suppressant, use of plastic clothes in physical training sessions, etc.), can lead to reduced self-efficacy/self-confidence and motivation, increased stress and worsening of the mood state in athletes [17]. However, it seems that the reduction of negative mood (anger, depression and tension) and increase in the perception of vigour are closely related to optimisation of the performance of athletes in competitions [8,9]. ...
... However, this finding can be explained by the proximity of the target competitive event (Brazilian judo championship). According to Le Meur et al. [9], it is common for athletes to experience high levels of anxiety just prior to a competition. It should be noted that the T subscale of the POMS covers symptoms similar to those of anxiety. ...
Background and Study Aim: It is common for judo athletes to use methods for rapid weight loss in the days preceding competitions in an attempt to create a supposed advantage by being able to compete in lower body weight categories. The aim of the study was the mood response in judo athletes after two weeks of rapid weight reduction.
Materials and Methods: This experimental study included 39 judokas randomly divided into 2 groups: experimental (EG) and control (CG). The rapid weight reduction strategies adopted in the EG were structured with a view to achieving a weekly loss of approximately 5%. The mood was assessed using the reduced version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) instrument.
Results: A group vs time (p<0.01) interaction effect was identified for body weight, with a reduction only in the EG (p<0.01). For the negative mood subscales, except “confusion”, the findings revealed significant group vs time (p<0.01) interactions, with increased scores recorded only in the EG (p<0.01). The results showed a significant group vs time (p<0.01) interaction for the vigour subscale, with the scores, increased in the CG (p<0.01) and reduced in the EG (p<0.01).
Conclusions: It was concluded that rapid weight reduction was not effective for improving the mood state of judokas, highlighting a reduction in vigour and increase in anger, fatigue and depression.
... These variations are due to a combination of individual training programmes, individual perceptions of exertion to a given training session (Haddad et al., 2017) and other additional influences (illness/injury, holiday, training camps, etc). Interestingly, in some gymnasts, the observed pattern of training load leading up to competition did not show a traditional taper phase towards competition (Le Meur et al., 2012). Typically, training load is reduced towards a major competition to elicit optimal sports performance (Le Meur et al., 2012), whereas the observed pattern of training load in some gymnasts showed an increase in training load towards competition. ...
... Interestingly, in some gymnasts, the observed pattern of training load leading up to competition did not show a traditional taper phase towards competition (Le Meur et al., 2012). Typically, training load is reduced towards a major competition to elicit optimal sports performance (Le Meur et al., 2012), whereas the observed pattern of training load in some gymnasts showed an increase in training load towards competition. This may partly be explained by a discrepancy in coaches and athlete's perception of training load, where coaches have been reported to underestimate training load in other youth sports (Brink et al., 2014;Murphy et al., 2014). ...
There is currently limited research exploring the relationship between growth, training load and injury in gymnasts. Twenty-one national level, trampoline gymnasts recorded training load and injury for 8-weeks. Percentage of predicted adult height (%PAH) was calculated using the Khamis-Roche method and used to define growth spurt status. Training load was calculated using the session rate of perceived exertion and analysed as differential loads and as a 7-day exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA7day). There was a significant non-linear association between %PAH and the probability of injury when adjusting for either training load metric (differential load, P = 0.015; EWMA7day; P = 0.008), with the highest injury risk estimated at ~90% PAH (circa growth spurt). The probability of injury significantly increased with increases in EWMA7day training load (RR: 1.88 95% CI: 1.21-2.91, P = 0.005) but not with differential load. No significant interaction between %PAH, training load and the probability of injury were observed. Data suggest that competitive trampoline gymnasts are at an increased risk of injury during the adolescent growth spurt or with higher weekly training loads. Coaches should be educated and encouraged to identify periods of rapid growth and monitor training load, to reduce the risk of injury.
... RPE-17 à RPE-19 selon l'échelle RPE 6-20 ; Ciolac et al., 2015) est une solution susceptible d'être appliquée lors du cycle de pré-compétition (i.e. affûtage ; Le Meur et al., 2012). Cette étape qui précède généralement toute épreuve sportive majeure dans les sports d'endurance est associée à une diminution significative du volume couplée à la conservation des intensités de compétition. ...
... aussi bien en cours de préparation que lors de la dernière semaine précédant la compétition et généralement dédiée, dans les sports d'endurance, à une large réduction du volume total d'entraînement (i.e. affûtage ; LeMeur et al., 2012). Il est toutefois nécessaire de veiller, lors de telles sessions d'entraînement, au stress physiologique globalement induit. ...
De multiples événements sportifs majeurs vont se dérouler prochainement dans des environnements chauds voire tropicaux, justifiant l’intérêt scientifique actuel pour les questions associées à l’effet de la chaleur sur la performance en endurance. Il est admis que l’effort est subjectivement perçu comme plus difficile, en parallèle de la dégradation de la performance, à mesure que la température ambiante s’élève au cours d’une épreuve prolongée. Contrecarrer les effets délétères de la chaleur passe notamment par une exposition répétée dans des conditions écologiques ou simulées d’exercice (i.e. stratégie d’acclimatation). Toutefois, le décalage actuel entre les recommandations d’application issues d’études scientifiques et les conditions réelles de préparation et d’organisation des athlètes de haut niveau est à l’origine d’un faible engouement actuel pour de telles méthodes. Par conséquent, ce travail de thèse a eu pour ambition de répondre à certaines inconnues relatives à l’application de contenus d’entraînement classiques en ambiance chaude, en particulier (i) leur conséquence sur la capacité de performance de l’athlète et (ii) les moyens d’optimiser le contrôle et la régulation de la charge d’entraînement. Dans ce contexte, nous avons proposé à des sujets entraînés de soutenir la production de seuils de RPE (i.e. exercice à RPE fixe) dans un cadre expérimental puis d’entraînement. Au-delà de la validité de ce modèle, nous soutenons que la régulation volontaire de l’intensité dépend, au-delà de la perception de l’effort, de l’état émotionnel et de la motivation de l’individu. Lors d’une première étude, nous avons recherché à comparer les performances de solutions techniques pour le suivi de la température centrale en conditions écologiques (i.e. température gastro-intestinale vs. température frontale par capteur à annulation de flux). Les résultats obtenus ont validé l’usage du capteur à annulation de flux comme alternative pendant l’exercice, en dépit de l’absence de corrélation avec les mesures gastro-intestinales. Ceci suggère d’éventuelles perspectives en matière de contrôle de la température corporelle pendant l’exercice. La seconde étude s’est intéressée aux possibles conséquences de la répétition de sessions d’entraînement exigeantes et des contraintes logistiques d’un stage d’acclimatation (i.e. accumulation de fatigue mentale) sur la perception de l’effort et la performance. En dépit de l’absence d’effets combinés de la tâche cognitive préexercice et de la chaleur ambiante, les résultats tendent à démontrer le rôle-clé de la température cutanée et de la sensation de chaleur sous-jacente dans la régulation de la puissance soutenue à RPE-15 (chaud vs. tempéré : -0,022 vs. -0,008 W.kg-1.min-1). Enfin, la troisième étude suggère un potentiel intérêt de l’application de hautes intensités autorégulées, associée à une diminution du volume d’entraînement (-23%), lors d’une période d’acclimatation de courte durée (i.e. 5 jours). Le moindre effet observé, en comparaison d’un protocole à intensité fixe, sur la performance au cours d’un exercice de contre-la-montre (i.e. expérimental vs. fixe : 1,4 vs. 2,8 %) soulève toutefois l’importance du rapport volume-intensité dans la construction d’un protocole d’acclimatation. De manière générale, l’ensemble des résultats de cette thèse offrent des perspectives pour une individualisation et une adaptation spécifique à l’activité sportive des protocoles d’acclimatation à la chaleur.
... They are characterized by a marked nonlinear reduction in the training load during a various period of time before the competition (Mujika & Padilla, 2003). Yet, it has been highlighted that tapering training phase is one of the most insecure period for both athletes and coaches about the suitable training strategies, leading them to generally proceed by trial-and-error approach (Le Meur, Hausswirth, & Mujika, 2012). ...
... Then, the mastery of tapering may be considered the real art of coaching, and numerous researches have been conducted to better understand the athletes' states variations during these training periods (Coutts, Reaburn, Piva, & Murphy, 2007;Dupuy et al., 2012;Le Meur et al., 2012;Mujika, 2009). However, only few studies have addressed the psychological process which underlines tapering periods. ...
We examined whether perceived control predict recovery and stress states during an ecological tapering period of 2-weeks that led to the target competition of the year for 39 expert adolescent swimmers (13 women and 26 men; Mage = 17.56; SD = 2.09 years). Swimmers completed quantitative measures (RESTQ-36-R-Sport; Perceived control; A-SAGS) before (Pre_Tapering) and after (Post_Tapering) the tapering period in order to monitor their recovery and stress states, perceived control and goal attainment. Regression analyses integrated perceived control and goal attainment as explicative variables, and Pre_Tapering covariates were included to the model. One of the main finding of this study is that perceived control predict both recovery and stress states. Complementary, goal attainment was a mediator of both the perceived control-recovery and stress states relations and provides support to better understand the cognitive process that underlies recovery-stress balance during tapering periods.
... Stimulus pelatihan yang tidak memadai dapat mengakibatkan hilangnya sebagian kinerja adaptasi anatomi dan fisiologis yang dikenal sebagai detraining (Mujika & Padilla, 2000). Oleh karena itu, atlet dan pelatihnya harus menentukan sejauh mana beban pelatihan dapat dikurangi dengan cara mengorbankan komponen pelatihan sambil mempertahankan atau bahkan meningkatkan adaptasi (Le Meur et al., 2012). Setelah acara selesai dilaksanakan, selanjutnya dilakukan foto bersama antara peserta dengan pemateri. ...
Kegiatan pelatihan penyusunan program latihan fisik cabang olahraga bagi pelatih di Kabupaten Probolinggo ini bertujuan untuk membekali para pelatih cabang olahraga di Kabupaten Probolinggo dalam menyusun program latihan fisik untuk persiapan dalam menghadapi Pekan Olahraga Provinsi Jawa Timur (PORPROV) tahun 2023. Metode pelaksanaan berupa pelatihan secara luring dengan tahapan persiapan dan survey lokasi pelatihan, koordinasi dengan Koni Kabupaten Probolinggo, penyusunan rencana pelaksanaan kegiatan finalisasi dan koordinasi penyelenggaraan program, penyiapan dan penyediaan sarana dan prasarana dalam kegiatan pelatihan, pelaksaanaan kegiatan selama 2 hari dan rencana tindak lanjut. hasil evaluasi melalui kuesioner kepuasan peserta terhadap pelaksanaan kegiatan didapatkan hasil bahwa dari nilai maksimal 5, secara materi mendapatkan nilai 3,41, narasumber 4,03 dan fasilitas yang diberikan mendapat nilai 3,02. Output yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan ini adalah kemampuan pelatih dalam menyusun program latihan fisik dalam menyiapkan atletnya khususnya untuk Pekan Olahraga Provinsi (PORPROV) Jawa Timur 2023.
