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On Qualitative Difference in Learning. I - Outcome and Process

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Abstract

Describes an attempt to identify different levels of processing of information among groups of Swedish university students who were asked to read substantial passages of prose. Ss were asked questions about the meaning of the passages and also about how they set about reading the passages, thus allowing for the examination of processes and strategies of learning and the outcomes in terms of what is understood and remembered. It was posited that learning has to be described in terms of its content. From this point differences in what is learned, rather than differences in how much is learned, are described. It was found that in each study a number of categories (levels of outcome) containing basically different conceptions of the content of the learning task could be identified. The corresponding differences in level of processing are described in terms of whether the learner is engaged in surface-level or deep-level processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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... In the academic literature, learning approaches are defined as the ways, modes, or strategies that students employ when engaging in their academic activities (Biggs, 1989;Takase et al., 2019;Entwistle, 2021;Hernández et al., 2021;Ampuero, 2022). This theory emerged in the 1970s with authors such as Marton & Säljö (1976), who proposed the SAL (Student Approaches to Learning) theory, which has gained significant acceptance (Abalde et al., 2001). It differentiates itself from other classical concepts by dividing learning into two strategies, deep and surface learning, which are described as flexible, changing, and/or adaptable strategies depending on the student and their context (Coffield et al., 2004). ...
... It differentiates itself from other classical concepts by dividing learning into two strategies, deep and surface learning, which are described as flexible, changing, and/or adaptable strategies depending on the student and their context (Coffield et al., 2004). This perspective not only considers the processes and strategies but also emphasizes the results in terms of understanding and remembering (Marton & Säljö, 1976). ...
... All these concerns lead to thinking about learning from a different, more flexible perspective that considers both the individual and the context. In this regard, according to Marton & Säljö (1976), learning approaches study students' perceptions of academic activities, which are influenced by motivational and contextual factors. Additionally, they are related to academic experiences, which include the beliefs, opinions, feelings, and experiences that students have regarding their daily life at university (Almeida, Gomes & Soares, 1999;Borzone, 2017). ...
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Learning approaches and academic experiences are constructs of utmost relevance in the student's educational process. With the purpose of building a solid theoretical corpus, this study is carried out, the objective of which is to analyze the association that exists between these variables to understand the difficulties in learning in the university environment. The design was a basic associative type, collecting data from 472 university students of both sexes, using two instruments: the revised study processes questionnaire (R-CPE-2F), and the academic experiences questionnaire (QVA-R). The results show that these variables have a direct relationship (r=0.486) with a significance level of 0.000. It has also been shown that the deep approach has a greater relationship with attitudes towards study and the professional project, while the superficial approach has a greater relationship with personal well-being and interpersonal relationships. It is concluded that the experiences experienced by students as part of their process of adaptation to academic life are complex, but at the same time, they are important predictors in the adoption of preferences, ways and personal perspectives to learn, constituting an important finding. to promote deep learning approaches and improve the academic quality of future professionals.
... The integration of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Marton & Säljö's learning approaches provides a theoretical framework to understand these experiences [17,18]. Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) emphasizes the role of social interaction and guided learning in achieving higher cognitive functions [17]. ...
... In the context of e-learning, this underscores the importance of structured and supportive online environments. Marton & Säljö's distinction of how nursing students engage with digital approaches further informs our understanding of how nursing students engage with digital learning materials [18]. ...
... This aligns with research by Wong (2018), who found that small groups facilitate more personalized interactions and deeper engagement, which is vital in a practice-oriented field like nursing. These groups allow for a transition from superficial to deep learning approaches, as defined by Marton and Säljö [18], by fostering critical engagement with material and collaborative learning experiences. ...
