Article

Aspergillus Blepharitis and Dermatitis in a Peregrine Falcon-Gyrfalcon Hybrid (Falco peregrinus × Falco rusticolus)

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

A 3-year-old female peregrine falcon-gyrfalcon hybrid (Falco peregrinus × Falco rusticolus) was presented for evaluation of a lesion below the right eye. Initial examination revealed an abraded, crusty lesion on the right lower eyelid that was believed to be consistent with trauma and a secondary bacterial infection. Despite initial diagnostic procedures and treatment, the condition progressed to severe blepharitis and dermatitis involving the upper and lower eyelids of both eyes and the head. Septated fungal hyphae were identified by histopathologic analysis in specimens obtained from the lesions and an Aspergillus species was cultured. The blepharitis and dermatitis were treated successfully with oral itraconazole (15 mg/kg q12h) and topical miconazole cream, applied twice daily.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... 52 Bilateral blepharitis and dermatitis of the head has been reported in a falcon hybrid (Falco peregrinus 3 Falco rusticolus) secondary to Aspergillus species infection. 53 The falcon hybrid was successfully treated with systemic itraconazole (Sporonox, Janssen Pharmaceutical, Beerse, Belgium) and topical miconazole (Monostat, Ortho-McNeal Pharmaceutical Inc, Ratan, NJ, USA). 53 The eyelids should be carefully evaluated for the presence of partial-or full-thickness lacerations. ...
... 53 The falcon hybrid was successfully treated with systemic itraconazole (Sporonox, Janssen Pharmaceutical, Beerse, Belgium) and topical miconazole (Monostat, Ortho-McNeal Pharmaceutical Inc, Ratan, NJ, USA). 53 The eyelids should be carefully evaluated for the presence of partial-or full-thickness lacerations. Acute full-thickness lacerations that involve the eyelid margin usually require surgical repair to maintain the smooth lid margin necessary for a healthy ocular surface. ...
... The topical antifungal agent miconazole was used to treat mycotic blepharitis in a falcon (F peregrinus 3 F rusticolus). 53 Diffuse yellow-white plaques on the cornea in a Campbell duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) diagnosed with an Aspergillus species infection was successfully treated with oral voriconazole at 20 mg/kg PO q12h for 64 days (Mylan Pharmaceuticals, Morgantown, WV, USA) after 1 week of therapy with 1% voriconazole solution (1 drop OS q4-6h; Vfend, Roerig/ Pfizer, New York, NY, USA) did not resolve the ocular disease. 56 To the authors' knowledge, the use of voriconazole and other antifungal agents for the treatment of fungal keratitis has not been reported in raptors. ...
Article
Ocular problems are often associated with traumatic injury in raptors. A comprehensive evaluation, including a complete ophthalmic examination, is vital in determining the patient's overall health and suitability for release. Steps for conducting ocular examination and diagnostic testing in raptors is discussed. Additionally, common clinical findings after trauma, as well as the mechanisms by which ocular injury occurs, are outlined. An overview of medical treatments recommended for commonly diagnosed ocular diseases and the utility of ancillary diagnostic procedures is also presented.
... 2,4,6,11,12,21,25 Atkinson (1998) reports one case in a wing of a Great horn owl (Bubo virginianus) and Abrams (2000) on the head of an hybrid peregrine-gyrfalcon (Falco peregrinus-Falco rusticolus). 2,3,6,9,23 OPHTHALMITIS: exist 2 presentations: one superficial and the affected tissues are conjunctiva and external surfaces of the eye with the development of a cheesy exudate or plaque forming beneath the nictitating membrane. 3,6,9,17,36 The second presentation is deeper and occurs rarely and probably as a result of hematogenous dissemination of the organism from a primary respiratory infection, reaching the posterior eye. ...
... 2,3,6,9,23 OPHTHALMITIS: exist 2 presentations: one superficial and the affected tissues are conjunctiva and external surfaces of the eye with the development of a cheesy exudate or plaque forming beneath the nictitating membrane. 3,6,9,17,36 The second presentation is deeper and occurs rarely and probably as a result of hematogenous dissemination of the organism from a primary respiratory infection, reaching the posterior eye. Pathological changes can occur in the vitrous humor and extend into adjacent tissue. ...
... Occasionaly birds die suddenly with any sign involving respiratory system. 1,2,3,4,5,9,10,19 In the Chronic form: clinical signs vary with the location of the infection. Being that the respiratory system is the primary one involved, problems with this system are frequents. ...
... Although the respiratory tract is affected most commonly, aspergillosis infections in birds of prey have been associated with the skin. An Aspergillus species has been reported in the skin of a free-ranging great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) [15] and eyes (blepharitis) and skin of a falcon hybrid [16] and pure cultures of Aspergillus species in cases of bumblefoot [17]. Additionally, pathogenic conditions have resulted from aspergillosis infection in a variety of organs, including the eye [18,19], spine [20], uropygeal gland [19], and kidneys [21] in nonraptorial avian species. ...
... In fact, combined aggressive treatment and early diagnosis are often necessary for a favorable outcome. Drugs that have been used to treat aspergillosis in avian species include amphotericin B, clotrimazole, enilconazole, F-10 disinfectant, fluconazole, 5-flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, miconazole, and terbinafine (Table 1) [4,12,13,16,[32][33][34][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46]. Clinicians should be aware of the species and individual bird variability when administering any antifungal agent to ensure treatment efficacy and to minimize unwanted adverse effects. ...
... Topical bid [16]. Used in conjunction with oral itraconazole. ...
Article
Aspergillosis and candidiasis are ranked among the most common infectious diseases in birds of prey. The prevention of these fungal diseases is often easier than treatment. Thus the clinician should strive to prevent infection by minimizing stress, maintaining a healthy environment, limiting long-term use of antibiotics and corticosteroids, and reducing exposure to fungal organisms. Although less commonly diagnosed among wild, free-ranging birds of prey, a high incidence in a free-ranging population should make the clinician think of an immunocompromising factor (i.e., toxins, human encroachment or low prey base) that may be contributing to infection. The diagnosis of aspergillosis and candidiasis often requires more than just the identification of the agent, as these ubiquitous organisms often are cultured from healthy birds of prey. In those birds of prey in which a fungal infection is highly suspected or proven, antifungal drugs remain the mainstay of treatment, although available drugs and modes of delivery have improved in recent years.
