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A New Measure of Cognitive Flexibility
Abstract
Two experiments examined the reliability and validity of the Cognitive Flexibility Scale. 247 undergraduates in Exp 1 completed the Cognitive Flexibility Scale, the Communication Flexibility Scale, and the Rigidity of Attitudes Regarding Personal Habits Scale. Scores on cognitive flexibility were positively related to communication flexibility and negatively related to rigidity. Scores on communication flexibility were also negatively related to rigidity. Exp 2 tested the scale's concurrent validity. 275 undergraduates completed the Cognitive Flexibility Scale, the Interaction Involvement Scale, the Self-monitoring Scale, and the Unwillingness to Communicate Scale. Results show the Cognitive Flexibility Scale to be internally reliable and supported its construct and concurrent validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... M. M. Martin and Rubin (1995) define cognitive flexibility as the ability to adjust one's thinking or behavior in response to changing situational demands. This involves recognizing the need for change, the ability to generate alternative strategies, and implementing these strategies effectively. ...
... Consistent with earlier research linking cognitive flexibility to openness to different perspectives (M. M. Martin & Rubin, 1995), we hypothesized that higher levels of cognitive flexibility would be associated with a greater likelihood of belonging to a class characterized by a more inclusive view of national identity. ...
... The Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS; M. M. Martin & Rubin, 1995) is a 12-item selfreport measure assessing cognitive flexibility. This concept involves recognizing communication options in any situation, willingness to adapt, and self-efficacy in being flexible. ...
In superdiverse societies like Canada, characterized by high levels of cultural and ethnic plurality, national identity boundaries are often blurry. While policies may officially promote inclusiveness, public discourse on national identity is frequently dominated by mainstream groups, whose willingness to expand these boundaries plays a crucial role in fostering minority inclusion. Despite the importance of inclusivity for social cohesion, little is known about what enables majority group members to adopt a more inclusive national identity. This study addresses this gap by exploring the role of cognitive flexibility in facilitating an acculturative shift toward inclusiveness. Using latent class regression analysis (N = 202), we identified two distinct national identity profiles: one more inclusive and the other more exclusive. We also examined how factors such as ethnic vs. civic views on national identity, acculturation orientations toward integration, and personal identification with traditional English Canadian vs. multicultural identity representation shape these profiles. Our findings revealed that higher cognitive flexibility was positively associated with the likelihood of belonging to the more inclusive profile. This study contributes to a limited body of work on majority group acculturation, offering insights into how cognitive flexibility may encourage a broader and more inclusive national identity. Implications for policy and social cohesion are discussed.
... The Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS; Martin & Rubin, 1995) focuses on communication proficiency, especially in unfamiliar circumstances. It contains 12 items, each rated from 1 strongly disagree to 6 strongly agree. ...
... It contains 12 items, each rated from 1 strongly disagree to 6 strongly agree. The CFS has good test-retest reliability of α = 0.81 (Martin & Anderson, 1998;Martin & Rubin, 1995). In the current study the reliability was α = 0.84 and α = 0.86 for times 1 and 2, respectively. ...
Purpose
Cumulative exposure to stressful and traumatic incidents can lead to mental deterioration, often resulting in overwhelming feelings of fear, threat, and helplessness. Previous studies revealed that cognitive flexibility plays a significant moderating role in the relationship between trauma exposure and such aversive emotional outcomes. The aim of the current study was twofold: first, to examine the potential impact of participation in a psychological first-aid cognitive-focused training on cognitive flexibility, as well as on feelings of fear, threat, and helplessness. Second, to test whether cognitive flexibility serves as a mechanism of change. Specifically, to determine whether it moderates the relationship between cumulative trauma exposure and feelings of fear, threat, and helplessness following (but not before) the training.
Methods
One-hundred seventy-two educational counselors, whose professional routine includes constant exposure to trauma and stress, were assessed before and after a 10-week psychological first-aid training, which equipped them to respond effectively and support others during traumatic incidents.