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Background The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a swift transition to e-learning, significantly impacting nursing education due to its reliance on practical, hands-on experiences and the critical role nurses play in healthcare. Nursing students need to achieve high levels of clinical competence through experiences traditionally obtained in clinical settings, which e-learning had to replicate or supplement. Understanding the unique challenges faced by nursing students in e-learning environments is crucial for developing educational strategies that enhance learning outcomes and contribute to improved patient care. This study aimed to explore the experiences of nursing students and newly qualified nurses (as students) with e-learning during the COVID-19 lockdown, focusing on how it influenced their learning and professional development. Method This exploratory and descriptive study employed qualitative interviews with 31 participants, including full-time nursing students, part-time nursing students, and newly qualified nurses (as nursing students). Conducted online via Zoom during February and March 2022. Results The findings suggest that integrating small group interactions and employing strategic pedagogical support can enhance e-learning effectiveness. However, barriers such as technological difficulties, psychological challenges, and social isolation were also identified. Understanding these unique opportunities and challenges can help educational institutions optimize e-learning strategies, ensuring nursing students are well-prepared for their crucial roles in healthcare. Conclusion The rapid shift to e-learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic presented challenges such as technological, psychological and social aspects, but also opportunities to rethink and enhance nursing education delivery. Implementing appropriate pedagogical e-learning strategies, such as scaffolding and small group learning, can better prepare nursing students for their essential roles in healthcare. This study contributes to the body of knowledge on digital education and provides a foundation for future research aimed at optimizing e-learning in nursing education.
... In Chapter 2 -Relevant Literature, further arguments are made on why productive struggle should be considered in developmental mathematics, how students can be impacted by productive struggle, and how I, as the course instructor, can learn from my own practice. The specific lens through which I will argue my claims is described in the Conceptual Framework in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4 -Methodology and Methods, phenomenography (Marton & Säljö, 1976), the chosen methodology to investigate students' experiences, is described, along with how the Discipline of Noticing (Mason, 2002) embodies learning from my experience, as the instructor supporting students' struggles. Chapter 4 includes the design of the course supporting productive struggle. ...
... This need is further emphasized in the area of developmental mathematics, which lacks studies focusing on the affective domain of learning (Bonham & Boylan, 2011;Zientek et al., 2019). Thus, this section brings together the literature on productive struggle with deep approaches to learning (Marton & Säljö, 1976), affect (DeBellis & Goldin, 2006), perseverance (Middleton et al., 2015), and habits of mind (Cuoco et al., 1996) to consider the interaction between affective and cognitive domains during students' struggles. ...
... Trigwell, Prosser, andWaterhouse's (1999) large-scale quantitative study reported that students were more likely to adopt a surface approach when teaching focused on transmitting information. Approaches to learning refer to the ways in which students process their academic tasks (Marton & Säljö, 1976). Students adopting a surface approach tend to focus on concrete and literal aspects of the tasks rather than on the meaning (Biggs, 1991;Kember, Biggs, & Leung, 2004;Marton & Säljö, 1997). ...
Thesis
This dissertation highlights the potential of productive struggle in addressing the issues of teaching and learning in developmental mathematics. This research presents a course designed to support productive struggle, empirical findings on students' experiences and conceptions, and my own experience supporting students' struggles. The design of the course is oriented towards supporting productive struggle by engaging students with tasks that elicit uncertainty. Instruction was delayed, providing an opportunity to promote self-explanation as students explained and questioned their thinking with a partner. As the course instructor, I asked purposeful questions during students' engagement with the tasks to show students that struggle is a necessary part of learning. This environment is in stark contrast to skill-and-drill instruction often found in developmental mathematics classrooms. Empirical findings suggest that students experienced and conceptualized struggle and productive struggle in various ways. Significant to the findings was the connection to deep approaches to learning, persevering, positive affective structures, and habits of mind. Through phenomenography, semi-structured interviews were conducted, data was collected, and students' experiences and conceptions were analyzed. The findings bring focus to the affective nature of learning, a facet infrequently explored in developmental mathematics. More importantly, these findings starkly contrast with students' reliance on rote memorization often reported in developmental mathematics classrooms.
... Self-regulated learning (SRL; Zimmerman, 1986;Vermunt, 1996;Pintrich, 2000) describes students' processes of monitoring their learning and adopting meaningful study strategies. Student approaches to learning (SAL; Marton & Säljö, 1976;Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983;Entwistle & McCune, 2004), usually divided into deep and surface approach, focus on the intentions that a student has when coming to a learning situation. ...
... There is a long tradition of studying students' approaches to learning in higher education. Marton and Säljö (1976) investigated how university students read an academic text and process the information it contains. They identified two different ways of doing this: surface processing and deep processing. ...
... In several studies, deep approach to learning has been linked to high academic achievement and surface approach to learning to lower academic achievement (e.g., Marton & Säljö, 1976;Trigwell & Prosser, 1991;Minbashian et al., 2004;Diseth & Martinsen, 2003;Diseth, 2007). In particular, the combination of a deep approach to learning and organised studying seems to be positively linked to study success (e.g., Diseth, 2003;Haarala-Muhonen et al., 2017). ...