... The predisposing factors to aspergillosis include a high concentration of Aspergillus spores in the environment, humidity, poor ventilation [21,22], poor sanitation [23], and the prolonged storage of feed [17,24], which may increase the number of spores in the air. Factors including impaired immunity, an inadequate diet, metabolic bone diseases, toxicosis, shipping, quarantine or captivity, overcrowding, starvation, thermal discomfort, and animal migration can also result in a predisposition to mycosis [17,[25][26][27][28][29][30]. Aspergillus fumigatus has been identified in wild boars in Bulgaria [31] and other Aspergillus species have also been reported in female killer whales (Orcinus orca) [32]. ...
... Aspergillus blepharitis and dermatitis involving the eyelids and the head have been described in a peregrine falcon-gyrfalcon hybrid (Falco peregrinus-Falco rusticolus) [29]. In this case, there was a right ventricular dilatation due to pulmonary hypertension, with or without ascites, and pneumocongestions caused by ventricular failure were identified in wild birds [17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
In the past few years, there has been a spurred tripling in the figures of fungal diseases leading to one of the most alarming rates of extinction ever reported in wild species. Some of these fungal diseases are capable of virulent infections and are now considered emerging diseases due to the extremely high number of cases diagnosed with fungal infections in the last few decades. Most of these mycotic diseases in wildlife are zoonotic, and with the emergence and re-emergence of viral and bacterial zoonotic diseases originating from wildlife, which are causing devastating effects on the human population, it is important to pay attention to these wildlife-borne mycotic diseases with zoonotic capabilities. Several diagnostic techniques such as fungal isolation, gross pathology, histopathology, histochemistry, cytology, immunohistochemistry, radiography, CT, and molecular methods such as PCR or ELISA have been invaluable in the diagnosis of wildlife mycoses. The most important data used in the diagnosis of these wildlife mycoses with a zoonotic potential have been re-emphasized. This will have implications for forestalling future epidemics of these potential zoonotic mycotic diseases originating from wildlife. In conclusion, this review will highlight the etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, pathogenesis, pathogenicity, pathology, and hematological/serum biochemical findings of five important mycoses found in wild animals.
... The predisposing factors to aspergillosis include a high concentration of Aspergillus spores in the environment, humidity, poor ventilation [21,22], poor sanitation [23], and the prolonged storage of feed [17,24], which may increase the number of spores in the air. Factors including impaired immunity, an inadequate diet, metabolic bone diseases, toxicosis, shipping, quarantine or captivity, overcrowding, starvation, thermal discomfort, and animal migration can also result in a predisposition to mycosis [17,[25][26][27][28][29][30]. Aspergillus fumigatus has been identified in wild boars in Bulgaria [31] and other Aspergillus species have also been reported in female killer whales (Orcinus orca) [32]. ...
... Aspergillus blepharitis and dermatitis involving the eyelids and the head have been described in a peregrine falcon-gyrfalcon hybrid (Falco peregrinus-Falco rusticolus) [29]. In this case, there was a right ventricular dilatation due to pulmonary hypertension, with or without ascites, and pneumocongestions caused by ventricular failure were identified in wild birds [17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Abstract In the past few years, there has been a spurred tripling in the figures of fungal diseases leading to one of the most alarming rates of extinction ever reported in wild species. Some of these fungal diseases are capable of virulent infections and are now considered emerging diseases due to the extremely high number of cases diagnosed with fungal infections in the last few decades. Most of these mycotic diseases in wildlife are zoonotic, and with the emergence and re-emergence of viral and bacterial zoonotic diseases originating from wildlife, which are causing devastating effects on the human population, it is important to pay attention to these wildlife-borne mycotic diseases with zoonotic capabilities. Several diagnostic techniques such as fungal isolation, gross pathology, histopathology, histochemistry, cytology, immunohistochemistry, radiography, CT, and molecular methods such as PCR or ELISA have been invaluable in the diagnosis of wildlife mycoses. The most important data used in the diagnosis of these wildlife mycoses with a zoonotic potential have been re-emphasized. This will have implications for forestalling future epidemics of these potential zoonotic mycotic diseases originating from wildlife. In conclusion, this review will highlight the etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, pathogenesis, pathogenicity, pathology, and hematological/serum biochemical findings of five important mycoses found in wild animals.
... Aspergillosis typically occurs after the inhalation of the ubiquitously available spores, but localized infections of the eye or the skin are possible [29,144,145]. Several forms are classically recognized. ...
... Aspergillosis rhinitis and sinusitis cause nasal discharge in parrots [102]. Abrams et al. [145] described a severe bilateral inflammation and dermatitis of the eyelids that progressively extended to the head in a falcon hybrid. Aspergillus infections of the internal chambers of the eye are not rare in parrots and cause epiphora, blepharospasm, photophobia, periorbital swelling, and corneal ulcers [29,144]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The ubiquitous fungi belonging to the genus Aspergillus are able to proliferate in a large number of environments on organic substrates. The spores of these opportunistic pathogens, when inhaled, can cause serious and often fatal infections in a wide variety of captive and free-roaming wild birds. The relative importance of innate immunity and the level of exposure in the development of the disease can vary considerably between avian species and epidemiological situations. Given the low efficacy of therapeutic treatments, it is essential that breeders or avian practitioners know the conditions that favor the emergence of Aspergillosis in order to put adequate preventive measures in place.
... The clinical signs incorporates inappetence, skinniness, dyspnea, panting, expanded thirst, fever, the runs and indications of apprehensive contribution [17]. Visual changes incorporate opthalmitis, blepharospasm, photophobia, and Mycotic keratitis (periorbital and eyelid enlarging with messy yellow exudates in the conjunctival sac [18,19] as well as necrotic granulomatous dermatitis [20]. The neurological or nervous signs incorporate loss of motion, ataxia, quake, torticollis, faltering, seizures, opisthotonous condition [21,22,23,24]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Aspergillus fumigatus is the causative agent of the aspergiliousis and it is an infectious disease caused by the fungus. The infection is caused by the inspiration of fungal spores and these spores also contaminate the egg and are transferred from the egg shell. This disease is commonly occurred in the acute and chronic form. Acute form occurs when the birds inhale large no of fungal spores and the chronic form occurs when the birds are immuno suppressant or weak immune system. Anorexia, gasping sound, dyspnoea are the clinical signs of the disease. Pea size granulomas white to yellowish color are the gross lesions pulmonary blood vessel congestion is seen microscopy. History, necropsy, sign symptoms and history are used for the diagnosis of the disease cultures of the fungus and biochemical changes are also involved during this process. There is no proper treatment of this disease and the way to control this disease is its prevention. Prevention of wet litter and soil proper fumigation and disinfection of the poultry utensils feeding and watering line sanitization are the best methods to prevent the disease and helpful in its control.