... Taurine seems to have 3 distinct effects on performance: small, medium, and large. It should be noted that even small improvements in performance in some sports can translate into significant differences in competitive results (43,50 Table 2 Characteristics of included studies related to anaerobic outputs (n 5 9) ...
Taurine is a well-known free amino acid that has gained prominence in recent years despite its little or no role in protein formation. Few studies on the ergogenic effect of taurine exist with inconsistent results. The answer to the question of whether performance markers demonstrate the benefit of taurine remains unclear. This study aimed to reach a consensus about whether taurine supplementation is effective on aerobic (time to exhaustion [TTE], maximal oxygen uptake [V̇O2max], and rating of perceived exertion) and anaerobic (power outputs, fatigue index, jumping, and blood lactate level) performance outputs. Google Scholar, PubMed databases, clinical trial websites, and gray literature were reviewed until November 2021. Mean differences (MDs) were pooled using random or fixed-effects models according to the heterogeneity degree of the related output. Although 18 studies were detected for the meta-analysis between 2001 and 2021, 16 studies were grouped. Only randomized controlled trials (single or double-blind) were considered. Taurine supplementation had a significant effect on vertical (MD = 3.60; 95% confidence interval [CI] [2.32 to 4.89], p = 0.00001) and countermovement (MD = 8.50; 95% CI [4.78 to 12.22], p = 0.00001) jump performance when compared with a placebo group. Taurine supplementation had no significant effect on the V̇O2max level and rate of perceived exertion (respectively, MD = 20.54 mL/kg/min; 95% CI [26.84 to 5.75], p = 0.87; MD = 20.24; 95% CI [20.74 to 0.27], p = 0.35) when compared with a placebo group. Overall, it looks to be effective for jumping performance and TTE. Taurine supplementation may be useful for people who want to improve these performance outputs.
... Taurine seems to have 3 distinct effects on performance: small, medium, and large. It should be noted that even small improvements in performance in some sports can translate into significant differences in competitive results (43,50 Table 2 Characteristics of included studies related to anaerobic outputs (n 5 9) ...
Background: Taurine is a well-known free amino acid that has gained prominence in recent years despite its little or no role in protein formation. Few studies on the ergogenic effect of taurine exist with inconsistent results. The question on whether performance markers show the benefit from the taurine remains open. This study aimed to reach a consensus about whether taurine supplementation is effective on aerobic (time to exhaustion, VO2max, and rating of perceived exertion) and anaerobic (jumping, blood lactate level) performance outputs.
Methods: Google Scholar, Pubmed databases, clinical trial websites, and grey literature were reviewed until November 2021. Mean differences (MDs) were pooled using random or fixed-effects models according to the heterogeneity degree of related outcomes. Although 17 studies were detected for the meta-analysis between 2001-2021, 15 studies were grouped. Only randomized controlled trials (single or double-blind) were considered.
Results: Taurine supplementation had a significant effect on vertical (MD =3.60; 95% CI 2.32 to 4.89, p <0.00001) and countermovement (MD = 8.50; 95% CI 4.78 to 12.22, p <0.00001) jump performance when compared to a placebo group. Taurine supplementation had no significant effect on VO2max level and rate of perceived exertion (respectively, MD = −0.54 ml/kg/min; 95% CI −6.84 to 5.75, p=0.87; MD = −0.24; 95% CI −0.74 to 0.27, p=0.35) when compared to a placebo group.
Conclusion: Taurine improves potentially jumping performance and time to exhaustion.
... Mood refers to the set of positive and negative feelings that vary in intensity and duration [11], such as depression, tension, anger, fatigue, confusion, and vigor. Studies have shown a positive relationship between mood state and the "iceberg" profile (increased stamina and reduced other feelings) and sports performance [12][13][14]. According to Rouveix et al. [15], mood status can be changed due to alterations in body composition. ...
(1) Background: Psychological parameters are relevant in the practice of judo. Previous studies have shown that parameters such as anxiety or motivation can have a negative or positive impact on the athlete’s performance and general well-being, depending on the athlete’s perception. This systematic review aimed to summarize the studies examining the influence of various psycho- logical parameters on well-being and performance in judo athletes; (2) Methods: We followed pre- ferred reporting elements for systematic reviews and meta-analyses. We searched the Web of Sci- ence database for studies that explained the role of these parameters in elite athletes. Of the 286 articles initially identified, 17 met our eligibility criteria and were included in the review. In total, we analyzed data from 721 judo athletes; (3) Results: The studies found have demonstrated the impact of various psychological parameters during high-level performance and how these param- eters can influence and lead an athlete to win or lose a competition. The feelings of tension, anger, anxiety, and nervousness were significantly increased in athletes who were facing defeat, while a decrease in the same segments and an increase in motivation among athletes who were experiencing better performance was observed. Further research under standardized conditions is needed to bet- ter understand the effects of these parameters on judo athletes; (4) Conclusions: Considering the athlete’s psychological state can affect performance, and it is therefore important to monitor and train these factors.
... Several individual and running-associated variables (e.g., age, sex, motivation, environment, race distance, nutrition, preparation phases, competition level) have been shown to affect runners' training patterns [30][31][32]. To improve running adaptations and performance, it is recommended to plan and conduct training with great precision over different loading phases (including high volume, high intensity, and workout diversity) [33]. Public beliefs indicate that preparation for an endurance event requires long endurance runs performed within the pre-competition days/weeks in order to reach a high workload [32,34]. ...
Accompanied by the growing popularity of distance running, the prevalence of vegan and vegetarian diets in endurance runners has increased across the globe and especially in German-speaking (D-A-CH: Germany, Austria, Switzerland) countries. The present study aimed to investigate and compare the epidemiological characteristics associated with diet types and running behaviors of recreational endurance runners. From a total number of 7422 runners who started to fill in the online survey, 3835 runners completed the questionnaire. After data clearance, 2455 distance runners (mean age: 37 years; 56% females, 44% males) were selected as the final sample and classified as 1162 omnivores (47.4%), 529 vegetarians (21.5%), and 764 vegans (31.1%). Sociodemographic information and general characteristics in training and competition were evaluated using a questionnaire-based approach. A significant association was found between diet type and race distance (p < 0.001). In females, vegan ultra-marathoners and omnivorous half-marathoners had better individual running records among dietary groups. Sex differences in running performance had a minimizing trend with increasing race distance. Most runners reported independent race preparation (90%) over less than four months (73%). From an epidemiological viewpoint, the present findings suggest a central role of plant-based diets in running performance and behaviors among active distance runners in D-A-CH countries and that vegetarian and vegan diets are compatible with competitive running.
... Concerning the pre and post-anaerobic fatigue test, at t-1, both sexes followed a similar pattern in terms of anaerobic power records compared to the muscle fatigue test. In t-1, the different powers decrease compared to t-0, to then increase progressively to t-4, which would be explained by the training and progressive tapering of sports planning (Le Meur et al., 2012;Vachon et al., 2021). Before the anaerobic test, the difference in the autonomic parameters between the groups decreased progressively until t-3, where the frequency domain values are practically unified. ...
Objective: To study the differences in cardiac autonomic modulation in response to muscle fatigue caused by high-intensity exercise during two consecutive competition periods in young swimmers.
Methods: Twenty-six competitive swimmers, selected by their training volume, were separated in two groups, females ( n = 12 [46%], age: 13.5 ± 1.4 years) and males ( n = 14 [54%], age: 13.9 ± 1.7 years), aged between 10 and 16 years, were evaluated five times as follow: (i) 21 days before the first competition (t-0); (ii) two days before (t-1; t-3); and (iii) two days after (t-2; t-4) of the first and second competitions. Morphological measurements (body mass, percentage of total body fat and height), blood pressure, power, and resting heart rate variability (RR with Polar band) were recorded before and after Wingate test at each time.
Results: Body fat was higher in females compared to males. However, no differences were found in other morphological parameters. An intra-subject analysis grouped by sex in cardiovascular parameters shows longitudinal variations in systolic pressure and mean pressure among females. Additionally, females depicted higher, very low frequency (VLF, which is intrinsically generated by the heart and strongly associated with emotional stress) after physical fatigue compared to males at t-1. Further, before the competition, the high frequency (HF) component of HRV (parasympathetic drive) was higher in males than females at t-0 and t-4.
Conclusion: Our data revealed that males displayed greater parasympathetic reactivity after an anaerobic muscle fatigue test during their competition periods. Contrarily, females had a less cardiac autonomic modulation when comparing the pre-post Wingate test after two consecutive competition periods.
... Por exemplo, se normalmente se treina jogos reduzidos 3 versus 3 em quadra inteira, durante 5 minutos, a uma intensidade de 80% a 90% da frequência cardíaca máxima. No período de tapering, pode-se executar os jogos reduzidos 3 versus 3 em quadra inteira ou quadra reduzida, com duração inferior a 5 minutos (entre 2 a 3 minutos) e, mantendo a intensidade de 80% a 90% da frequência cardíaca máxima.Estratégias regenerativas também auxiliam na etapa de tapering, como a liberação miofascial, a massagem, a crioterapia, a terapia de contraste, hidratação, suplementação alimentar, entre outros recursos (LeMeur et al, 2012;Pritchard et al, 2016;Grgic & Mikulic, ...
RESUMO Os programas de treinamento físico específicos direcionados aos jogadores de basquete precisam ser devidamente organizados e efetivos, para provocar as adaptações fisiológicas desejadas e, por conseguinte, aprimorar o desempenho. O tapering surge como uma estratégia pedagógica bem documentada na literatura científica, que auxilia os preparadores físicos a otimizar o rendimento em momentos-chave da competição. Todavia, para se obter os benefícios do tapering é necessário saber manipular com proeficiência variáveis como o volume, intensidade, frequência e\ou duração das cargas. Soma-se a isto, o controle sistemático da carga externa e interna contribuem para entender a direção do programa de treinamento, conseguindo identificar os elementos estressores e a capacidade de recuperação dos jogadores. No basquete, as pesquisas sobre o emprego do tapering demonstram resultados positivos no desempenho em diferentes formatos de intervenção. Nesta revisão de literatura foi possível constatar que o gerenciamento da fadiga durante o período de intensificação das cargas e, aumento da prontidão dos jogadores na etapa de tapering, é uma tarefa complexa.
... Therefore, the small differences in the number of omnivores versus vegetarians and vegans (13% vs. 9% and 8%) training under supervision are not robust to further interpretations, and even more so while no difference between dietary groups were detected for the type of training supervision (performance assessment, trainer, sports scientist, or doctor specialized in sports medicine) in the present study. As a pivotal indicator for optimizing adaptations and improving running performance, training should be planned and conducted with great precision in different phases of overload (e.g., high volumes, great intensity, and diversity of workouts) [42]. Preparation for an endurance event with a high training volume and long endurance runs has been associated with improved performance and faster race times [43,44]. ...