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This study explores the relationship between approaches to learning and self-regulation of learning. Approaches to learning characterise students’ intentions and strategies regarding learning and studying, divided into deep and surface approaches together with organised studying. Self-regulation of learning is a process of monitoring and directing one’s affect and behaviour in learning. It is known that self-regulation correlates with approaches to learning, but the direction of influence has not been demonstrated empirically. Measurements were taken in a first-year mathematics course on 103 Finnish undergraduates. Cross-lagged panel analysis was used to study the direction of time-lagged influence. The results revealed that significant influence existed from self-regulation to deep approach and organised studying, and from lack of regulation and external regulation to surface approach. Based on the results, we conclude that it is important for researchers and practitioners to take self-regulation into consideration when measuring approaches to learning or designing interventions.
... In the deep approach, students try to engage actively in understanding the significance of the text or material they are interacting with, striving to forge connections between new experiences, concepts, and ideas and their pre-existing knowledge and understanding. On the other hand, a surface approach entails a more passive engagement with the material, where students invest minimal cognitive effort to meet task requirements [19][20][21]. Abbas et al. [16] found that students who experienced high academic workload and time pressure to finish their tasks reported higher use of ChatGPT. Furthermore, the students who frequently used ChatGPT were more likely to engage in procrastination than those who rarely used the tool [16] (p. ...
... Students are evaluating whether the immediate benefits of using AI chatbots genuinely translate into long-term increases in performance or academic growth. This ambiguity can be understood through the lens of Marton and Säljö's "approaches to learning" [21]. If students use AI chatbots as part of a deep approach to learning by probing underlying concepts and spending time understanding connections, the technology could potentially enhance learning and comprehension. ...
... The role of the university teacher becomes pivotal, potentially acting as both a course designer and a mentor to guide students toward the ethical and functional use of AI chatbots, encouraging deep learning approaches and critical reflection. As Biggs states, students' approaches to learning are profoundly impacted by their perceptions of the learning environment, their abilities, and the employed teaching strategies [21]. Negative perceptions of the learning environment or low self-efficacy may result in a surface learning approach, focusing on memorization, shortcuts, and obtaining good grades [21]. ...
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With the recent arrival of publicly available AI chatbots like ChatGPT, Copilot, Gemini, and Claude follows a need for knowledge about how students in higher education perceive and use these tools, and what this might mean for their learning processes. This scoping review analyzes 24 empirical articles published between 1 January 2022 and 5 September 2023 on students’ perceptions and use of AI chatbots in higher education. The articles were reviewed using a five-stage scoping review methodology. The findings underscore a global research interest in how students engage with AI chatbots, which is especially pronounced in Asia. The studies span diverse disciplines, with a predominance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines. The empirical findings reveal that students perceive AI chatbots as highly useful and motivating as personal task assistants and for getting immediate feedback and help with writing, coding, and academic tasks. However, students are concerned about the accuracy and reliability of the responses from the chatbots, as well as potential negative impacts on their learning processes, critical thinking, discipline, and creativity. The purpose-driven use of AI chatbots among students and their potentially positive influence on motivation and learning processes offer insights for educators and policymakers. Our research concludes that while positive attitudes, perceptions, and critical use prevail, addressing students’ concerns is crucial for responsible AI integration in higher education.
... There is a long history of research on students' approaches to learning (SAL) globally, especially in the higher education context (e.g., [9,22,68]). Earlier studies by [44] distinguished two different ways students processed information: deep and surface. Students who adopt deep processing have the intention of comprehending the meaning of the information, while those who use surface processing in their learning have the aim of memorizing details, without much regard for understanding [45]. ...
... Students who adopt deep processing have the intention of comprehending the meaning of the information, while those who use surface processing in their learning have the aim of memorizing details, without much regard for understanding [45]. Therefore, SAL has often been referred to as students' intentions to learn and study, and the learning processes they use to achieve their learning objectives (e.g., [11,19,44]). In the 1980s, a third approach to learning, namely an organised studying [21] (also known as strategic approach [22], or achieving approach [9]), was added as assessment criteria and practices also guide the way students learn. ...