... The clinical signs incorporates inappetence, skinniness, dyspnea, panting, expanded thirst, fever, the runs and indications of apprehensive contribution [17]. Visual changes incorporate opthalmitis, blepharospasm, photophobia, and Mycotic keratitis (periorbital and eyelid enlarging with messy yellow exudates in the conjunctival sac [18,19] as well as necrotic granulomatous dermatitis [20]. The neurological or nervous signs incorporate loss of motion, ataxia, quake, torticollis, faltering, seizures, opisthotonous condition [21,22,23,24]. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Aspergillus fumigatus is the causative agent of the aspergiliousis and it is an infectious disease caused by the fungus. The infection is caused by the inspiration of fungal spores and these spores also contaminate the egg and are transferred from the egg shell. This disease is commonly occurred in the acute and chronic form. Acute form occurs when the birds inhale large no of fungal spores and the chronic form occurs when the birds are immuno suppressant or weak immune system. Anorexia, gasping sound, dyspnoea are the clinical signs of the disease. Pea size granulomas white to yellowish color are the gross lesions pulmonary blood vessel congestion is seen microscopy. History, necropsy, sign symptoms and history are used for the diagnosis of the disease cultures of the fungus and biochemical changes are also involved during this process. There is no proper treatment of this disease and the way to control this disease is its prevention. Prevention of wet litter and soil proper fumigation and disinfection of the poultry utensils feeding and watering line sanitization are the best methods to prevent the disease and helpful in its control.
... A Fusarium species was documented as a cause of blepharitis in a Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo hispanus) (Gonzalez-Alonso- Alegre et al. 2006). Aspergillus sp. was cultured from a bilateral crusty eyelid lesion in a peregrine falcon-gyrfalcon hybrid (Falco peregrinus  Falco rusticolus), and was treated successfully with oral Curettage, flushing and antibiotic therapy followed the surgery; (d) Ten days following the surgical procedure shows marked improvement itraconazole (15 mg/kg q12h) and topical miconazole cream, applied twice daily (Abrams et al. 2001). Blepharitis from myiasis is also not rare in raptors. ...
Chapter
Birds of prey, also collectively known as raptors, consist of the Falconiformes (falcons and caracaras), Accipitriformes (eagles, buzzards, hawks, kites, and Old World vultures), Cathartiformes (New World vultures), Cariamiformes (seriemas), and Strigiformes (true owls Strigidae, and barn owls Tytonidae) (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Jarvis et al. 2014; McClure et al. 2019). Although grouped together as key apex predators, raptors are phylogenetically heterogenous assimilation with many morphological and ecological differences. Perhaps a most obvious example is revealed in their activity patterns, where most raptors are considered diurnal, except the owls, which are considered nocturnal, a habit they share with two other avian orders for which we have genome sequences (Caprimulgiformes and Apterygiformes) (Martin 1990; Mikkola 1983; Martin 2017; Zhan et al. 2013). However, the ferruginous pygmy owl Glaucidium brasilianum maintains some activity during the day and the snowy owl Bubo scandiacus hunts during the daytime, the American barn owl Tyto furcate is most active in twilight, the burrowing owl Athene cunicularia is cathemeral, and the stripped owl Asio clamator is crepuscular and nocturnal (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Martins and Egler 1990; Motta-Junior 2006; Motta-Junior et al. 2004; Sarasola and Santillan 2014; Martin 1986). Overall, as a group, owls actually exhibit a broad range of activity patterns and habitats (Bowmaker and Martin 1978; Braga 2006). Additionally, nearly one-third of falconiform species, as well as some accipitriformes species, maintain activity during the crepuscular period (Mitkus et al. 2018).
... Death occurs due to severe respiratory involvement. There may be opthalmitis and keratitis 243 (periorbital and eyelid swelling with cheesy yellow exudates in the conjunctival sac) as well as necrotic granulomatous dermatitis 244 . Wing droop can be observed when pneumatic bones such as the humerus gets involved 245 . ...
... Clinical signs includes inappetence, emaciation, dyspnea, gasping, increased thirst, fever, diarrhea and signs of nervous involvement [17] . Ocular changes include opthalmitis, blepharospasm, photophobia, and Mycotic keratitis (periorbital and eyelid swelling with cheesy yellow exudates in the conjunctival sac [18,19] as well as necrotic granulomatous dermatitis [20] . Neurological signs include paralysis, ataxia, tremor, torticollis, lameness, convulsions, opisthotonous condition [21,22,23,24] . ...
... 6,7 Symptoms include, to name a few, an altered breathing depth and rate (dyspnea, tachypnea), open-beak breathing, rhinitis, change in vocalization or aphonia, reduction of stamina and athletic performance, beak deformation, ocular discharge, blepharitis or swelling, dermatitis and folliculitis, lethargy, inappetence, anorexia, diarrhea, vomiting, unilateral wing droop in flight or inability to fly or stand, central nervous signs, and peripheral nerve paresis. 15,22,[29][30][31][32][33][34][35] Aspergillosis in dogs is usually limited to the sinonasal area, as reflected by the most common symptoms: sneezing, epistaxis, ulceration of the nasal planum, facial pain, and mucopurulent discharge. 3,36,37 Similar to dogs, infection in cats is most frequently seen in the sinonasal and sino-orbital regions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Aspergillus fungal infections continue to be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in birds that can, in part, be attributed to the lack of a diagnostic “gold standard” for Aspergillus infection, and which delays the diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of avian patients. At present, none of the available methods in veterinary care can detect aspergillosis early enough and with the accuracy, precision, and specificity required of an ideal diagnostic tool. Therefore, researching methods of Aspergillus detection is still an active area of inquiry, and novel techniques continue to emerge. This review will provide a brief overview of current clinical methods, with an emphasis on avian care, in addition to a series of techniques in development that could offer distinct advantages over existing methods.
... 76 In rare cases of fungal dermatologic infections in birds, the topical application of miconazole, enilconazole, or clotrimazole might be used, whether or not combined with systemic treatment. 3,77 Oral candidiasis, which is most often seen in lorikeets and associated with vitamin A deficiency, responds well to therapy with topical nystatin, ketoconazole, fluconazole, miconazole, or itraconazole. 78,79 Furthermore, wound aspergillosis was successfully treated in a goliath heron (A goliath) with topical liposomal amphotericin B, after well-established therapies with surgical debridement followed by topical povidone-iodine in conjunction with oral itraconazole, and also topical miconazole, failed. ...