Results
The results revealed increased cognitive flexibility and reduced feelings of fear and helplessness following the training. Moreover, before the training, trauma exposure was positively associated with feelings of fear, threat, and helplessness, with no specific role for cognitive flexibility. Following the training, cognitive flexibility moderated the relationship between traumatic exposure and feelings of threat, acting as a protective factor that mitigates this effect.
Conclusions
The results highlight the importance of psychological first-aid training in reducing aversive feelings, improving cognitive flexibility, and prompting it as a protective factor against the deleterious effects of cumulative trauma exposure.
... Multidimensional PsychologicalFlexibility Inventory (MPFI) to examine psychological flexibility and inflexibility; 37 and 6) Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS) to examine cognitive flexibility.38 ...
Purpose
Acquired limb loss can be a traumatic experience that is often accompanied by chronic pain (ie, phantom limb pain (PLP) and/or residual limb pain (RLP)) and can cause a reduction in emotional well-being and overall quality of life. Although, there are available treatments for PLP/RLP, few provide long-term relief. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the potential benefits of diet on reported pain and quality of life measures among adults with acquired limb loss.
Methods
Seven adults with acquired limb loss (M = 50.57, SD ± 13.63 years of age) were enrolled in a 6-week low-carbohydrate diet (LCD) intervention. Baseline, 3-week, and 6-week measures of pain sensitivity (BPI, NPQ), cognitive flexibility (CFS), depression (CES-D, PROMIS-57), anxiety (PROMIS-57), pain resilience (PRS), and overall quality of life (SF-36) were obtained using validated questionnaires.
Results
On average, all participants had appreciable levels of depression (M = 18.71, SD ± 6.16) and anxiety (M = 19.71, SD ± 5.94), yet relatively high levels of pain resilience (M = 44.42, SD ± 6.70) at baseline. After 6 weeks, participants showed improvements in self-reported measures of pain severity, emotional well-being, and other psychosocial measures of interest, including depression and anxiety.
Conclusion
These results suggest that an LCD might have an influence on multiple chronic pain-related factors among adults living with an amputation. Furthermore, adults living with chronic PLP/RLP may report high resilience, although high levels of depression and anxiety are also reported.
... The scale developed by Martin and Rubin (1995) and adapted into Turkish by Çelikkaleli (2014) consists of 12 items. The Cronbach Alpha (Cr α) reliability coefficient of the scale was .71. ...
Comparison of multiple regression and artificial neural network performances in determining the order of importance of predictors in educational research 1,2 Comparación del rendimiento de la regresión múltiple y la red neuronal artificial en la determinación del orden de importancia de los predictores en la investigación educativa https://doi. Abstract Studies aiming to determine the importance rankings of one or more predictor variables on the predicted variable are frequently encountered in education. Multiple Regression (MR) and artificial neural network (ANN) are widely used in this type of research. The present study compares the predictive importance rank performances of MR and ANN methods. For this purpose, two separate real data sets, in which MR assumptions are met and the predictor variables are continuous or discrete, and simulation data generated by considering the 1 The authors declare that a part of this study was presented as an oral abstract presentation at the relationships in these data sets were used. Absolute relative bias (ARB) and mean square errors (MSE) were used to compare the methods' performances. The results of the research showed that the increase in sample size had an improving effect on the ARBs and MSEs of the methods. In addition, if the predictors are continuous, researchers may be advised to choose either MR or ANN. However, in cases where the predictors are discrete and the number of predictors is three or more, the use of ANN is recommended. In order to obtain optimal estimations with both methods, it is recommended that researchers use a sample size of at least 200. Keywords: multiple regression analysis, artificial neural networks, continuous predictor, discrete predictor, order of importance, predictive correlational research. Resumen Los estudios que tienen como objetivo determinar los rangos de importancia de una o más variables predictoras en la variable predicha se encuentran con frecuencia en la educación. La regresión múltiple (RM) y la red neuronal artificial (RNA) son ampliamente utilizadas en este tipo de investigación. El presente estudio compara el desempeño del rango de importancia predictiva de los métodos RM y RNA. Para este propósito, dos conjuntos de datos reales separados, en los que se cumplen los supuestos de RM y las