As a key modulator of training adaptations and racing performance, nutrition plays a critical role in endurance runners’ success, and the training/racing behaviors of runners are potentially affected by their diet types. The present study aimed to investigate whether distance runners with a vegan diet (i.e., devoid of foods or ingredients from animal sources), vegetarian diet (i.e., devoid of meat and flesh foods), and omnivorous diet (i.e., a mixed diet with no restriction on food sources) have different training and racing patterns in general and based on race distance subgroups. A total of 3835 recreational runners completed an online survey. Runners were assigned to dietary (om-nivorous, vegetarian, and vegan) and race distance (<21 km, half-marathon, and mara-thon/ultra-marathon) groups. In addition to sociodemographic information, a complete profile of data sets focusing on running and racing behaviors/patterns was evaluated using a question-naire-based epidemiological approach. There were 1272 omnivores (47% females), 598 vegetarians (64% females), and 994 vegans (65% females). Compared to vegans and vegetarians, omnivorous runners prepared for a longer time period for running events, had a higher number of half-marathons and marathons completed with a better finish time, and had more reliance on training under supervision (p < 0.05). The present findings indicate an important association of diet types with patterns of training and racing amongst endurance runners that may be related to different motives of omnivorous, vegetarian, and vegan runners for participating in events.
... The concept of long-term fatigue accumulation has appeared repeatedly in the literature without clear elucidation of what is accumulating and how/why this is occurring [13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. Fatigue accumulation refers to the fatigue that summates over repeated bouts of training that is believed to be additive to pre-existing fatigue. ...
It has been suggested that improper post-exercise recovery or improper sequence of training may result in an ‘accumulation’ of fatigue. Despite this suggestion, there is a lack of clarity regarding which physiological mechanisms may be proposed to contribute to fatigue accumulation. The present paper explores the time course of the changes in various fatigue-related measures in order to understand how they may accumulate or lessen over time following an exercise bout or in the context of an exercise program. Regarding peripheral fatigue, the depletion of energy substrates and accumulation of metabolic byproducts has been demonstrated to occur following an acute bout of resistance training; however, peripheral accumulation and depletion appear unlikely candidates to accumulate over time. A number of mechanisms may contribute to the development of central fatigue, postulating the need for prolonged periods of recovery; however, a time course is difficult to determine and is dependent on which measurement is examined. In addition, it has not been demonstrated that central fatigue measures accumulate over time. A potential candidate that may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue is muscle damage, which shares similar characteristics (i.e., prolonged strength loss). Due to the delayed appearance of muscle damage, it may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue. Overall, evidence for the presence of fatigue accumulation with resistance training is equivocal, making it difficult to draw the conclusion that fatigue accumulates. Considerable work remains as to whether fatigue can accumulate over time. Future studies are warranted to elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the concept of fatigue accumulation.
... The taper refers to a gradual reduction in training load for athletes in the days or weeks before a competitive event (Houmard, 1991;Banister et al., 1999;Mujika and Padilla, 2003;Wilson and Wilson, 2008;Mujika, 2009;Le Meur et al., 2012). Its main aim is to help maximize the physiological adaptations that arise from training by providing athletes with an opportunity to recover from the considerable fatigue that accumulates during training. ...
For marathoners the taper refers to a period of reduced training load in the weeks before race-day. It helps runners to recover from the stresses of weeks of high-volume, high-intensity training to enhance race-day performance. The aim of this study was to analyse the taper strategies of recreational runners to determine whether particular forms of taper were more or less favorable to race-day performance.
Methods: We analyzed the training activities of more than 158,000 recreational marathon runners to define tapers based on a decrease in training volume (weekly distance). We identified different types of taper based on a combination of duration (1–4 weeks of decreasing training) and discipline (strict tapers progressively decrease training in the weeks before the marathon, relaxed tapers do not) and we grouped runners based on their taper type to determine the popularity of different types of taper and their associated performance characteristics.
Results: Kruskal-Wallis tests (H(7)≥ 521.11, p < 0.001), followed by posthoc Dunns tests with a Bonferroni correction, confirmed that strict tapers were associated with better marathon performance than relaxed tapers ( p < 0.001) and that longer tapers of up to 3 weeks were associated with better performance than shorter tapers ( p < 0.001). Results indicated that strict 3-week tapers were associated with superior marathon finish-time benefits (a median finish-time saving of 5 min 32.4 s or 2.6%) compared with a minimal taper ( p < 0.001). We further found that female runners were associated with greater finish-time benefits than men, for a given taper type ( ≤ 3-weeks in duration), based on Mann Whitney U tests of significance with p < 0.001.
Conclusion: The findings of this study for recreational runners are consistent with related studies on highly-trained athletes, where disciplined tapers were associated with comparable performance benefits. The findings also highlight how most recreational runners (64%) adopt less disciplined (2-week and 3-week) tapers and suggest that shifting to a more disciplined taper strategy could improve performance relative to the benefits of a less disciplined taper.
... The adaptable nature of virtual cycling platforms allows preparation for many different kinds of competitions, decreasing the need for athletes and coaches to travel to different training venues, thereby avoiding jetlag and fatigue (Fowler et al., 2017), reducing the time lost to periodization and tapering, and costs normally associated with travel (Le Meur et al., 2012). In addition, coaching staff can assist athletes remotely, regardless of location or time zones. ...
Virtual online training has emerged as one of the top 20 worldwide fitness trends for 2021 and continues to develop rapidly. Although this allows the cycling community to engage in virtual training and competition, critical evaluation of virtual training platforms is limited. Here, we discuss the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats associated with virtual training technology and cycling in an attempt to enhance awareness of such aspects. Strengths include immersive worlds, innovative drafting mechanics, and versatility. Weaknesses include questionable data accuracy, inadequate strength and reliability of power-speed algorithms. Opportunities exist for expanding strategic partnerships with major cycling races, brands, and sponsors and improving user experience with the addition of video capture and “e-coaching.” Threats are present in the form of cheating during competition, and a lack of uptake and acceptance by a broader community.
... Finally, it must be noted that, although significant, only small effects were observed in favour of alternative set structures over TS for inducing greater velocity and power adaptations. Nevertheless, even small improvements in performance in some sports may translate to meaningful differences in competitive outcomes [105,106]. ...
Background
The acute effects of resistance training (RT) set structure alteration are well established; however, less is known about their effects on chronic training adaptations.Objective
The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to synthesise the available evidence on the effectiveness of traditional (TS), cluster (CS) and rest redistribution (RR) set structures in promoting chronic RT adaptations, and provide an overview of the factors which might differentially influence the magnitude of specific training adaptations between set structure types.Methods
This review was performed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines encompassing the literature search of five databases. Studies in English that compared muscular strength, endurance, and/or hypertrophy adaptations, as well as vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts in the slopes of force–velocity profiles between TS and CS or RR set structures (i.e., alternative set structures) were included. Risk of bias assessment was performed using a modified Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were performed where possible.Results17 studies met the inclusion criteria, none had more than one risk of bias item assessed as high risk. Pooled results revealed that none of the set structures were more effective at inducing strength (standardised mean difference (SMD) = − 0.06) or hypertrophy (SMD = − 0.03). TS were more effective at improving muscular endurance compared to alternative set structures (SMD = − 0.38), whereas alternative set structures tended to be more effective for vertical jump performance gains (SMD = 0.13), but this effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.190). Greater velocity and power outputs at submaximal loads (SMD = 0.18) were observed when using alternative set structures compared to TS. In addition, alternative set structures promoted greater shifts of the slope of force–velocity profiles towards more velocity dominant profiles compared to TS (SMD = 0.28). Sub-group analyses controlling for each alternative set structure independently showed mixed results likely caused by the relatively small number of studies available for some outcomes.Conclusion
Modifying TS to an alternative set structure (CS or RR) has a negligible impact on strength and hypertrophy. Using CS and RR can lead to greater vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts to more velocity dominant force–velocity profiles compared to training using TS. However, TS may provide more favourable effects on muscle endurance when compared to CS and RR. These findings demonstrate that altering TS to alternative set structures may influence the magnitude of specific muscular adaptations indicating set structure manipulation is an important consideration for RT program design.Protocol registrationThe original protocol was prospectively registered (CRD42019138954) with the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews).
... The primary goal of athletes and coaches being to improve performance in competition, the way to achieve this is through overcompensation caused by load [17]. For this effect to succeed, the training must be planned with great precision to involve phases of overload (e.g., high volumes, great intensity, and diversity of exercises) [18]. A tapering phase-marked by a reduction in load volume, but with sustained frequency and intensity-is used in many sports to incorporate more specific exercises [17,19]. ...
Endurance sports like trail running constitute an extensive individual modality causing numerous physiological changes to occur in the athlete. In this sense, an adequate monitoring of training load appears to be essential to improve competition performance. The aim of this study was twofold: (i) to analyze trail runners' weekly load variations in the four weeks leading up to a trail running competition, and (ii) to determine the relationship between the runners' pacing in competitions and their physical fitness and workload parameters. Twenty-five amateur male trail runners (age: 36.23 ± 8.30 years old; minimum International Trail Running Association performance index: 600) were monitored daily for the duration of a season (52 weeks). External load (distance covered, pace) and internal load (rate of perceived exertion) were measured daily. Additionally, weekly workload measures of acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR), training monotony, and training strain were calculated. The runners were also assessed for maximal aerobic speed (MAS) every four months. No significant differences in workload measures (p > 0.05) were observed in the four weeks leading up to each short trail competition; however, leading up to the long trail, ultra-trail medium, and ultra-trail long/extra-long competitions, the differences in the runners' workload measures were significant (p < 0.05). In the short trail, pace was found to be moderately correlated with the ACWR of total distance (r = −0.334) and with training monotony of rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (r = −0.303). In the ultra-trail, a large correlation was observed between pace and elevation accumulated (r = 0.677). We concluded that significant workload differences from one week to the next only occurred in preparation for longer-distance competitions, with sudden acute load decreases and very low ACWR values reported mainly in weeks 1 and 2 of the taper. Meaningful relationships were found between performance (pace) and MAS for longer trails and between pace and MAS for ultra-trail competitions.
... However, the MAPT must be assessed in every game because it may be different across games, as it can be affected by the substitutions. These considerations should be taken into account in order to improve coaching interventions in water polo (Burke and Mujika, 2014;Le Meur et al., 2012). ...