Article
The use of antifungals in birds is characterized by interspecies and interindividual variability in the pharmacokinetics, affecting drug safety and efficacy. Oral antifungal drug absorption is a complex process affected by drug formulation characteristics, gastrointestinal anatomy, and physiology. New antifungal drug delivery systems can enhance drug stability, reduce off-target side effects, prolong residence time in the blood, and improve efficacy. Topical administration of antifungals through nebulization shows promising results. However, therapeutic output is highly influenced by drug formulation and type of nebulizer, indicating these factors should be taken into account when selecting this medication route.
... In other cases, mostly regarding birds, the suspected pathogenesis was more similar to that of our case, i.e. on traumatic base. For example, Abrams et al. [18] described a case of Aspergillus blepharitis and dermatitis in a Peregrine Falcon-Gyrfalcon Hybrid (Falco peregrinus x Falco rusticolus) likely due to a trauma occurred during hunting. Copetti et al. [13] reported an outbreak of aspergillosis in some Pekin mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), with the involvement of different organs including the skin. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background This report describes a case of primary subcutaneous aspergillosis in a 7-year-old neutered male dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Case presentationThe animal developed a large nodular lesion in the right scrotum two years after surgical intervention for neutering. The mass had a firm consistency and was painful at palpation. Histopathology revealed dermal granulomatous inflammation with a necrotic centre, surrounded by plasma cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and sparse fungal hyphae characterised by parallel cell walls, distinct septa, and dichotomous branching. Fungal culture was not performed, but a panel of mono- and polyclonal antibodies specific for different fungal genera identified the hyphae as Aspergillus sp. Conclusions The occurrence of subcutaneous lesions is a rare manifestation of aspergillosis in animals, and this appears to be the first case reported in the dromedary camel.
... To the best of our knowledge, the report of Lahaye [31] was the sole study on cutaneous aspergillosis of pigeons. Atkinson and Brojer [5] reported one case cutaneous aspergillosis in a wing of a Great horn owl (Bubo virginianus) and Abrams et al. [1] on the head of an hybrid peregrine-gyrfalcon (Falco peregrinus-Falco rusticolus). ...
Article
Objective: To determine the fungal species isolated from skin lesions of different animals suspected of having dermatomycoses and their prevalence in different regions of Iran. Materials and methods: A total of 1011 animals (292 dogs, 229 cats, 168 horses, 100 camels, 98 cows, 60 squirrels, 37 birds, 15 sheep, 6 goats, 5 rabbits and 1 fox) suspected of having dermatomycoses were examined. The samples were obtained by plucking the hairs and feathers with forceps around the affected area and scraping the epidermal scales with a sterile scalpel blade. All collected samples were analyzed by direct microscopy and culture. Laboratory identification of the fungal isolates was based on their colonial, microscopic and biochemical characteristics. Results: Fungal agents were recovered from 553 (54.7%) animals suspected of having dermatomycoses. Of 553 confirmed cases, 255 (49.7%) were positive for dermatophytosis, 251 (45.4%) for Malassezia dermatitis, 14 (2.5%) for candidiasis, 12 (2.2%) for aspergillosis and 1 (0.2%) for zygomycosis. Cats (36.3%) were the most prevalent infected animals, followed by camels (13.4%), dogs (12.8%), horses (12.5%), cows (12.3%), squirrels (5.4%), birds (3.6%), sheep (2%), goats (1.1%), rabbits (0.4%) and fox (0.2%). Microsporum canis (M. canis) was the most frequent fungus isolated from dogs and fox, Malassezia pachydermatis (M. pachydermatis) from cats, horses and squirrels, Trichophyton verrucosum (T. verrucosum) from cows and camels, T. mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes from sheep, goats and rabbits, and Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus) from birds. Conclusion: The results suggested that periodic screening of animals suspected of having dermatomycoses and necessary treatments could help in the management of their public health problem.
... [3][4][5] Fungal agents reported to be associated with avian dermatitis in-clude Candida albicans, Microsporum gallinae, and Rhizopus, Trichophyton, Aspergillus, Alternaria, Rhodoturula, and Mucor species. [3][4][5][6] Trichosporon belongs to the family Cryptococcaceae. Trichosporon asahii (formerly Trichosporon beigelii) is found in soil and occurs as a commensal organism in mammals. ...
Article
Full-text available
A cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) was presented with generalized pruritis and feather loss around the head and patagial membranes of the wings. Treatment with antiparasitic and antibiotic agents did not result in clinical improvement. The lesions progressed to a generalized crusty dermatitis of the skin in the areas of feather loss. Results of skin biopsy revealed acute eosinophilic folliculitis and pyoderma containing budding yeasts. A yeast, Trichosporon asahii, was identified on fungal culture of a skin biopsy sample. Skin lesions and pruritis rapidly resolved with oral ketoconazole therapy.
... Abrams et al. [34] reported a dermatological lesion of aspergillosis on the eyelid and head of a hybrid peregrine-gyrfalcon (Falco peregrinus-Falco rusticolus). For the history of hunting, the authors believe that trauma was the inciting etiology for the fungal lesions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Aspergillosis is one of the most frequent mycosis affecting avian species. Here is reported an outbreak of aspergillosis affecting 60-day-old white Pekin mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). About 10 % of animals in a lot of 200 mallards from a commercial husbandry presented respiratory disorders and skin lesions at slaughter. Three out of 13 animals sent to diagnosis showed, simultaneously, airsacculitis, lung and liver presenting white nodules with variable diameters and elevated, yellowish brown, crusted, multifocal skin lesions located at the base of the feather follicles in the breast. Histopathological examination of lung and liver samples revealed nodules of different sizes with small areas of necrosis surrounded by intense granulomatous inflammation and the presence of fungal hyphae. The skin samples showed dermatitis surrounding a severe necrotizing folliculitis, associated with fungal hyphae. Mycological evaluation of tissues allowed the isolation of Aspergillus fumigatus from the skin samples and Aspergillus flavus from lungs and liver samples. The application of quicklime (CaO) in the litter as part of the disinfection procedures could have contributed to the development of skin lesion in the mallards, predisposing the fungal installation in the damaged site. The occurrence of cutaneous lesions associated with A. fumigatus is a rare manifestation of aspergillosis in birds, and this appears to be the first case reported in white Pekin mallards.
... Aspergillosis is a non-contagious disease, caused by the representatives of the Aspergillus genus. It is described in humans, mammals, domestic (1) and wild birds (2,3). Most commonly, A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. nidulans, A. niger, are isolated but A. fumigatus is detected in 95% of the cases of aspergillosis in wild birds of prey (4). ...
Article
Full-text available
A clinical case of aspergillosis in a bearded vulture (Gypaetos barbatus), reared in captivity, is presented. The clinical signs, radiological alterations and the gross pathological findings are described. Mycological examinations via native microscopy and cultivation on Sabouraud dextrose agar were performed. An Aspergillus fumigatus strain was isolated from the lungs and the air sacs of the bird.