... To do so, students are expected to develop critical thinking skills and have a good understanding of the subject domain during university [4]. A way to assess if students have succeeded in developing these competencies is to examine their approaches to learning, because it concerns their intentions to learn and the learning processes that they adopt to attain their goals (e.g., [11,19,44]). ...
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Assessing students’ approaches to learning (SAL) is crucial for evaluating their critical thinking abilities and subject domain comprehension. A deep approach and organised studying have been linked to lower study-related burnout, while an unreflective approach is associated with elevated levels of burnout. Despite evidence of the SAL–burnout connection, limited research exists on the bidirectional relationship between the two constructs. This study aims to fill this research gap by analysing changes in SAL and burnout during the freshmen year and determining whether there exists a reciprocal relationship between these constructs. Freshmen data was collected from two cohorts (Cohort 1, n = 261; Cohort 2, n = 216) at the beginning and end of their first year. Findings revealed increased overall burnout, exhaustion, cynicism, and inadequacy from T1 to T2 in both cohorts. Deep approach decreased across T1 and T2 in both cohorts, while organised studying decreased in Cohort 1 but remained unchanged in Cohort 2. Conversely, unreflective approach decreased in Cohort 1 but increased in Cohort 2. Bidirectionality between SAL and burnout was observed in both cohorts, indicating that higher unreflective approach could lead to increased cynicism, and vice-versa. These findings highlight the importance of recognizing the interplay between unreflective approach and cynicism for interventions targeting reduction in unreflective approaches and emphasizes the need to consider the potential unintended consequences of heightening freshmen’s cynical attitudes towards studying when attempting to reduce unreflective approach.
... Learner-centered methods involve a state in which students construct their own understanding and develop a personal feeling about the learned concepts, which is compatible with a deep approach to learning rather than a surface approach to learning (Asikainen & Gijbels 2017;Entwistle & Ramsden 1983;and Collins, 2003). Studies by Marton andSaljo (1976), Colander (1997), Biggs (1987), and Prosser & Trigwell (1999) show that students' learning outcomes result from approaches to learning. For example, when students use a surface approach to learning, they develop a surface understanding. ...
... A teacher-centered approach that is compatible with surface learning reduces the quality of graduates and may lower their efficiency at work. The cited studies, such as Marton and Saljo (1976), Colander (1997), Biggs (1987), and Prosser & Trigwell (1999), were conducted in various higher learning institutions, specifically in the fields of psychology, law, nursing, and business. However, they did not specifically focus on educationoriented disciplines, such as teacher education. ...
Article
This study examined the influence of teaching methods on approaches to student learning in teacher education. The study was conducted at Ilonga and Dakawa teacher’s colleges in the Morogoro region. The study adopted Bigg’s 3Ps (Presage, Process, and Product) model. This model helped in relating teaching aspects and students’ approaches to learning because it links the students’ prior experiences with their perceptions of the learning context, their approaches to learning, and their learning outcomes. Data were obtained from a sample of 32 respondents through purposive sampling. Students were categorised into high- and low-performing groups. Data were subjected to content analysis and presented verbatim. The study findings revealed that, despite receiving many professional trainings on learner-centered teaching from teachers colleges, many tutors still use less participatory methods. Additionally, the majority of teaching in teachers colleges has relied on teacher centered approaches, such as lectures and storytelling, with only a few instances of a learner-centered approach. It was also found that there is a close relationship between teaching methods and students’ approaches to learning. It is recommended that tutors use learner centered teaching to encourage more students to adopt a deeper approach to learning. Additionally, tutors should encourage students to study for understanding rather than relying on memorization as a learning method. The need for further research on the factors that make tutors avoid learner-centered methodology is significant.
... Når studerende arbejder med problembaseret laering udvikler de dybdelaerings strategier-de laerer på et dybdelaeringsniveau (Marton & Säljö, 1976;Trigwell, Prosser, & Waterhouse, 1999). ...
... Laeringsteoretisk kan der skelnes mellem et overflade-og et dybdelaeringsniveau. Den dybe laering daekker over evnen til at taenke kritisk og udvikle personlig indsigt og forståelse for emnet, mens den overfladiske laering i højere grad består af reproduktion af viden, der kan anvendes til et bestemt formål, men som ikke for alvor saetter den laerende i stand til forstå stoffet og selv tage stilling (Marton & Säljö, 1976;Trigwell et al., 1999). Dybdelaering udvikles ved at den studerende selv tilegner sig stof på en sådan måde at den studerende kan formidle det til andre og får en dybere forståelse for emnet ved at diskutere denne viden med andre. ...