In water polo competitions, teams play four periods, each period consisting of eight minutes of actual playing time: a total of 32 minutes (Standard Actual Play Time, SAPT). Substitutions are permitted and a player may be substituted several times. The aim of this article was to provide reference data on played time, taking into consideration the field play position of the players. 352 male water polo players of 18 different nationalities were studied during two consecutive FINA World Championships. 180 games were analyzed and 1980 measurements of the game Measured Actual Play Time (MAPT) were taken. A time density index (DI) was calculated for each athlete using SAPT and MAPT. No statistically significant differences between the field positions were found with regard to age, as was the case in relation to teams between Game MAPT, Tournament MAPT and DI. However, when looking at the diverse field positions (field players, FP; center forward, CF; center back, CB), there were statistically significant differences: Game MAPT FPvsCB p = 0.03 and FPvsCF p = 0.03; Tournament MAPT FPvsCB p = 0.03; DI FPvsCB p = 0.03 and FPvsCF p = 0.04. In these competitions the water polo player had on average a MAPT value of 17.4 ± 6.1 min (54.6 ± 9.5% DI); there were athletes who played 2.3 min (7.1% DI) and others who played up to 31.6 min (95.3% DI). The MAPT in water polo is extremely variable among athletes and must be considered for a correct performance analysis. High-level water polo players require different training strategies depending on their MAPT.
... It aims to allow athletes to recover from the fatigue of training, so that performance can be maximised at a specific time point. 5 While there has been considerable research into tapering for endurance sports, 6 and more recently investigations into strength sports, 7 there has been little investigations into how best to taper for individual sports like CrossFit that involve considerable concurrent training and only a few major competitions each year. 8,9 It has been suggested that experienced endurance athletes should reduce training volume by >50%, for at least one week (up to one month) before major competitions, while intensity should be maintained or slightly increased. ...
This is the first study to document the training and tapering practices of elite CrossFit athletes. Seventy-two CrossFit athletes (39 females, 33 males) (mean ±SD; 26.5 ± 3.6 y, 167.1 ± 9.5 cm, 74.5 ± 12.7 kg, 12.8 ± 6.5 y general training, 5.4 ± 1.7 y CrossFit training) who competed at the “Regionals” level or higher in the 2018 CrossFit Games season completed a self-reported 5-page online survey. Almost all athletes (98.6%) tapered before important competitions. Taper length was 5.4 ± 2.7 days, with the step and linear tapering styles being most commonly utilised. Strength training volume peaked 5.1 ± 4.6 weeks before competition, whereas conditioning training volume peaked 4.0 ± 4.4 weeks before competition. Strength training intensity peaked 3.1 ± 2.4 weeks before competition, whereas conditioning training intensity peaked 2.8 ± 2.2 weeks before competition. Almost all athletes (90.0%) reduced training duration during tapering, but changes to frequency and intensity were mixed. Training volume decreased by 41.2 ± 15.5% during the taper, all training ceased 2.0 ± 1.1 days before competition. Tapering was performed to achieve peak performance, recover (physically and psychologically), and reduce feelings of fatigue. Poor results from tapering were experienced when athletes tapered for too long or insufficiently. This observational data may be valuable for coaches and athletes engaged in CrossFit as well as other sports with concurrent training and competition demands.
... This research finding and justification was supported by, research reports from Beedie et al., (2), they stated as mood profiles are more sensitive to changes in the training load. As the training load especially the volume reduced during the periods prior to a major competition, athletes get some sort of psychological relief from the long exhaustive fatigue causing preparation training and facilitates extra adaptation process in the body physiology which initiates super compensation (26,27 ). Even though; insignificant difference was observed between interventions groups, a trend towards higher increment in mean score were observed in the physiological traits of RBC count and Hgb concentration in the HILV taper group than the HIMV taper group. ...
Objective- The researchers aimed to investigate the effect of high intensity low volume and high intensity moderate volume tapering strategies on psychological traits in endurance athletes.
Methodology- Thirty-seven young endurance athletes (mean age: 20±1.97 years; mean training period: 2.43±0.603 years) were randomly assigned to high intensity low-volume (HILV) and high-intensity moderate volume (HIMV) taper groups. Training frequencies were five times per week conducted for 2 weeks in both groups. At baseline and after 2 weeks of the taper intervention, psychological (TMD; characterized by the aggression, depression, tension, fatigue, confusion and vigor sub states) were measured by using self administer profiles of mood state (POMS) questionnaires.
Result- We investigated the effect of the HILV and HIMV taper training on the mood disturbance of endurance athletes and positive psychological traits changes were observed in both HILV and HIMV taper groups regardless of the differences in volume reductions during the two-week taper period. Comparisons of the strategies did not reveal significant differences between the taper groups. In addition, finding from multiple regression models emphasizing on the prediction power of the tapering training strategies on the mood disturbance revealed that HILV taper could predicting the TMD in endurance athletes.
Conclusion- Both taper strategies characterized by HILV and HIMV training load have beneficial effects on the improvement of endurance related psychological traits.
... Therefore, load reduction near the end of the week (known as tapering) is considered a normal adaptation in team sports with a long competitive season [45][46][47]. In fact, load reduction is used to reduce the psychophysiological stress caused by training loads [48] through volume reduction. However, intensity maintenance, increases athletes' performance [45][46][47]. ...
The purpose of this study was twofold: (i) characterize the external and internal training load of professional volleyball players with a focus on intra-week changes and (ii) test the relationships between internal and external load measures. Eight male professional players (age: 23.0±5.22 yo; body mass: 84.5 ± 7.58 kg; height: 193.0±9.71 cm; BMI: 22.0±0.02 kg/m2) were monitored daily over 15 weeks. The monitoring process included both internal (rate of perceived exertion [RPE] and session-RPE [s-RPE]) and external load variables, which were measured by an inertial measurement unit. Results revealed that, within-week variations revealed that RPE was significantly higher during MD-2 (d=0.59) and MD-3 (d=0.56) than MD-1. A significantly higher number of jumps was observed on MD-2 than MD-1 (d=0.69). Considering the relationships between internal and external load measures, small positive correlations were found between RPE and the number of jumps (r=0.17) and between s-RPE and the number of jumps (r=0.49). In conclusion, a tapering strategy was observed on the day before a match, as internal and external loads decreased. Both internal and external load measures are necessary to provide an accurate perception of the impact of training stimuli on players.
... 1 Moreover, it has been recognised that winning gold medals at championship events requires not only outstanding athletic ability and the effective implementation of long-term training progressions, 1,2 but also the ability to be able to produce optimal performance at a pre-determined competition. 1,[3][4][5][6] An effective planning process facilitates the execution of optimum athlete performances in the designated competition. Periodisation has emerged as an important part of the planning process in aiding a coach's attempt to optimise their athlete's performance in the competition phase. ...
This study analysed the contemporary performance data of middle-distance athletes to determine (a) the number of competitive performances prior to the season’s fastest performance and (b) the time frame between their first and fastest competitive performances of that season. Using a publicly available database, data on the number of races and days between athletes first and fastest races were extracted. The analysis utilised 4800 observations from 1166 individual athletes for the period 2006–2017. Male 800 m athletes achieved their fastest performance in eight races (IQR = 4–12) distributed over 55 days (IQR = 29–87). Female 800 m athletes also required eight races (IQR = 5–12), distributed over 63 days (IQR = 34–91). In the 1500 m event, male athletes, required six races (IQR = 3–9) over 48 days (IQR = 25–76), while female athletes, required seven races (IQR = 4–10) over 56 days (IQR = 28–84). For both sexes, 1500 m athletes raced less and over a shorter period than 800 m athletes before reaching their fastest performance. Female athletes had a longer time frame and number of races than male athletes. This study provides an evidence-based indicator of when a middle-distance runner’s fastest performance is likely to occur, providing benchmarks that could act as a guide for coaches when designing competition programmes, prior to any tapering process.
... Yet the minimal and maximal measured HR values showed no difference, and these undervalued data are still reliable markers in detecting overtraining risks [1]. Therefore, differences in mean HR could lead to errors in the computation of training load, as athletes and coaches collect and analyze these valuable data to assess fitness peaks and tapering periods [36]. Indeed, according to the HR data, the TRIMP values extrapolated from the OH1 device were lower than those of the criterion (▶ table 2), except for walking and soccer, but the difference remained small, from 3 % for kayaking to 0.7 % for cycling. ...
This study assessed the validity of a photoplethysmographic heart rate (HR) monitor, the Polar OH1 in various sports performed in ecological conditions: running, cycling, soccer, kayaking, walking, tennis and fitness. Seventy trained athletes (56 males, 14 females) wore the Polar OH1 armband and the H7 chest belt during training. A total of 390 h and 38 min of recording were compared using a 20-bpm window to assess data quality, and Bland-Altman agreements and ICC analyses were used to test accuracy. Linear regression analyses evaluated the HR accuracy and correlation with skin tone. Training loads (TRIMPs) were compared for each session. Reliability was high for endurance sports (>99%) and lower for sports involving arm movements (92~95%). Biases were slightly negative for all sports, whereas widths of limits of agreement varied from 7–20bpm. Bland-Altman agreements were all under 5% except tennis, kayak and fitness. HR accuracy was positively correlated to skin tone (p<0.05). Finally, TRIMPs from the OH1 device were inferior to criterion’s (except walking and soccer), within a 3% range from reference. Hence, OH1 represents a valid tool to monitor instantaneous HR and training load, especially for endurance sports.
... The primary objective of a taper is to minimize fatigue from training, allowing for expression of improved fitness, in order to maximise performance at a specific time point 1,2 . ...
Purpose:
To investigate the effects of strength training tapers of different intensities, but equal volume reductions, on neuromuscular performance.
Methods:
Eleven strength-trained males (21.3±3.3 years, 92.3±17.6 kg, relative 1RM deadlift 1.9±0.2 times bodyweight) completed a crossover study. Specifically, two four-week strength training blocks were followed by a taper week with reduced volume (~70%) involving either an increased (5.9%) or decreased (-8.5%) intensity. Testing occurred pre-training (T1), post-training (T2), and post-taper (T3). Salivary testosterone and cortisol, plasma creatine kinase, a daily analysis of life demands in athletes questionnaire, countermovement jump (CMJ), isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and bench press (IBP) were measured.
Results:
CMJ height improved significantly over time (p<0.001), with significant increases from T1 (38.0±5.5 cm) to both T2 (39.3±5.3 cm; p=0.010) and T3 (40.0±5.3 cm; p=0.001), and from T2 to T3 (p=0.002). CMJ flight-time: contraction-time increased significantly over time (p=0.004), with significant increases from T1 (0.747±0.162) to T2 (0.791±0.163; p=0.012). IMTP relative peak force improved significantly over time (p=0.033), with significant increases from T1 (34.7±5.0 N/kg) to T2 (35.9±4.8 N/kg; p=0.013). No significant changes were found between tapers. However, the higher intensity taper produced small ES increases at T3 vs. T1 for IMTP relative peak force, CMJ height and flight-time: contraction-time, while the lower intensity taper only produced small ES improvements at T3 vs. T1 for CMJ height.
Conclusions:
A strength training taper with volume reductions had a positive effect on power, with a tendency for the higher intensity taper to produce more favourable changes in strength and power.