... 48 In nonmammalian species, fungal blepharitis and dermatitis were successfully treated in a Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo hispanus) and a Peregrine falcon hybrid (Falco peregrinus ϫ F. rusticolus). 49,50 In reptiles and amphibians, itraconazole has been shown to effectively treat fungal epidemics, including infections with chytrid fungus in amphibians 51,52 and Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii in reptiles. 53,54 Lastly, itraconazole has been administered to horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) with an unspeciated fungal disease. ...
... Poor husbandry, ventilation, sanitation and warm humid ambience are common conditions that predispose birds to aspergillosis in captivity [2] [3] . Physical trauma, capture, translocation and quarantine also predispose birds to the disease [4] . Among the Aspergillus species, Aspergillus fumigatus accounts for over 95% of the cases of avian infections [1] . ...
Article
Full-text available
To describe clinical signs, pathology, diagnosis and treatment of Cape vultures in which Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus) and mixed species of bacteria were isolated. Six Cape vultures sourced from South Africa for exhibition at Al Ain Zoo developed illness manifesting as anorexia, dyspnea, polyuria and lethargy. Three vultures died manifesting "pneumonia-like syndrome". These three vultures were necropsied and gross lesions recorded, while organ tissues were collected for histopathology. Internal organs were swabbed for bacteriology and mycology. From live vultures, blood was collected for hematology and biochemistry, oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected for mycology and bacteriology. A. fumigatus was isolated from the three dead vultures and two live ones that eventually survived. One of the dead vulture and two live vultures were co-infected with A. fumigatus and mixed species of bacteria that included Clostridium perfringens, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Escherichia, Proteus, Enterococcus and Enterbacter. One of the Cape vulture and a Lappet-faced vulture, however, were free of Aspergillus or bacterial infections. At necropsy, intestinal hemorrhages were observed and the lungs were overtly congested with granulomas present on caudal air sac. Histopathological examinations demonstrated granulomatous lesions that were infiltrated by mononuclear cells and giant cells. Aspergillosis is a persistent threat to captive birds and we recommend routine health assessments so that early diagnosis may prompt early treatment. It is likely that prompt prophylaxis by broad spectrum antibiotics and antifungals medication contributed to the survival of some of the vultures.
Article
Full-text available
Antifungals are used in exotic avian and reptile species for the treatment of fungal diseases. Dose extrapolations across species are common due to lack of species-specific pharmacological data. This may not be ideal because interspecies physiological differences may result in subtherapeutic dosing or toxicity. This critical review aims to collate existing pharmacological data to identify antifungals with the most evidence to support their safe and effective use. In the process, significant trends and gaps are also identified and discussed. An extensive search was conducted on PubMed and JSTOR, and relevant data were critically appraised. Itraconazole or voriconazole showed promising results in Japanese quails, racing pigeons and inland bearded dragons for the treatment of aspergillosis and CANV-related infections. Voriconazole neurotoxicity manifested as seizures in multiple penguins, but as lethargy or torticollis in cottonmouths. Itraconazole toxicity was predominantly hepatotoxicity, observed as liver abnormalities in inland bearded dragons and a Parson’s chameleon. Differences in formulations of itraconazole affected various absorption parameters. Non-linearities in voriconazole due to saturable metabolism and autoinduction showed opposing effects on clearance, especially in multiple-dosing regimens. These differences in pharmacokinetic parameters across species resulted in varying elimination half-lives. Terbinafine has been used in dermatomycoses, especially in reptiles, due to its keratinophilic nature, and no significant adverse events were observed. The use of fluconazole has declined due to resistance or its narrow spectrum of activity.
Article
This case series describes the use of in vivo confocal microscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of mycotic keratitis in two owls (one Bubo scandiacus, one Strix varia) and one woodcock (Scolopax minor). Each bird was at increased risk of fungal infection due to recent injury or stress. Ophthalmic findings in all birds included blepharospasm, ocular discharge, ulcerative keratitis, white or yellow corneal plaques, and anterior uveitis. Fungal hyphae were identified in corneal samples from all three eyes examined cytologically and in all three eyes by using in vivo confocal microscopy. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated from a corneal culture in one bird. Despite medical treatment, progressive ocular disease prompted enucleation in two birds. Fungal hyphae were detected by histopathology in one of the two enucleated eyes. In vivo confocal microscopy aided the diagnosis of fungal keratitis in all birds and was the only diagnostic method that allowed immediate, real-time quantification of the extent (area and depth) and severity of mycotic keratitis.
Chapter
Fungal diseases are consistently ignored throughout the years regardless of their disturbing effect on human well-being. It is evaluated those fungal contaminations kill more than 1.5 million individuals each year. Recent global estimates have found 3,000,000 cases of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis in a year. Aspergillosis is among the most vital and common diseases in pet birds, caused by Aspergillus, mainly by A. fumigatus. It is widely distributed in the birds which are exposed to Aspergillus spores. Aspergillosis can be of acute or chronic form. The acute form develops quickly in a couple of days, and the birds may die due to lung infection and respiratory problems. In the chronic form, the bird shows slow development of clinical symptoms, loss of weight, and formation of nodules in the internal organs. The leading cause of about 90% of the pulmonary mycosis in humans is the A. fumigatus. The disease is more severe in immunosuppressed persons having neoplastic treatment. The antifungal agents that have been used in the treatment of birds are clotrimazole, itraconazole, enilconazole, terbinafine, and amphotericin B. The primary factor in controlling the avian aspergillosis is environmental control. Efforts in minimizing environmental factors responsible for the growth of Aspergillus around the birds may help in reducing the development of aspergillosis.