Article
I denne artikel fremlægger vi en undersøgelse af effekten af at bruge PBL med forumspil i interprofessionelle læringsforløb og vi diskuterer hvorfor disse metoder støtter studerendes og underviseres motivation for at indgå i et interprofessionelt læringsforløb. Undersøgelsen blev foretaget via tilrettelæggelse og gennemførelse af et konkret, interprofessionelt undervisningsforløb for to klasser omkring temaet ”konflikthåndtering” ud fra en PBL-ramme. Der blev foretaget dataindsamling via spørgeskema- og interviewundersøgelse, samt supplerende kvalitative dataindsamlingsmetoder, for at opnå indsigt i både kvantitative og kvalitative aspekter af studerendes og underviseres vurdering af forløbet og metoderne. Undersøgelsen peger på at PBL-metoden kan give et fælles og udviklende afsæt for underviserne og danne basis for meningsfuldt gruppearbejde for de studerende. De studerendes aktive deltagelse stimuleres og den personlige feedback til de studerende, der arbejdes med i vejledningerne, er stærkt motiverende og engagerende. Samtidig opnår de studerende at tilegne sig en ny, og, for de fleste studerende, anderledes studielæringsmetode. Forumspillet anvendes som en del af et PBL-baseret undervisningsforløb. De studerende oplever denne læringsform som meget motiverende, specielt fordi den kobler teori og praksis. Forumspillet kombinerer teorien med mere personlige og følelsesmæssige aspekter, det skaber bevidsthed om egne følelser og opmærksomhed på betydningen af en anerkendende tilgang. Resultaterne viser at PBL med forumspil kan være relevante metoder at anvende i interprofessionelle undervisningsforløb hvor manglende motivation og ringe deltagelse blandt studerende er fremherskende.
... Using sources in a skilled way is also linked to a deep approach to learning. Marton and Säljö (1976) suggest that students who engage in surface learning rather than deep learning focus on the words in the text rather than the meaning of the text. This can be linked to what Howard et al. (2010) term writing from sentences, rather than writing from sources. ...
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This study explores upper-secondary school students’ source-based writing skills and what teachers can focus on to improve these skills. The students who participated were enrolled in university preparatory programmes at a Swedish municipal upper-secondary school. The results are based on 73 texts written by students in the subject Swedish (first-language education) and 11 interviews based on the students’ texts. Before the interviews, I went through the students’ texts and prepared questions about their use of sources. I use phenomenography to describe four different ways of using sources and variation theory to identify four critical aspects of learning this skill. To use sources in the most developed way, students need to be able to discern that: (1) acknowledging sources varies with literacy practice; (2) ideas from sources support arguments in own writing; (3) own ideas are separate from those of others; and (4) sources are compared and evaluated throughout the writing process. These critical aspects can be used to plan the teaching of source-based writing for upper-secondary school students.
... Conceptions of deep approaches to learning and assessment have changed over the last 20 years to keep pace with better understandings of learning and also the needs of 4th industrial age societies. Marton and Säljö (1976), in describing how students went about learning, described a deep approach as one where students sought to construct meaning for themselves. More recently, Schneider and Preckel (2017) identified that the students who were most successful in higher education adopted highly strategic approaches to assessment and feedback, demonstrating discernment in where they placed effort. ...
... At the end of the learning phase, all participants were asked to complete the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) [70] to evaluate the quality of the teaching methods they experienced. Developed by researchers from the UK and Australia, the CEQ measures key aspects of students' learning experiences [49,50,70] based on the concept of student learning approaches [40,41]. It assesses how students perceive course features that promote either deep or surface learning approaches, providing insight into significant teaching aspects that influence learning, rather than measuring learning outcomes directly. ...