... Data from the session-RPE and the Hooper Index allow us to monitor the relationship between training load and players' well-being in the preparatory weeks. The competitive weeks presented a different structure due to the fact that their goal is to prepare athletes for competition (Le Meur, Hausswirth, & Mujika, 2012). In regular weeks, the training load was the highest at the being of the week, was maintained throughout the week, and decreased at the end of the week. ...
The study aimed to assess the changes in the perceived internal load and wellness status of volleyball players in preparatory, regular (i.e. uncongested), and congested weeks during a full season. Thirteen elite volleyball players were studied (237 training sessions and 37 official matches). Session-RPE, muscle soreness, stress, fatigue, sleep quality, and the Hooper Index were measured daily using questionnaires. Training sessions were classified based on the number of matches per week and the days before or after a match: preparatory (no match), regular (one match), and congested weeks (two or more matches). Pairwise comparisons found significantly greater session-RPE scores (p < 0.05) one day before the match (304.74 A.U.), in regular weeks than in congested weeks (204.40 A.U.). Matches during the congested weeks (364.71 A.U.) had significantly higher session-RPE scores (p < 0.05) than regular weeks (252.97 A.U.). Three days before the match involved significantly higher values of muscle soreness, fatigue, stress, and sleep quality than regular weeks. Match accumulation increased the session-RPE training load of the matches. This study provides insights into the training load and well-being status before competition, for training the day of competition, and after the competition.
... Further investigations involving a greater methodological approach are necessary to confidently determine the effects of a POL training model on endurance performance. As athletes prepare for competition, they tend to increase their total workload by manipulating both training duration and intensity (23). As such, future inquiries should address how training-intensity distribution before the taper period can influence event performance during a racing season. ...
The objective of this review was to systematically search the literature to identify and analyze data from randomized controlled trials that compare the effects of a polarized training model (POL) versus a threshold training model (THR) on measurements of sport performance in endurance athletes. This systematic review and meta-analysis is registered with PROSPERO (CRD42016050942). The literature search was performed on November 6, 2016 and included SPORTDiscus (1800 – present), CINAHL Complete (1981 – present) and Medline with Full Text (1946 – present). Studies were selected if they included: random allocation, endurance-trained athletes with greater than 2 years of training experience and VO2max/peak > 50 mLkgmin-1, a POL group, a THR group, assessed either internal (e.g. VO2max) or external (e.g. time trial) measurements of endurance sport performance. The databases SPORTDiscus, Medline and CINAHL yielded a combined 329 results. Four studies met the inclusion criteria for the qualitative analysis, and three for the meta-analysis. Two of the four studies included in the review scored a 4/10 on the PEDro Scale and two scored a 5/10. With respect to outcome measurements, three studies included time trial performance, three included VO2max or VO2peak, two studies measured time-to-exhaustion, and one study included exercise economy. There was sufficient data to conduct a meta-analysis on time trial performance. The pooled results demonstrate a moderate effect (ES = -0.66; 95% CI: -1.17 to -0.15) favoring the POL group over the THR group. These results suggest that POL may lead to a greater improvement in endurance sport performance than THR.
During the Cybathlon Global Edition 2020, athletes compete in a Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) bike race. In this event, athletes with a spinal cord injury cover a distance of 1200 m on an adapted bike by using electrostimulation to activate their leg muscles in order to evoke a pedalling movement. This report reviews the training regimen, as designed by the PULSE Racing team, and the experience of one athlete in preparation for the Cybathlon Global Edition 2020. The training plan was designed to vary exercise modes in order to optimize physiological adaptations and minimize monotony for the athlete. Additional constraints due to coronavirus pandemic, e.g., postponement of the Cybathon Global Edition and modification from a live cycling track to a virtual stationary race, along with the health concerns of the athlete, e.g. unwanted effects from the FES and bladder infection, required creativity to ensure an effective and safe training protocol. The individual needs of the athlete and task requirements for the FES bike race made the design of a suitable training programme challenging, emphasizing the importance of monitoring. Several objective and subjective measures to assess the athlete’s health and progress are presented, all with their own advantages and disadvantages. Despite these limitations, the athlete achieved a gold medal in the FES bike race Cybathlon Global Edition 2020 through discipline, team collaboration and the athlete’s own motivation.
A aplicação de uma adequada carga de treinamento é um dos fatores fundamentais para proporcionar adaptações positivas com consequente melhora do desempenho. O método da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) da sessão tem sido proposto como uma das melhores alternativas para quantificar a carga de treinamento, principalmente pela sua fácil compreensão e a pela sua relativa simplicidade. O objetivo do presente estudo de caso foi quantificar a magnitude da carga de treinamento através da PSE da sessão em dois atletas de CrossFit® e comparar a carga de treinamento com outras modalidades esportivas. A carga de treinamento média durante as 11 semanas foi 173,5 UA (unidade arbitrárias) para o sujeito A e 190,6 UA para o sujeito B. Após á análise de diversos estudos que avaliaram a CT média pelo método de PSE da sessão, todos os esportes apresentaram scores de PSE da sessão maiores do que os observados no treino de CrossFit® utilizado no presente estudo. Em conclusão, os resultados apresentados sugerem que o método da PSE da sessão é uma importante ferramenta que pode ser usada para controlar a carga de treinamento e possivelmente evitar o overreaching não funcional e o overtraining.
O objetivo da pesquisa foi analisar o efeito do treinamento mental sobre o desempenho de jovens nadadores. A amostra foi composta por 35 nadadores com idade entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos aleatoriamente em dois grupos: experimental (GE, n = 17) e controle (GC, n = 18). O estudo teve duração de 8 semanas. Ambos os grupos fizeram a mesma planificação de treinamento físico/técnico. O GC assistiu vídeos de propagandas, ao passo que o GE realizou o treinamento mental. Foram realizadas 3 sessões semanais de treinamento mental intercaladas com o período de 48 horas. Utilizou-se o melhor tempo em segundos para determinar o desempenho nas provas de 100m e 200m livre. A maturação biológica foi avaliada por intermédio da maturação somática. Conduziu-se a análise multivariada de covariância (MANOVA) de medidas repetidas para comparar o desempenho nas provas de 100m e 200m livre entre os grupos (GE e GC) em função da fase da investigação (pré e pós-teste). Os resultados apresentaram efeitos de tempo (F(2, 33) = 32,65, p = 0,01) e grupo (F(2, 33) = 57,31, p = 0,001). Foi identificada diferença significante do desempenho nos 100m livre (F(2, 33) = 33,70, p = 0,01, d = 0,5) e 200m livre (F(2, 33) = 37,09, p = 0,01, d = 0,5) entre GE e GC após as 8 semanas. Os achados apontaram relação da maturação somática com o desempenho nos 100m (F(1, 34) = 43,55, p = 0,01) e 200m livre (F(1, 34) = 34,82, p = 0,01). Concluiu-se que o treinamento mental foi eficiente para maximizar o desempenho nas provas de 100m e 200m livre de jovens atletas de natação.
Background:
We examined changes in autonomic nervous system function, anaerobic power, and fatigue over two days of simulated CrossFit competition in CrossFit athletes. In addition, we determined the relationship between these internal training load variables and variables characterizing two weeks of tapering preceding the competition.
Methods:
In total, 21 participants (Intervention group, n=10, INT; Control group, n=11, CON) completed the assessments. INT performed the assessments at baseline (pre-Day 1), during the competition (post-Day 1 and pre-Day 2), and after the competition (post-Day 2), while CON performed only the baseline assessments.
Results:
Autonomic nervous system function, anaerobic power, and fatigue did not differ between the beginning of Day 1 and Day 2. Autonomic nervous system function was impaired at the end of each day. Anaerobic power and fatigue did not change during either day.
Conclusions:
Finally, the two training weeks preceding the two days of simulated competition were related to anaerobic power but not autonomic nervous system function or fatigue. CrossFit coaches and athletes should be aware of the limited effects of step taper on heart rate variability and fatigue.
Previous studies on periodization have led to the view that most athletes fail to peak at major events. These conclusions might be based on definitions of “peak performance” that are too narrow. In this study, a track and field athlete was defined as succeeding in a competition if their outcome was within the acceptable range from the best result of the season. The data are from seven championship finals and semifinals together with 42 Diamond League competitions from the 2010s, altogether 7,087 individual results. All field events and running events up to 400 m were included. The majority of athletes succeeded in major events (67.0% in sprint and 57.5% in field events). Overall, championship finals elicit success rates that are more than 70% higher than the basic level achieved in Diamond League competitions (p < 0.001). Success rates were systematically higher (over 60% higher) for the top three versus other competitors in every race (p < 0.001). When an acceptable range is adopted for the definition of what a successful result is, the majority of athletes manage to peak at the most important competitions. In addition, finishing in the top three in championship finals typically requires a peak performance.
Physiatrists are uniquely qualified to serve as sports medicine physicians and care for the recreational and competitive athlete as well as those who exercise for health-related benefits. Physiatrists are trained extensively in musculoskeletal medicine and injury, functional rehabilitation, and coordinating and leading a team of professionals to optimize care of patients. The sports medicine team includes the athlete, his or her family, specialty and primary care physicians, athletic trainers, physical and massage therapists, chiropractors, dieticians, psychologists, and coaches. Physiatrists are also skilled in prehabilitation, or preventive rehabilitation, which is an important aspect of care for any athlete involved in routine physical training.
Exercise physiology, emergency medical care, and more routine medical care are also important to any well-rounded sports medicine physician. This chapter covers the breadth of sports medicine for the physiatrist, including the general role and medicolegal aspects of being a team physician, sporting event administration with a particular focus on emergency preparedness, athletic conditioning and training principles, injury prevention and functional rehabilitation, biomechanics of sports, pharmacology in sports, emergency assessment and care of the athlete, common medical and neurologic conditions in athletes, and a review of specific populations of athletes and their common ailments, including a special focus on athletes with disabilities and adaptive sports medicine. This chapter is not intended to be a musculoskeletal medicine chapter because other chapters in this text cover in-depth musculoskeletal issues that overlap with the musculoskeletal injuries seen in athletes.
Background: Despite the recognition of reduced workload in exercise as a model to increase exercise performance in normal conditions, there is no information on the effect of this training pattern on internal organs in hypoxic conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the response of HSP70 and HSP90 proteins to taper in hypoxia.
Materials and methods: The samples were twenty-four healthy male Wistar rats (8 control and 16 experimental rats) with no history of disease (four-weeks old, 72±9 gr weight). The experimental group were participated in an interval training program for six weeks, and then remained in hypoxic conditions for three weeks. Half of the experimental samples performed taper technique during exposure to the hypoxic environment. At the end of experimental period, the lung tissues of all samples were removed and the expression level of HSP70 and HSP90 proteins were evaluated. One-way ANOVA method was used for data analysis and p≤0.05 was considered as significant.
Results: The expression levels of HSP70 and HSP90 were significantly increased in the hypoxia group in contrast to the control group (p≤0.05).In the hypoxia-taper group, also, the expression of HSP70 and HSP90 was decreased significantly compared to the hypoxia group (p≤0.05).