Article
Aspergillosis holds a very special place in veterinary and human medicine, because it is the main type of mycoses, affecting birds and mammals, including humans. The objective of this review was to synthesize the current knowledge of aspergillosis in wild avifauna in the context of the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of this infection. Aspergillosis typically occurs after inhalation of ubiquitously available spores, but localized infections of the eye or skin are also possible. Acute disease may occur following exposure to a substantial number of spores from a point source. The more chronic forms are slowly progressing infections that affect birds showing some degree of immunodeficiency and may result from regular inhalation of spores. Aspergillosis usually presents with the development of progressive and severe dyspnea with gasping, accelerated openmouth breathing, tail bobbing, and sometimes a non-productive cough. Gurgle, rales, or wheezy sounds and a change in the voice may be heard in cases of mycotic tracheitis. Treatment of avian aspergillosis, when possible, is not always successful because of the often advanced stage of the disease when the diagnosis is confirmed, the lack of pharmacokinetic data on antifungal drugs in most avian species, the failure of drugs to penetrate target tissues, and the frequent presence of concurrent diseases and immunosuppression. An oral solution of itraconazole has recently been registered as the first antifungal product for ornamental birds in Europe. Moreover, aspergillosis prevention measures are based on two main axes: controlling the level of exposure and minimizing the stressors
Article
Aspergillosis is the most common and most lethal disease in captive falcons, which is most effectively treated with the poorly soluble drug Itraconazole. To obtain a high drug concentration at the side of infection, the falcon's respiratory system, an isotonic, sterile, non-toxic NLC formulation loaded with Itraconazole was developed for pulmonary application. Itraconazole-loaded NLC had a particle size well in the nanometer range and possessed a narrow particle size distribution. An entrapment efficiency of 99.98% was achieved. A good storage stability of the formulation over 6months was found. Neither by MTS nor by LDH assay cytotoxic effects were determined on the cell line A549, indicating a good tolerability after inhalation. No physical instabilities of Itraconazole-loaded NLC could be detected nebulizing the formulation with a new nanonebulizer into a therapeutic chamber for the treatment of falcons. It could be shown, that the particle size of the aerosol generated nebulizing Itraconazole-loaded NLC with the nanonebulizer was in the nanometer range, providing the possibility to penetrate into the respiratory tract of falcons. By scintigraphy deposition of Itraconazole-loaded NLC in the lung and the air sacs of a patient was shown, being a prerequisite for the pulmonary treatment of aspergillosis in falcons.
Article
Aspergillosis is one of the commonest diseases seen in avian practice. It is caused by fungi of the genus Aspergillus, mainly by A. fumigatus. Despite this being a well-known disorder, diagnosis and treatment of clinical cases is challenging. Birds will develop disease in two different scenarios: either when exposed to an overwhelming spore challenge or when the bird has a compromised immune system, often due to an underlying immunosuppressive status linked to poor husbandry or concurrent diseases. A presumptive diagnosis is often obtained by a combination of different techniques, including imaging techniques, haematology, biochemistry and serum protein analysis among others. Definitive diagnosis in the live bird is only achieved by endoscopy with cytology or fungal culture of biopsies and identification of samples of affected organs. Antifungal therapy, often based on an azole, is the core of the medical therapy, used in combination with other drugs and supportive care. Treatment is often required for a minimum of 8 weeks and the patient should be monitored long term. Management of aspergillosis should address any potential underlying causes.
Article
Aspergillosis is a common and life-threatening disease in birds affecting single individuals and flocks. Acute and chronic forms of this mycotic disease have been known for centuries; however, antemortem diagnosis remains difficult. Reliable, rapid, and noninvasive diagnostic testing is desirable, especially for chronic aspergillosis cases, when other disease conditions may be present. Therefore, research has focused on the development and improvement of clinical diagnostic procedures and techniques. At present, a definitive diagnosis for aspergillosis is based on cumulative evidence from several diagnostic tests. Potential sources of fungal infection, predisposing factors, and management conditions may be identified during anamnesis. Suspect cases can be confirmed by clinical examination, radiology, or computed tomography. Additionally, results from a blood biochemistry panel, complete blood count, acute phase protein analysis, and protein electrophoresis may be used as ancillary tests to determine a patient's condition. Aspergillus antigen, toxin, and Aspergillus-specific antibody detections from blood samples may aid in determining a diagnosis, but are currently not considered reliable for all avian species. For most aspergillosis cases pathological and histopathological lesions are diagnostic and molecular biological assays are available to identify the fungal agent from biopsy or necropsy specimens. A definitive diagnosis is based on fungal identification with histopathological evidence demonstrating the fungal agent inside the affected tissue. However, endoscopic or laparoscopic samples submitted for fungal culture and subsequent identification are still regarded as valid for a clinical diagnosis of aspergillosis in birds. The current status, benefits, and disadvantages of diagnostic procedures and techniques for avian aspergillosis are provided to aid the avian practitioner in selecting a test protocol to determine a definitive diagnosis.
Article
Full-text available
Since the mid-1980s, observations of marine animals worldwide with alopecia have been reported though in the majority of cases, specific causes and consequences have yet to be elucidated. Adding to that list, an unprecedented feather loss condition affecting approximately 1 in 1,000 adult Adélie penguins was observed at the beginning of December 2011 at each of three colonies on Ross Island, Antarctica. Feather loss was again observed in 2012-13 and 2013-14. Irregular bare patches of skin, on various parts of the body well before the usual moult period, characterized this condition. Blood samples, plucked feathers and cloacal swabs were utilized to investigate the cause(s) of this feather loss. No ectoparasites were detected on physical inspection of any birds or by scanning electron microscopy of feathers removed from feather-loss birds. Blood smears were negative for hemoparasites. Statistical support for a mild lymphocytosis and moderate basophilia was determined from results of white blood cell differentials in penguins with feather loss compared to penguins with no feather loss. Blood samples were negative to a PCR diagnostic specific for beak and feather disease virus. Three new putative RNA viruses were detected by high-throughput sequencing of cloacal samples, showing similarity to rotaviruses, astroviruses, and picornaviruses. While the significance of these viruses is unknown, extended investigation into this feather loss condition is needed.
Article
A cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) was presented with generalized pruritis and feather loss around the head and patagial membranes of the wings. Treatment with antiparasitic and antibiotic agents did not result in clinical improvement. The lesions progressed to a generalized crusty dermatitis of the skin in the areas of feather loss. Results of skin biopsy revealed acute eosinophilic folliculitis and pyoderma containing budding yeasts. A yeast, Trichosporon asahii, was identified on fungal culture of a skin biopsy sample. Skin lesions and pruritis rapidly resolved with oral ketoconazole therapy.
Article
Full-text available
ResumenLas aves presentan una gran diversificación en morfología, tamaños,colores, formas de volar y hasta cantos. Hoy se conocen más de 9000especies de aves pero muchas veces no comprendemos que tambiénexisten entre ellas una gran variabilidad en la conformación anatómica del aparato de la visión, producto a los ecosistemas que tuvieron que adaptarse.
Article
Full-text available
Aspergillosis is an infectious, non-contagious fungal disease caused by species in the ubiquitous opportunistic saprophytic genus Aspergillus, in particular Aspergillus fumigatus. This mycosis was described many years ago, but continues to be a major cause of mortality in captive birds and, less frequently, in free-living birds. Although aspergillosis is predominantly a disease of the respiratory tract, all organs can be involved, leading to a variety of manifestations ranging from acute to chronic infections. It is believed that impaired immunity and the inhalation of a considerable amount of spores are important causative factors. The pathogenesis, early diagnostic methods and antifungal treatment schedules need to be further studied in order to control this disease. The aim of the present review is to present the current knowledge on aspergillosis with the main emphasis on A. fumigatus infections in captive and free-living birds rather than domestic poultry. The review covers aetiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs and lesions, diagnosis, treatment and prevention.