variables predictoras son continuas o discretos, y se utilizaron datos de simulación generados al considerar las relaciones en estos conjuntos de datos. Se utilizaron sesgos relativos absolutos (SRA) y errores cuadráticos medios (ECM) para comparar el rendimiento de los métodos. Los resultados de la investigación mostraron que el aumento en el tamaño de la muestra tuvo un efecto de mejora en los SRAs y ECMs de los métodos. Además, si los predictores son continuos , se puede recomendar a los investigadores que elijan RM o RNA. Sin embargo, en los casos en que los predictores sean discretos y el número de predictores sea tres o más, se recomienda el uso de RNA. Para obtener estimaciones óptimas con ambos métodos, se recomienda que los investigadores utilicen un tamaño de muestra de al menos 200. Palabras clave: análisis de regresión múltiple, redes neuronales artificiales, predictor continuo, predictor discreto, orden de importancia, investigación correlacional predictiva. Toprak, E., Kalkan, O. K. Comparison of multiple regression and artifiCial neural network performanCes in determining the order of importanCe of prediCtors in eduCational researCh 223
... According to VandenBos (2007), adaptability is "the ability to make appropriate responses to changed or changing situations; the ability to modify or adjust one's behavior when confronting different circumstances or individuals." This ability includes affective responses to novelty and change, along with cognitive and behavioral adjustments (Martin & Rubin, 1995;Martin et al., 2013). Finally, spirited initiative refers to the capacity to make quick decisions and take action. ...
The objective of the study was to develop and validate a grit scale in the Urdu language. A cross-sectional survey research design and a purposive sampling technique were used. Data was collected from Central Punjab, Pakistan, from February 2022 to December 2023. The grit scale was based on six factors, including Perseverance of Effort, Steadfastness in Adverse Situations, Perseverance-Commitment, Adaptability to New Situations, Spirited Initiative, and Consistency of Interest. Initially, 73 statements were developed using both inductive and deductive approaches. After expert evaluation, 70 out of 73 items were selected. A pilot study further reduced the scale to 62 items. For the exploratory factor, data was collected using a self-reported questionnaire from 600 participants. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity showed acceptable values above 0.6, indicating the sampling adequacy of the Grit Scale. The KMO value of the grit scale was 0.969. Further, for confirmatory factor analysis, data was collected again from 802 participants, and the CFI was 0.942, both with significant p-values of less than 0.01. The results indicated appropriate model fit indices for a significant model fit. The grit scale demonstrated high reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.942 at a p < 0.001 level of significance. After all analyses, 20 reliable and valid items were retained in the scale.
... Considering workers' characteristics, most resilient workers appear to possess a cognitive flexibility (9)(10)(11) that refers to a person's (a) sense of power -the awareness that in any given situation there are available options and alternatives -, (b) the willingness to be flexible and to adapt to the situation -, and (c) self-efficacy in being flexible -the perception of effectiveness in the adaptive processes (12). Numerous researches demonstrated that flexibility leads to healthier outcomes (13). ...
Objective: The main aim of the present study is to present the Occupational Resilience Assets Questionnaire (ORA-Q), a questionnaire developed in three different levels (organizational, occupational, and personal) for assessing resilience resources at work. The purpose of the ORA-Q is to improve and facilitate research on resilience processes in the workplaces. Further the stress-buffering valence of the considered dimensions have been tested, too.Methods: The development of the questionnaire is based on a survey of a sample of 1,518 Italian employees aged 18-55 years. Altogether 45 questions were tested with exploratory factor analysis, internal consistency and criterion validity. Results: All the scales have good reliability. Principal component analysis enable to identify the hypothesized factors. Logistic regression analysis confirm the role of all resilience assets as buffer against stress conditions.Conclusions: The Occupational Resilience Assets Questionnaire is a valid and reliable tool for international research and workplace surveys. The questionnaire seems to be comprehensive and to include the most relevant resilience resources according to several important theories on this topic. Differently from many tools for the assessment and improvement of the psychosocial work environment, the ORA-Q is useful as resilience measure in the workplace. Its three-level structure facilitates surveillance, benchmarking and evaluation of interventions.