Conclusion: The results show that hypoxia can causes biological stress in lung tissue, leading to lung protective response by increasing the expression of heat-shock proteins, and performing of interval exercise training with less intense in hypoxic conditions may help to maintain lung hemostasis.
Background & Objective: Due to The limitation of research literature, related to the effect of exercise training with different intensity, Along with Hypoxia Stress on Pulmonary Apoptosis, The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of hypoxia and taper on expression of Bax and Bcl2 apoptotic proteins of lung.
Materials & Methods: In this experimental study Twenty-four rats (4-week old, 72±8 gr) were divided accidentally to control and training groups. The samples after 6 weeks anaerobic exercise training, were exposed to Environment hypoxia and lived three weeks over there. Another group Concurrent with exposure to hypoxic environment, implementation Taper (30% reduction in exercise intensity) technique. In lung tissue, the expression of Bax and Bcl2 was studied by the immunohistochemical methods. One-way ANOVA was performed to analyze data. P≤0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results:Expression of Bcl2 protein in trained rats and exposed to hypoxic stress was increased And reduced after a 3-week use of the taper(P>0.05). Expression of Bax protein in trained rats and exposed to hypoxic stress was increased (P≤0.05), and reduced after a 3-week use of the taper (P>0.05).
Conclusion: It seems that, Medium hypoxia is able to apply Apoptotic effects in lung of rats that underwent intensive exercise and likely the use of intensity taper reduces these effects.
Background & Objective: Due to The limitation of research literature, related to the effect of exercise training with different intensity, Along with Hypoxia Stress on Pulmonary Apoptosis, The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of hypoxia and taper on expression of Bax and Bcl2 apoptotic proteins of lung.
Materials & Methods: In this experimental study Twenty-four rats (4-week old, 72±8 gr) were divided accidentally to control and training groups. The samples after 6 weeks anaerobic exercise training, were exposed to Environment hypoxia and lived three weeks over there. Another group Concurrent with exposure to hypoxic environment, implementation Taper (30% reduction in exercise intensity) technique. In lung tissue, the expression of Bax and Bcl2 was studied by the immunohistochemical methods. One-way Anova was performed to analyze data. P≤0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results:Expression of Bcl2 protein in trained rats and exposed to hypoxic stress was increased And reduced after a 3-week use of the taper(P>0.05). Expression of Bax protein in trained rats and exposed to hypoxic stress was increased (P≤0.05), and reduced after a 3-week use of the taper (P>0.05).
Conclusion: It seems that, Medium hypoxia is able to apply Apoptotic effects in lung of rats that underwent intensive exercise and likely the use of intensity taper reduces these effects.
The low oxidative demand and muscular adaptations accompanying eccentric exercise hold benefits for both healthy and clinical populations. Compression garments have been suggested to reduce muscle damage and maintain muscle function. This study investigated whether compression garments could benefit metabolic recovery from eccentric exercise. Following 30-min of downhill walking participants wore compression garments on one leg (COMP), the other leg was used as an internal, untreated control (CONT). The muscle metabolites phosphomonoester (PME), phosphodiester (PDE), phosphocreatine (PCr), inorganic phosphate (Pi) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were evaluated at baseline, 1-h and 48-h after eccentric exercise using 31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Subjective reports of muscle soreness were recorded at all time points. The pressure of the garment against the thigh was assessed at 1-h and 48-h following exercise. There was a significant increase in perceived muscle soreness from baseline in both the control (CONT) and compression (COMP) leg at 1-h and 48-h following eccentric exercise (p < 0.05). Relative to baseline, both CONT and COMP showed reduced pH at 1-h (p < 0.05). There was no difference between CONT and COMP pH at 1-h. COMP legs exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) elevated skeletal muscle PDE 1-h following exercise. There was no significant change in PCr/Pi, Mg2+ or PME at any time point or between CONT and COMP legs. Eccentric exercise causes disruption of pH control in skeletal muscle but does not cause disruption to cellular control of free energy. Compression garments may alter potential indices of the repair processes accompanying structural damage to the skeletal muscle following eccentric exercise allowing a faster cellular repair.
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is a familiar experience for the elite or novice athlete. Symptoms can range from muscle tenderness to severe debilitating pain. The mechanisms, treatment strategies, and impact on athletic performance remain uncertain, despite the high incidence of DOMS. DOMS is most prevalent at the beginning of the sporting season when athletes are returning to training following a period of reduced activity. DOMS is also common when athletes are first introduced to certain types of activities regardless of the time of year. Eccentric activities induce micro-injury at a greater frequency and severity than other types of muscle actions. The intensity and duration of exercise are also important factors in DOMS onset. Up to six hypothesised theories have been proposed for the mechanism of DOMS, namely: lactic acid, muscle spasm, connective tissue damage, muscle damage, inflammation and the enzyme efflux theories. However, an integration of two or more theories is likely to explain muscle soreness. DOMS can affect athletic performance by causing a reduction in joint range of motion, shock attenuation and peak torque. Alterations in muscle sequencing and recruitment patterns may also occur, causing unaccustomed stress to be placed on muscle ligaments and tendons. These compensatory mechanisms may increase the risk of further injury if a premature return to sport is attempted.
A number of treatment strategies have been introduced to help alleviate the severity of DOMS and to restore the maximal function of the muscles as rapidly as possible. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have demonstrated dosage-dependent effects that may also be influenced by the time of administration. Similarly, massage has shown varying results that may be attributed to the time of massage application and the type of massage technique used. Cryotherapy, stretching, homeopathy, ultrasound and electrical current modalities have demonstrated no effect on the alleviation of muscle soreness or other DOMS symptoms. Exercise is the most effective means of alleviating pain during DOMS, however the analgesic effect is also temporary. Athletes who must train on a daily basis should be encouraged to reduce the intensity and duration of exercise for 1–2 days following intense DOMS-inducing exercise. Alternatively, exercises targeting less affected body parts should be encouraged in order to allow the most affected muscle groups to recover. Eccentric exercises or novel activities should be introduced progressively over a period of 1 or 2 weeks at the beginning of, or during, the sporting season in order to reduce the level of physical impairment and/or training disruption. There are still many unanswered questions relating to DOMS, and many potential areas for future research.
Ensuring athletes achieve an appropriate quality and/or quantity of sleep may have significant implications for performance and recovery and reduce the risk of developing overreaching or overtraining. Indeed, sleep is often anecdotally suggested to be the single best recovery strategy available to elite athletes. A number of nutritional factors have been suggested to improve sleep, including valerian, melatonin, tryptophan, a high glycaemic index diet before bedtime, and maintenance of a balanced and healthy diet. Conversely, consumption of alcohol and caffeine and hyper-hydration may disturb sleep. Strategies such as warming the skin, hydrotherapy, and adoption of appropriate sleep hygiene (maintenance of good sleep habits and routines) are other tools to aid in sleep promotion. Ensuring athletes gain an appropriate quality and quantity of sleep may be important for optimal athletic performance.
The training and competitive programmes of elite athletes incorporate travel schedules, often long journeys, across multiple time zones. In such cases, travel causes both transient fatigue and a malaise known as "jet-lag" that persists for some days. Jet-lag is due to the disturbance of the body's circadian rhythms: diurnal and performance rhythms are displaced, depending on the direction of travel and the number of time zones crossed in flight. Attention to diet and hydration is relevant during the flight and following disembarkation until adjustment to the new meridian is complete. The consequences of jet-lag on rhythms in digestion may be compounded if food preparation and hygiene are inadequate in training camps or competitive venues overseas. The irony of travel is that it often places athletes at a greater risk of failing to meet their specific nutrition goals or succumbing to illness, at a time when the demands or outcomes of performance are of greatest importance. In addition, gastrointestinal infections related to travelling are frequent among athletes. Fastidious planning and organization among the support staff is recommended before the journey to prevent any such problems arising. Equally, athletes often need special education initiatives to assist them to cope with the challenges of a new and unusual food supply, or altered access to food.
Strategies to manage the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) are widespread, though are often based on anecdotal evidence. The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of a combination of manual massage and compressive clothing and compressive clothing individually as recovery strategies after muscle damage. Thirty-two female volunteers completed 100 plyometric drop jumps and were randomly assigned to a passive recovery (n = 17), combined treatment (n = 7), or compression treatment group (n = 8). Indices of muscle damage (perceived soreness, creatine kinase activity, isokinetic muscle strength, squat jump, and countermovement jump performance) were assessed immediately before and after 1, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours of plyometric exercise. The compression treatment group wore compressive tights for 12 hours after damage and the combined treatment group received a 30-minute massage immediately after damaging exercise and wore compression stockings for the following 11.5 hours. Plyometric exercise had a significant effect on all indices of muscle damage (p < 0.05). The treatments significantly reduced decrements in isokinetic muscle strength, squat jump performance, and countermovement jump performance and reduced the level of perceived soreness in comparison with the passive recovery group (p < 0.05). The addition of sports massage to compression after muscle damage did not improve performance recovery, with recovery trends being similar in both treatment groups. The treatment combination of massage and compression significantly moderated perceived soreness at 48 and 72 hours after plyometric exercise (p < 0.05) in comparison with the passive recovery or compression alone treatment. The results indicate that the use of lower limb compression and a combined treatment of manual massage with lower limb compression are effective recovery strategies following EIMD. Minimal performance differences between treatments were observed, although the combination treatment may be beneficial in controlling perceived soreness.
This study examined the impact of heat acclimation on improving exercise performance in cool and hot environments. Twelve trained cyclists performed tests of maximal aerobic power (VO2max), time-trial performance, and lactate threshold, in both cool [13°C, 30% relative humidity (RH)] and hot (38°C, 30% RH) environments before and after a 10-day heat acclimation (∼50% VO2max in 40°C) program. The hot and cool condition VO2max and lactate threshold tests were both preceded by either warm (41°C) water or thermoneutral (34°C) water immersion to induce hyperthermia (0.8-1.0°C) or sustain normothermia, respectively. Eight matched control subjects completed the same exercise tests in the same environments before and after 10 days of identical exercise in a cool (13°C) environment. Heat acclimation increased VO2max by 5% in cool (66.8 ± 2.1 vs. 70.2 ± 2.3 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1), P = 0.004) and by 8% in hot (55.1 ± 2.5 vs. 59.6 ± 2.0 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1), P = 0.007) conditions. Heat acclimation improved time-trial performance by 6% in cool (879.8 ± 48.5 vs. 934.7 ± 50.9 kJ, P = 0.005) and by 8% in hot (718.7 ± 42.3 vs. 776.2 ± 50.9 kJ, P = 0.014) conditions. Heat acclimation increased power output at lactate threshold by 5% in cool (3.88 ± 0.82 vs. 4.09 ± 0.76 W/kg, P = 0.002) and by 5% in hot (3.45 ± 0.80 vs. 3.60 ± 0.79 W/kg, P < 0.001) conditions. Heat acclimation increased plasma volume (6.5 ± 1.5%) and maximal cardiac output in cool and hot conditions (9.1 ± 3.4% and 4.5 ± 4.6%, respectively). The control group had no changes in VO2max, time-trial performance, lactate threshold, or any physiological parameters. These data demonstrate that heat acclimation improves aerobic exercise performance in temperate-cool conditions and provide the scientific basis for employing heat acclimation to augment physical training programs.