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this retrospective study was to identify the types and causes of disorders that primarily or specifically afflict the membrana nictitans of birds. Seventeen wild, domestic, and pet exotic birds examined by the Ophthalmology Services at three institutional referral centers were identified with lesions of the third eyelid. Lesions were unilateral in 16 birds. Traumatic injury, with (three birds) and without (four birds) an associated foreign body, was the predominant cause of lesions. Neoplasia, presumed dystrophic mineralization, and inflammation with or without infection were equally represented (three birds each). One probable congenital malformation was identified. We conclude that although many specific and nonspecific external ocular disorders incidentally involve the membrana nictitans to a minor degree, clinically important primary disorders of the third eyelid seem distinctly uncommon in birds.
Article
Full-text available
The number of fungi causing systemic disease is growing and the number of systemic diseases caused by fungi is increasing. The currently available antifungal agents for the treatment of systemic mycoses include polyene antibiotics (Amphotericin B), fluoropyrimidine (Flu cytosine), and Nystatin andazole group of drugs (Ketoconazole, Fluconazole, and Itraconazole). Novel drug delivery systems for antifungal therapy, based on the type of formulation are classified as Liposomes Nanocochleates, Nanospheres, Carbon Nanotubes, Doubled layered Mucoadhesive Tablets, Mucoadhesive Thermo Sensitive Pronged release gels, and Parenteral Micro emulsions. Amphotericin B is the only fungicidal agent available and is the ‘goldstandard’ for the treatment of most of the systemic mycoses. The three currently available lipid formulations are Amphotericin B Lipid Complex (ABLC), Amphotericin B Colloidal Dispersion (ABCD) and Liposomal Amphotericin B (L‐AmB). Nystatin and ketoconazole are also commercially available as liposomes. Novel Drug delivery systems for antifungal therapy, aiming at reducing the side effects and maximizing the antifungal activity have added a new dimension to the treatment of fungal infections. Without fungi we would not have bread, beer, wine or antibiotics, but more importantly without the nutrient recycling and plant nutrition provided by fungi - we probably could not survive at all.
Article
Full-text available
Birds of prey are often affected with external ocular injuries that are routinely treated with antimicrobial agents used for small animals. The resident ocular bacterial and fungal flora is still unknown in birds of prey and this knowledge would be very useful in assessing the accuracy of treatments. In a study involving 65 raptors with healthy eyes, swabs were taken from both eyes to identify the resident bacterial and fungal flora. Fifty-five birds had a positive culture in one or both eyes. Both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms were isolated, with a predominance of Staphylococcus spp., which were found in 52.3% of cultures. Only two fungal species, Aspergillus spp. and Cladosporium spp. were found. The overall results of this study are similar to previous studies carried out in humans and other animals.
Article
A 5-year-old intact male silky bantam chicken was presented for chronic epidermal cysts within the comb. Results of diagnostic tests and histopathologic examination of biopsy specimens demonstrated epidermal cysts associated with Aspergillus fumigatus and Alternaria species. Physical removal of the cysts and treatment with systemic itraconazole and topical miconazole resolved the lesions.
Article
A review of 45 cases of aspergillosis in pet birds (1955-1987) resulted in the tabulation of historical, clinical, histopathologic, and radiographic findings. Nearly one-half of the birds were Amazon parrots, and predisposing factors such as stress, poor nutrition and concurrent disease were present in 40 per cent of the cases. Clinical signs included weight loss and respiratory distress, while the most frequent histopathologic and radiographic findings were granulomatous pneumonia and air sacculitis.
Article
A 5-year-old intact male silky bantam chicken was presented for chronic epidermal cysts within the comb. Results of diagnostic tests and histopathologic examination of biopsy specimens demonstrated epidermal cysts associated with Aspergillus fumigatus and Alternaria species. Physical removal of the cysts and treatment with systemic itraconazole and topical miconazole resolved the lesions.
Article
Article
Six case reports of birds in captivity with fungal infections, associated or not with other pathogens, are presented. Hatched avocets died in the first two weeks of life from aspergillosis of the respiratory tract and infection of the mucous membranes and skin by Candida albicans. A necropsy on an adult peewit and an adult oyster-catcher presented several infection sites by C. albicans and Staphylococcus aureus. Toxoplasma cysts were observed in necrotic skin tissue of the oyster-catcher. After necropsy, aspergillosis was diagnosed in a mynah. Several canaries died after an invasion of almost all internal organs by Aspergillus fumigatus, associated with St. aureus in some organs. A sixth case, a red-tailed hawk, was dyspnoeic and died with invasion of the heart, lungs, air sacs and almost all abdominal organs, by A. fumigatus. Clinical diagnosis was confirmed by microscopy, cultures and histopathology. Sechs Fallberichte über Vögel mit Pilzinfektionen, teilweise bei gleichzeitiger Anwesenheit anderer Erreger, in Gefangenschaft werden vorgestellt. Säbelschnäbler starben innerhalb von 2 Wochen nach dem Schlüpfen an Aspergillose der Atmungsorgane sowie an Infektionen der Haut und der Schleimhäute durch Candida albicans. Bei der Autopsie eines erwachsenen Kiebitz und eines erwachsenen Austernfischers wurden zahlreiche Infektionsherde mit C. albicans und Staphylococcus aureus gefunden. Im nekrotischen Hautgewebe eines Austernfischers wurden Toxoplasma-Zysten beobachtet. Ein Hirtenstar zeigte bei der Autopsie Aspergillose. Zahlreiche Kanarienvögel starben nach Invasion beinahe aller Organe durch Aspergillus fumigatus, wobei in einigen Organen noch St. aureus hinzukam. Im sechsten Falle, bei einem Rotschwanzhabicht, der Dyspnoe zeigte und verstarb, wurde eine Invasion von Herz, Lunge, Luftsäcken und beinahe allen Abdominalorganen durch A. fumigatus gefunden. Die klinische Diagnose wurde durch Mikroskopie, Kultur und Histopathologie bestätigt.