... Martin and rubin (1995) ...
This study investigated the relationships between familial factors in terms of parental autonomy support and parental support and Vocational Education and Training (VET) students' learning motivation, learning approaches, and cognitive flexibility. In this cross-sectional study, a convenient sample of 557 VET students (males = 56.7% and females = 43.35; mean age = 18.41 and SD = 0.85) from ten vocational schools in Bangkok areas, Thailand, responded to a questionnaire of adapted scales on familial factors (i.e., parental autonomy support and parental support), learning motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation , extrinsic motivation, and utility value), learning approaches (i.e., deep learning approaches and surface learning approaches), and cognitive flexibility (i.e., alternatives). Structural equation analyses revealed that parental autonomy support had indirect relationship with alternatives via learning motivation and deep learning approaches, whereas parental support had both direct and indirect association with alternatives through learning motivation and deep learning approaches. Surface learning approaches were not found to significantly predict alternatives. These findings suggest that a familial context that stresses autonomy support and helpful support from parents can motivate VET students to learn and adopt deep approaches to learning, which in turn encourages the development of their cognitive flexibility.
Z Karmaşık travma, otuz yılı aşkın bir süredir üzerinde konuşulan bir kavram olmasına rağmen son yıllarda literatürde resmi bir tanı olarak yer bulmuştur. Bu nedenle karmaşık travma yaşayan bireylerin ortaya çıkan belirtilerle baş edebilmesi ve uygun klinik müdahaleler geliştirebilmek yaşanan ruhsal travmanın iyileştirilmesinde önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Bu çalışma, karmaşık travma ile travma sonrası büyüme arasındaki ilişkide bilişsel esneklik ve öz şefkatin aracı rollerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Araştırmada, travma sonrası büyümeyi destekleyen psikolojik süreçlerin anlaşılmasına katkıda bulunmak hedeflenmiştir. Bu kapsamda, 18-65 yaş aralığındaki 354 katılımcıdan elde edilen veriler Process Macro Hayes eklentisi ile Model 4 aracılık modeliyle analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular, karmaşık travmanın öz şefkati olumsuz yönde etkilediğini ve öz şefkatin travma sonrası büyüme üzerinde pozitif yönlü bir etkisi olduğunu göstermiştir. Ayrıca, bilişsel esneklik ve öz şefkatin karmaşık travma ve travma sonrası büyüme arasındaki ilişkide kısmi bir aracı değişken olduğu saptanmıştır. Bu sonuçlar, travma sonrası büyümenin desteklenmesinde bilişsel esneklik ve öz şefkatin önemli faktörler olabileceğini vurgulamaktadır. Çalışma, bireylerin travmatik deneyimlerden sonra büyüme ve dönüşüm süreçlerini optimize etmek için psikolojik müdahalelere yönelik öneriler sunmaktadır.
Notes that explanations of human behavior have generally favored unidirectional causal models emphasizing either environmental or internal determinants of behavior. In social learning theory, causal processes are conceptualized in terms of reciprocal determinism. Viewed from this perspective, psychological functioning involves a continuous reciprocal interaction between behavioral, cognitive, and environmental influences. The major controversies between unidirectional and reciprocal models of human behavior center on the issue of self influences. A self system within the framework of social learning theory comprises cognitive structures and subfunctions for perceiving, evaluating, and regulating behavior, not a psychic agent that controls action. The influential role of the self system in reciprocal determinism is documented through a reciprocal analysis of self-regulatory processes. Reciprocal determinism is proposed as a basic analytic principle for analyzing psychosocial phenomena at the level of intrapersonal development, interpersonal transactions, and interactive functioning of organizational and social systems. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Communication flexibility has long been recognized as an essential component of communication competence. This article reports the development of a communication flexibility scale and corresponding validity and reliability information. The Communication Flexibility Scale demonstrated acceptable levels of reliability; communication flexibility was positively related to social desirability and communication adaptability, yet was not related to rhetorical sensitivity. Discussion focused on future scale research and conceptual definitions of the constructs.
Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wide range of interpersonal responses and (b) situational appropriateness. Most current measures are based on standard trait ratings, which cannot address situational adjustment. In place of trait ratings, we suggest the use of capability ratings, that is, self-reports of the ease of performing social behaviors when required by the situation. Our proposed index of flexibility, the Functional Flexibility Index (FFI), is the composite of 16 interpersonal capabilities. In Study 1, factor analyses indicated that the FFI is distinct from other widely used flexibility measures. Study 2 supported the validity of the FFI by showing substantial correlations with peer ratings of interpersonal flexibility. In Studies 3 and 4, the FFI outperformed other flexibility measures in predicting adjustment. Another form of interpersonal variability,
situationality, is the tendency to view one's personality as being dependent on the situation. Situational individuals reported lower self-esteem than nonsituational individuals. Measures of functional flexibility and situationality were found to be orthogonal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A factor analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale yielded 3 replicated factors: Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness. Acting includes being good at and liking to speak and entertain. Other-Directedness is a willingness to change one's behavior to suit other people, and Extraversion is self-explanatory. Other-Directedness correlates positively with Shyness and Neuroticism and negatively with Self-Esteem. Extraversion correlates negatively with Shyness and positively with Self-Esteem and Sociability. Two of the scale's 3 factors, therefore, have opposite patterns of correlations with other personality dimensions. The 3 factors help to explain certain discrepancies found in previous research with the Self-Monitoring Scale. For future research, it is suggested that scores for each of the factors are more appropriate than full scale scores. It is concluded that there may be a gap between the construct of Self-Monitoring and the way it is operationalized in the scale. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A perspective is presented on communicative competence that is based on Erving Goffman's model of face‐to‐face society. The concept o£ interaction involvement is then explicated in relation to the model as a fundamentally important cognitive dimension of communicative competence. Data from two studies are reported to support the validity of the interaction involvement concept and its operational definition. The results are interpreted as being useful for future basic research on communicative competence as well as applications in classroom and other instructional settings.
The authors argue that learners who have achieved excellence in interpersonal communication should be able to set and achieve learning goals, collaborate with others, and adapt to situational changes. Five skills derived from the interpersonal competence paradigm are offered as potential focal points for instruction: empathic communication, descriptiveness, owning, self‐disclosure, and behavioral flexibility. Several teaching‐learning strategies are proposed, and methods of evaluating directly observable communication behaviors are presented.
This investigation hypothesized that (1) unwillingness to communicate is inversely related to amount of participation, information giving and information seeking in a small group discussion, (2) quality of decision making is inversely related to proportion of unwilling‐to‐communicate members, and (3) satisfaction with the decision is inversely related to individual unwillingness to communicate and proportion of unwilling members. Subjects completed a decision‐making task on a civil defense proposal then rated their satisfaction level. A priori ranks were assigned the decision alternatives to measure quality of decision‐making. Trained raters observed information giving, information seeking and total participation. Results supported all but the quality of decision‐making hypothesis.
Those who called in to talk radio programs tended to find face-to-face communication less rewarding, were less mobile, felt talk radio was more important to them, and listened for more hours a day than those who did not call but who did listen.
Proposes a social psychological construct of self-monitoring (self-observation and self-control guided by situational cues to social appropriateness) of expressive behavior and self-presentation. An internally consistent, temporally stable self-report measure of individual differences in self-monitoring was constructed. 4 converging laboratory and field studies of peer perception ratings, criterion group membership, self-control of facial and vocal emotional expressive behavior, and attention to normative social comparison information were conducted with undergraduates to demonstrate the convergent and discriminant validity of the Self-Monitoring Scale (SM). The use of SM to investigate hypotheses concerning consistency in expression across situations and between channels of expressive behavior is discussed. (28 ref)