Environmental heat stress can challenge the limits of human cardiovascular and temperature regulation, body fluid balance, and thus aerobic performance. This minireview proposes that the cardiovascular adjustments accompanying high skin temperatures (T(sk)), alone or in combination with high core body temperatures (T(c)), provide a primary explanation for impaired aerobic exercise performance in warm-hot environments. The independent (T(sk)) and combined (T(sk) + T(c)) effects of hyperthermia reduce maximal oxygen uptake (Vo(2max)), which leads to higher relative exercise intensity and an exponential decline in aerobic performance at any given exercise workload. Greater relative exercise intensity increases cardiovascular strain, which is a prominent mediator of rated perceived exertion. As a consequence, incremental or constant-rate exercise is more difficult to sustain (earlier fatigue) or requires a slowing of self-paced exercise to achieve a similar sensation of effort. It is proposed that high T(sk) and T(c) impair aerobic performance in tandem primarily through elevated cardiovascular strain, rather than a deterioration in central nervous system (CNS) function or skeletal muscle metabolism. Evaporative sweating is the principal means of heat loss in warm-hot environments where sweat losses frequently exceed fluid intakes. When dehydration exceeds 3% of total body water (2% of body mass) then aerobic performance is consistently impaired independent and additive to heat stress. Dehydration augments hyperthermia and plasma volume reductions, which combine to accentuate cardiovascular strain and reduce Vo(2max). Importantly, the negative performance consequences of dehydration worsen as T(sk) increases.
A marked reduction in the training load in the lead-up to major competitions allows athletes to reduce the fatigue induced by intense training and improve competition performance. This tapered training phase is based on the reduction in training volume while maintaining pretaper training intensity and frequency. In parallel to training load reductions, nutritional strategies characterised by lowered energy intakes need to be implemented to match lowered energy expenditure. The Ramadan intermittent fast imposes constrained nutritional practices on Muslim athletes, inducing a shift to a greater reliance on fat oxidation to meet energy needs and a possible increase in protein breakdown. The training load is often reduced during Ramadan to match the absence of energy and fluid intake during daylight, which implies a risk of losing training induced adaptations. Should coaches and athletes decide to reduce the training load during Ramadan, the key role of training intensity in retaining training induced adaptations should be kept in mind. However, experienced elite Muslim athletes are able to maintain their usual training load during this month of intermittent fasting without decrements in measures of fitness and with only minor adverse effects.
Authors of most field studies have not observed decrements in physiologic function and performance with increases in dehydration, although authors of well-controlled laboratory studies have consistently reported this relationship. Investigators in these field studies did not control exercise intensity, a known modulator of body core temperature.
To directly examine the effect of moderate water deficit on the physiologic responses to various exercise intensities in a warm outdoor setting.
Semirandomized, crossover design.
Field setting. Patients or Other
Seventeen distance runners (9 men, 8 women; age = 27 +/- 7 years, height = 171 +/- 9 cm, mass = 64.2 +/- 9.0 kg, body fat = 14.6% +/- 5.5%).
Participants completed four 12-km runs (consisting of three 4-km loops) in the heat (average wet bulb globe temperature = 26.5 degrees C): (1) a hydrated, race trial (HYR), (2) a dehydrated, race trial (DYR), (3) a hydrated, submaximal trial (HYS), and (4) a dehydrated, submaximal trial (DYS). Main Outcome Measure(s): For DYR and DYS trials, dehydration was measured by body mass loss. In the submaximal trials, participants ran at a moderate pace that was matched by having them speed up or slow down based on pace feedback provided by researchers. Intestinal temperature was recorded using ingestible thermistors, and participants wore heart rate monitors to measure heart rate.
Body mass loss in relation to a 3-day baseline was greater for the DYR (-4.30% +/- 1.25%) and DYS trials (-4.59% +/- 1.32%) than for the HYR (-2.05% +/- 1.09%) and HYS (-2.0% +/- 1.24%) trials postrun (P < .001). Participants ran faster for the HYR (53.15 +/- 6.05 minutes) than for the DYR (55.7 +/- 7.45 minutes; P < .01), but speed was similar for HYS (59.57 +/- 5.31 minutes) and DYS (59.44 +/- 5.44 minutes; P > .05). Intestinal temperature immediately postrun was greater for DYR than for HYR (P < .05), the only significant difference. Intestinal temperature was greater for DYS than for HYS postloop 2, postrun, and at 10 and 20 minutes postrun (all: P < .001). Intestinal temperature and heart rate were 0.22 degrees C and 6 beats/min higher, respectively, for every additional 1% body mass loss during the DYS trial compared with the HYS trial.
A small decrement in hydration status impaired physiologic function and performance while trail running in the heat.
New methods and devices for pursuing performance enhancement through altitude training were developed in Scandinavia and the USA in the early 1990s. At present, several forms of hypoxic training and/or altitude exposure exist: traditional ‘live high-train high’ (LHTH), contemporary ‘live high-train low’ (LHTL), intermittent hypoxic exposure during rest (IHE) and intermittent hypoxic exposure during continuous session (IHT). Although substantial differences exist between these methods of hypoxic training and/ or exposure, all have the same goal: to induce an improvement in athletic performance at sea level. They are also used for preparation for competition at altitude and/or for the acclimatization of mountaineers.
The underlying mechanisms behind the effects of hypoxic training are widely debated. Although the popular view is that altitude training may lead to an increase in haematological capacity, this may not be the main, or the only, factor involved in the improvement of performance. Other central (such as ventilatory, haemodynamic or neural adaptation) or peripheral (such as muscle buffering capacity or economy) factors play an important role.
LHTL was shown to be an efficient method. The optimal altitude for living high has been defined as being 2200–2500 m to provide an optimal erythropoietic effect and up to 3100m for non-haematological parameters. The optimal duration at altitude appears to be 4 weeks for inducing accelerated erythropoiesis whereas <3 weeks (i.e. 18 days) are long enough for beneficial changes in economy, muscle buffering capacity, the hypoxic ventilatory response or Na+/K+-ATPase activity. One critical point is the daily dose of altitude. A natural altitude of 2500 m for 20–22 h/day (in fact, travelling down to the valley only for training) appears sufficient to increase erythropoiesis and improve sea-level performance. ‘Longer is better’ as regards haematological changes since additional benefits have been shown as hypoxic exposure increases beyond 16 h/day. The minimum daily dose for stimulating erythropoiesis seems to be 12 h/day. For non-haematological changes, the implementation of a much shorter duration of exposure seems possible.
Athletes could take advantage of IHT, which seems more beneficial than IHE in performance enhancement. The intensity of hypoxic exercise might play a role on adaptations at the molecular level in skeletal muscle tissue. There is clear evidence that intense exercise at high altitude stimulates to a greater extent muscle adaptations for both aerobic and anaerobic exercises and limits the decrease in power. So although IHT induces no increase in V̇O2max due to the low‘altitude dose’, improvement in athletic performance is likely to happenwith high-intensity exercise (i.e. above the ventilatory threshold) due to an increase in mitochondrial efficiency and pH/lactate regulation. We propose a new combination of hypoxic method (which we suggest naming Living High-Training Low and High, interspersed; LHTLHi) combining LHTL (five nights at 3000 m and two nights at sea level) with training at sea level except for a few (2.3 per week) IHT sessions of supra-threshold training. This review also provides a rationale on how to combine the different hypoxic methods and suggests advances in both their implementation and their periodization during the yearly training programme of athletes competing in endurance, glycolytic or intermittent sports.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of cold water face immersion on post-exercise parasympathetic reactivation, inferred from heart rate (HR) recovery (HRR) and HR variability (HRV) indices. Thirteen men performed, on two different occasions, an intermittent exercise (i.e., an all-out 30-s Wingate test followed by a 5-min run at 45% of the speed reached at the end of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness test, interspersed with 5 min of seated recovery), randomly followed by 5 min of passive (seated) recovery with either cold water face immersion (CWFI) or control (CON). HR was recorded beat-to-beat and vagal-related HRV indices (i.e., natural logarithm of the high-frequency band, LnHF, and natural logarithm of the square root of the mean sum of squared differences between adjacent normal R-R intervals, Ln rMSSD) and HRR (e.g., heart beats recovered in the first minute after exercise cessation) were calculated for both recovery conditions. Parasympathetic reactivation was faster for the CWFI condition, as indicated by higher LnHF (P = 0.004), Ln rMSSD (P = 0.026) and HRR (P = 0.002) values for the CWFI compared with the CON condition. Cold water face immersion appears to be a simple and efficient means of immediately accelerating post-exercise parasympathetic reactivation.
A key element of the physical preparation of athletes is the taper period in the weeks immediately preceding competition. Existing research has defined the taper, identified various forms used in contemporary sport, and examined the prescription of training volume, load, intensity, duration, and type (progressive or step). Current limitations include: the lack of studies on team, combative, racquet, and precision (target) sports; the relatively small number of randomized controlled trials; the narrow focus on a single competition (single peak) compared with multiple peaking for weekly, multi-day or multiple events; and limited understanding of the physiological, neuromuscular, and biomechanical basis of the taper. Future research should address these limitations, together with the influence of prior training on optimal tapering strategies, and the interactions between the taper and long-haul travel, heat, and altitude. Practitioners seek information on how to prescribe tapers from season to season during an athlete's career, or a team's progression through a domestic league season, or multi-year Olympic or World Cup cycle. Practical guidelines for planning effective tapers for the Vancouver 2010 and London 2012 Olympics will evolve from both experimental investigations and modelling of successful tapers currently employed in a wide range of sports.
The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of cold water immersion (CWI) on postexercise parasympathetic reactivation. Ten male cyclists (age, 29 +/- 6 yr) performed two repeated supramaximal cycling exercises (SE(1) and SE(2)) interspersed with a 20-min passive recovery period, during which they were randomly assigned to either 5 min of CWI in 14 degrees C or a control (N) condition where they sat in an environmental chamber (35.0 +/- 0.3 degrees C and 40.0 +/- 3.0% relative humidity). Rectal temperature (T(re)) and beat-to-beat heart rate (HR) were recorded continuously. The time constant of HR recovery (HRRtau) and a time (30-s) varying vagal-related HR variability (HRV) index (rMSSD(30s)) were assessed during the 6-min period immediately following exercise. Resting vagal-related HRV indexes were calculated during 3-min periods 2 min before and 3 min after SE(1) and SE(2). Results showed no effect of CWI on T(re) (P = 0.29), SE performance (P = 0.76), and HRRtau (P = 0.61). In contrast, all vagal-related HRV indexes were decreased after SE(1) (P < 0.001) and tended to decrease even further after SE(2) under N condition but not with CWI. When compared with the N condition, CWI increased HRV indexes before (P < 0.05) and rMSSD(30s) after (P < 0.05) SE(2). Our study shows that CWI can significantly restore the impaired vagal-related HRV indexes observed after supramaximal exercise. CWI may serve as a simple and effective means to accelerate parasympathetic reactivation during the immediate period following supramaximal exercise.