Article
The skin surface of the domestic fowl and Japanese quail was observed by scanning electron microscopy of both freeze-dried and critical-point dried specimens. In both species the skin surface and feather follicles were protected by an amorphous lipid layer which permeated out around the margins of the surface squames to flow across the skin surface and form a continuous covering sheet. An exception to this general pattern of distribution was on the upper beak, in particular on the rostral part where the surface lipid layer appeared to be absent; in this region intercellular lipid was present in the lower layers of the stratum corneum.
Article
Eye infections were initially observed in single-comb white leghorn breeder chicks at 5 days of age, and morbidity increased from 0.05% to 1.5% after debeaking at 7 days of age. All chicks necropsied at 15 days of age had cheesy yellow exudate within the conjunctival sac of one eye and small (1 mm diameter) white nodular lesions in lungs and on thoracic air-sac membranes. Histopathologic examination of the eyes revealed septate fungal hyphae and inflammatory cells in the anterior chamber, cornea, and conjunctival sac. Similar fungal hyphae were present within lung granulomas. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated from the eyes. Eye infections were the only health problem reported for several consecutive flocks on this farm. Elimination of moldy feed from the diet and environment and proper management of sawdust litter have prevented fungal ophthalmitis in subsequent flocks.
Poultry ophthalmology
  • H L Shivaprasad
Shivaprasad, H. L. Poultry ophthalmology. In: Gelatt KN, ed. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999:1177–1207.
Successful treatment of aspergillosis in two psittacine birds
  • W J Rosskopf
  • R W Woerpel
Rosskopf WJ, Woerpel RW. Successful treatment of aspergillosis in two psittacine birds. Proc Assoc Avian Vet. 1985;119-128.
Har-rison LR, eds Avian Medicine: Principles and Appli-cation. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers
  • L Bauck
  • Mycosis Ritchie Bw
  • Harrison
  • Gj
Bauck L. Mycosis. In: Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ, Har-rison LR, eds Avian Medicine: Principles and Appli-cation. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers; 1994:998–1006.
Diseases and surgery of the canine eyelid
  • Pgc Bedford
Bedford PGC. Diseases and surgery of the canine eyelid. In: Gelatt KN, ed. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999:535-568.
Avian Medicine: Princi-ples and Application. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers
  • Williams D Ophthalmology
Williams D. Ophthalmology. In: Ritchie BW, Harri-son GJ, Harrison LR, eds. Avian Medicine: Princi-ples and Application. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers; 1994:998–1006.
Veterinary Ophthalmology
  • Hl Shivaprasad
  • Poultry
Shivaprasad HL. Poultry ophthalmology. In: Gelatt KN, ed. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 3rd ed. Phila-delphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999: 1177–1207.
Avian Viruses. Function and Control. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers
  • B W Ritchie
  • Poxviridae
Ritchie BW. Poxviridae. In: Ritchie BW, ed. Avian Viruses. Function and Control. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers; 1995:285-312.
Fungal infections in birds in captivity (synopsis) Assoc Avian Vet Today
  • J Fransen
  • Vanculsem
Fransen J, VanCulsem J. Fungal infections in birds in captivity (synopsis). Assoc Avian Vet Today. 1988; 2:15.
Compend Cont Educ Prac Vet
  • Cj Murphy
  • Raptor
Murphy CJ. Raptor ophthalmology. Compend Cont Educ Prac Vet. 1987;9:241–260.
Itraconazole treat-ment of pulmonary, ocular, and uropygeal aspergil-losis and candidiasis in birds—data from five clinical cases and controls
  • Hines Rs P Sharkey
  • Friday
Hines RS, Sharkey P, Friday RB. Itraconazole treat-ment of pulmonary, ocular, and uropygeal aspergil-losis and candidiasis in birds—data from five clinical cases and controls. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1990; 322–327.
New and unusual ectopar-asites on raptors. Wildlife rehabilitation
  • Ta Schulz
  • Ludwig
  • Dr
Schulz TA, Ludwig DR. New and unusual ectopar-asites on raptors. Wildlife rehabilitation. Eighth Symp Nat Wildl Rehab Assoc. 1990;8:205–213.
Viral diseases of birds of prey. In: Fowler ME, ed. Zoo & Wild Animal Med-icine
  • Graham Dl Wh
Graham DL, Halliwell WH. Viral diseases of birds of prey. In: Fowler ME, ed. Zoo & Wild Animal Med-icine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1986: 408–413.
  • J Jenkins
  • Aspergillosis
Jenkins J. Aspergillosis. Proc Assoc Avian Vet. 1991; 328-330.
Evaluation of the pharmacokinetic disposition of itraconazole in redtailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis)
  • Mp Jones
  • Se Orosz
  • Dl Frazier
Jones MP, Orosz SE, Frazier DL. Evaluation of the pharmacokinetic disposition of itraconazole in redtailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet. 1995;19–20.
  • C J Murphy
  • Raptor
Murphy CJ. Raptor ophthalmology. Compend Cont Educ Prac Vet. 1987;9:241-260.
New and unusual ectoparasites on raptors. Wildlife rehabilitation
  • T A Schulz
  • D R Ludwig
Schulz TA, Ludwig DR. New and unusual ectoparasites on raptors. Wildlife rehabilitation. Eighth Symp Nat Wildl Rehab Assoc. 1990;8:205-213.
Evaluation of the pharmacokinetic disposition of itraconazole in redtailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis)
  • M P Jones
  • S E Orosz
  • D L Frazier
Jones MP, Orosz SE, Frazier DL. Evaluation of the pharmacokinetic disposition of itraconazole in redtailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet. 1995;19-20.
Retrospective study of aspergillosis in pet birds
  • M C Mcmillin
  • M L Petrak
McMillin MC, Petrak ML. Retrospective study of aspergillosis in pet birds. J Assoc Avian Vet. 1989;3: 211-215.
Diseases of Cage and Aviary Birds
  • I F Keymer
  • Mycosis
Keymer IF. Mycosis. In: Petrak ML, ed. Diseases of Cage and Aviary Birds. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger; 1982:599-605.
An overview of antifungal therapy in birds
  • K Flammer
Flammer K. An overview of antifungal therapy in birds. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet. 1993;1-4.
Itraconazole treatment of pulmonary, ocular, and uropygeal aspergillosis and candidiasis in birds-data from five clinical cases and controls
  • R S Hines
  • P Sharkey
  • R B Friday
Hines RS, Sharkey P, Friday RB. Itraconazole treatment of pulmonary, ocular, and uropygeal aspergillosis and candidiasis in birds-data from five clinical cases and controls. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1990; 322-327.
Diseases and surgery of the canine nictitating membrane
  • D A Ward
Ward DA. Diseases and surgery of the canine nictitating membrane. In: Gelatt KN, ed. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999:609-618.