Delayed onset muscle soreness is a common problem that can interfere with rehabilitation as well as activities of daily living. The purpose of this study was to test the impact of therapeutic massage, upper body ergometry, or microcurrent electrical stimulation on muscle soreness and force deficits evident following a high-intensity eccentric exercise bout. Forty untrained, volunteer female subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups or to a control group. Exercise consisted of high-intensity eccentric contractions of the elbow flexors. Resistance was reduced as subjects fatigued, until they reached exhaustion. Soreness rating was determined using a visual analog scale. Force deficits were determined by measures of maximal voluntary isometric contraction at 90 degrees of elbow flexion and peak torque for elbow flexion at 60 degrees/sec on a Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction and peak torque were determined at the 0 hour (before exercise) and again at 24 and 48 hours postexercise. Treatments were applied immediately following exercise and again at 24 hours after exercise. The control group subjects rested following their exercise bout. Statistical analysis showed significant increases in soreness rating and significant decreases in force generated when the 0 hour was compared with 24- and 48-hour measures. Further analysis indicated no statistically significant differences between massage, microcurrent electrical stimulation, upper body ergometry, and control groups.
The purpose of this study was to compare two ways of estimating both fatigue and fitness indicators from a systems model of the effects of training on performance. The model was applied to data concerning the training of a hammer thrower. The variations in performance were mathematically related to the successive amounts of training. The model equation was composed of negative (NF) and positive (PF) functions. The NF and PF were associated with the fatigue and fitness estimated in previous studies. Using another method, fatigue and fitness indicators were estimated from a combination of NF and PF. The influence of training on performance was negatively associated with fatigue (NI), and positively to fitness (PI). The changes in performance were well described by the model in the present study (r = 0.96, N = 19, P < 0.001). Significant correlations were observed between PF and PI (r = 0.90, P < 0.001) on the other. The absolute values and the time variations of PI and NI were closer to the change in performance than NF and PF. The NF and PF were accounted for mainly by the accumulation of amounts of training. On the other hand, NI and PI were accounted for rather by the impact of these amounts of training on performance.
This study investigated the effect of training on performance and assessed the response to taper in elite swimmers (N = 18), using a mathematical model that links training with performance and estimates the negative and positive influences of training, NI and PI. Variations in training, performance, NI, and PI were studied during 3-, 4-, and 6-wk tapers. The fit between modeled and actual performance was significant for 17 subjects; r2 ranged from 0.45 to 0.85, P < 0.05. Training was progressively reduced during tapers. Performance improved during the first two tapers: 2.90 +/- 1.50% (P < 0.01) and 3.20 +/- 1.70% (P < 0.01). Performance improvement in the third taper was not significant (1.81 +/- 1.73%). NI was reduced during the first two tapers (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively), but not during the third. PI did not change significantly during tapers. Thus, the present results show that the model used is a valuable method to describe the effects of training on performance. Performance improvement during taper was attributed to a reduction in NI. PI did not improve with taper, but it was not compromised by the reduced training periods.
This study examined the ability of well-trained eumenorrheic women to increase muscle glycogen content and endurance performance in response to a high-carbohydrate diet (HCD; approximately 78% carbohydrate) compared with a moderate-carbohydrate diet (MD; approximately 48% carbohydrate) when tested during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Six women cycled to exhaustion at approximately 80% maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2 max)) after each of the randomly assigned diet and exercise-tapering regimens. A biopsy was taken from the vastus lateralis before and after exercise in each trial. Preexercise muscle glycogen content was high after the MD (625.2 +/- 50.1 mmol/kg dry muscle) and 13% greater after the HCD (709.0 +/- 44.8 mmol/kg dry muscle). Postexercise muscle glycogen was low after both trials (MD, 91.4 +/- 34.5; HCD, 80.3 +/- 19.5 mmol/kg dry muscle), and net glycogen utilization during exercise was greater after the HCD. The subjects also cycled longer at approximately 80% VO(2 max) after the HCD vs. MD (115:31 +/- 10:47 vs. 106:35 +/- 8:36 min:s, respectively). In conclusion, aerobically trained women increased muscle glycogen content in response to a high-dietary carbohydrate intake during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, but the magnitude was smaller than previously observed in men. The increase in muscle glycogen, and possibly liver glycogen, after the HCD was associated with increased cycling performance to volitional exhaustion at approximately 80% VO(2 max).
Monitoring physical performance is of major importance in competitive sports. Indices commonly used, like resting heart rate, VO2max, and hormones, cannot be easily used because of difficulties in routine use, of variations too small to be reliable, or of technical challenges in acquiring the data.
We chose to assess autonomic nervous system activity using heart rate variability in seven middle-distance runners, aged 24.6 +/- 4.8 yr, during their usual training cycle composed of 3 wk of heavy training periods, followed by a relative resting week. The electrocardiogram was recorded overnight twice a week and temporal and frequency indices of heart rate variability, using Fourier and Wavelet transforms, were calculated. Daily training loads and fatigue sensations were estimated with a questionnaire. Similar recordings were performed in a sedentary control group.
The results demonstrated a significant and progressive decrease in parasympathetic indices of up to -41% (P < 0.05) during the 3 wk of heavy training, followed by a significant increase during the relative resting week of up to +46% (P < 0.05). The indices of sympathetic activity followed the opposite trend, first up to +31% and then -24% (P < 0.05), respectively. The percentage increasing mean nocturnal heart rate variation remained below 12% (P < 0.05). There was no significant variation in the control group.
This study confirmed that heavy training shifted the cardiac autonomic balance toward a predominance of the sympathetic over the parasympathetic drive. When recorded during the night, heart rate variability appeared to be a better tool than resting heart rate to evaluate cumulated physical fatigue, as it magnified the induced changes in autonomic nervous system activity. These results could be of interest for optimizing individual training profiles.
A between groups design was used to compare recovery following eccentric muscle damage under 2 experimental conditions.
To determine if a compression sleeve donned immediately after maximal eccentric exercise would enhance recovery of physical function and decrease symptoms of soreness.
Prior investigations using ice, intermittent compression, or exercise have not shown efficacy in relieving symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). To date, no study has shown the effect of continuous compression on DOMS, yet this would offer a low cost intervention for patients suffering with the symptoms of DOMS.
Twenty nonimpaired non-strength-trained women participated in the study. Subjects were matched for age, anthropometric data, and one repetition maximum concentric arm curl strength and then randomly placed into a control group (n = 10) or an experimental compression sleeve group (n = 10). Subjects were instructed to avoid pain-relieving modalities (eg, analgesic medications, ice) throughout the study. The experimental group wore a compressive sleeve garment for 5 days following eccentric exercise. Subjects performed 2 sets of 50 passive arm curls with the dominant arm on an isokinetic dynamometer with a maximal eccentric muscle action superimposed every fourth passive repetition. One repetition maximum elbow flexion, upper arm circumference, relaxed elbow angle, blood serum cortisol, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and perception of soreness questionnaires were collected prior to the exercise bout and daily thereafter for 5 days.
Creatine kinase was significantly elevated from the baseline value in both groups, although the experimental compression test group showed decreased magnitude of creatine kinase elevation following the eccentric exercise. Compression sleeve use prevented loss of elbow motion, decreased perceived soreness, reduced swelling, and promoted recovery of force production.
Results from this study underline the importance of compression in soft tissue injury management.
The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of an increase in training frequency on exercise-induced fatigue by using a systems model with parameters free to vary over time. Six previously untrained subjects undertook a 15-wk training experiment composed of 1) an 8-wk training period with three sessions per week (low-frequency training), 2) 1 wk without training, 3) a 4-wk training period with five sessions per week [high frequency training (HFT)], and 4) 2 wk without training. The systems input ascribed to training loads was computed from interval exercises and expressed in arbitrary units. The systems output ascribed to performance was evaluated three times each week using maximal power sustained over 5 min. The time-varying parameters of the model were estimated by fitting modeled performances to the measured ones using a recursive least squares method. The variations over time in the model parameters showed an increase in magnitude and duration of fatigue induced by a single training bout. The time needed to recover performance after a training session increased from 0.9 +/- 2.1 days at the end of low-frequency training to 3.6 +/- 2.0 days at the end of HFT. The maximal gain in performance for a given training load decreased during HFT. This study showed that shortening recovery time between training sessions progressively yielded a more persistent fatigue induced by each training.
The purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude of the swimming performance change during the final 3 weeks of training (F3T) leading to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Olympic swimmers who took part in the same event or events at the Telstra 2000 Grand Prix Series in Melbourne, Australia, (26 - 27 August 2000), and 21 - 28 d later at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games (16 - 23 September 2000) were included in this analysis. A total of 99 performances (50 male, 49 female) were analysed. The overall performance improvement between pre- and post-F3T conditions for all swimmers was 2.18 +/- 1.50 % (p < 0.0001), (range - 1.14 % to 6.02 %). A total of 91 of the 99 analysed performances were faster after the F3T and only 8 were slower. The percentage improvement with F3T was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in males (2.57 +/- 1.45 %) than in females (1.78 +/- 1.45 %). In conclusion, the pre-Olympic F3T elicited a significant performance improvement of 2.57 % for male and 1.78 % for female swimmers at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. The magnitude was similar for all competition events, and was achieved by swimmers from different countries and performance levels. These data provide a quantitative framework for coaches and swimmers to set realistic performance goals based on individual performance levels before the final training phase leading to important competitions.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the physiological and psychological effects of massage on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
Eighteen volunteers were randomly assigned to either a massage or control group. DOMS was induced with six sets of eight maximal eccentric contractions of the right hamstring, which were followed 2 h later by 20 min of massage or sham massage (control). Peak torque and mood were assessed at 2, 6, 24, and 48 h postexercise. Range of motion (ROM) and intensity and unpleasantness of soreness were assessed at 6, 24, and 48 h postexercise. Neutrophil count was assessed at 6 and 24 h postexercise.
A two factor ANOVA (treatment v time) with repeated measures on the second factor showed no significant treatment differences for peak torque, ROM, neutrophils, unpleasantness of soreness, and mood (p > 0.05). The intensity of soreness, however, was significantly lower in the massage group relative to the control group at 48 h postexercise (p < 0.05).
Massage administered 2 h after exercise induced muscle injury did not improve hamstring function but did reduce the intensity of soreness 48 h after muscle insult.