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Participation in music activities has many benefits, but often requires music theory knowledge and aural skills, which can be challenging for beginners. To help them engage more easily, it's crucial to adopt teaching strategies that lower these barriers. Informed by formative investigation and inspired by LEGO, we introduce ArchiTone, a gamified system that employs constructivism by visualizing music theory concepts as musical blocks and buildings for music education. This system includes two modes: Learning Mode, which involves recognizing and learning common musical blocks through familiar musical works; Creation Mode, which allows learners to freely create and combine musical blocks to produce new musical works. User studies demonstrate that our gamified system is not only more engaging than traditional music education methods but also more effective in helping learners understand abstract music theory and apply it to music praxis. Additionally, learners demonstrate superior performance on music theory tasks after using ArchiTone.
... 21,22 Stress and cognitive load, factors noted to be associated with remote learning during the pandemic 23,24 have been shown to diminish the student's ability to use prior knowledge for future encoding. 25 Although self-directed learning places a higher demand on the physiotherapy student in developing effective cognitive structures, 15,26 self-efficacy has been found to correlate with course grades for physiotherapy students in a clinical anatomy course. 27 Research on gross anatomy in medical education has traditionally focused on anatomical knowledge competencies 28,29 with preliminary attempts made to develop a core gross anatomy syllabus for physiotherapy students. ...
Article
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Cognitive structures are the mental representation of domain knowledge and its organization. A preliminary investigation of the cognitive structure of gross anatomy knowledge was conducted on physiotherapy students. The criterion‐related validation study examined two data modeling strategies (multidimensional scaling and Pathfinder networks) as potential visual and quantitative representations of cognitive structure. Two criterion standards were used: expert cognitive structure (concurrent) and the student's unit grade (predictive). The raw data for both data modeling strategies were generated from an online survey of paired comparisons of 20 anatomical structures and concepts relevant to musculoskeletal clinical practice. Convenience sampling was used to recruit first‐semester physiotherapy students (n = 31), gross anatomy course instructors (n = 4), and domain experts (n = 3) who completed the online survey. The results indicated moderate‐to‐high effect sizes, regarding the level of agreement (reliability, accuracy, and association) between student and expert cognitive structures. Multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the potential relationships with unit grades. Six predictor variables accounted for 68.9% of the variance in unit grade, indicating a large effect size. The results provide preliminary evidence of concurrent and predictive criterion‐related validity for using data modeling strategies to represent cognitive structure in this knowledge domain and population. Further research is indicated to assess the potential impact of this innovative use of data modeling strategies for cognitive structure mapping on gross anatomy education, adaptive learning, and competency‐based education, leading to the long‐term development of expertise.
... We chose to analyse the interview transcripts using a phenomenographic approach, which, as described by Marton (1981), allows the researcher to characterise and categorise the variation across the ways in which participants are experiencing a phenomenon (Marton 1974(Marton , 1981Marton and Säljö 1976). This approach allows comparison across the population as well as across sampling stages (Marton and Pong 2005). ...
Article
University curriculum systems are complex, and their modification requires coordinating multiple processes and broad consultation with teaching academics and leaders. Strong influences including policy changes and external disruptions can bring about rapid system-wide change, but these are not without stress and may not be sustainable. To appreciate how disruptions influence university teaching and learning over the longer term, we need to better understand how teachers respond. We examined the experiences of teaching academics during the disruption of COVID-19, using the relational 3P model as a guiding framework. Using phenomenographic analyses, we defined three key categories within which academics’ experiences varied: Teaching & Learning; Support, and their Role. Teachers’ perceptions of support and role were intertwined, forming a broader context than described by the relational 3P model. We suggest a modified model to better align with academics’ experiences during change, upon which supportive structures and processes can be designed.
... For instance, Teacher A's question about how changes in the repo rate might affect employment levels requires students to apply their knowledge of monetary policy to a real-world scenario and analyse its potential impacts. This approach aligns with the concept of deep learning as described by Marton and Säljö (1976). By encouraging students to consider broader implications and interconnections, such as linking interest rates to inflation targeting or perfect competition to real-world market factors, the teachers promote a deeper understanding of economic concepts rather than surface-level learning. ...
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Research on assessment feedback practices in economics education within South African public schools has been limited, particularly in terms of teachers' motivations and approaches. This study addresses this gap by exploring the reasons and motivations behind Grade 10-12 Economics teachers' use of assessment feedback in three public schools in South Africa. A qualitative case study design was employed, involving three teachers at different career stages. Data was collected through semi-structured individual interviews and document analysis of feedback samples. Thematic analysis, informed by the concept of feedback literacy, was used to analyse the data. The findings revealed two primary motivations: using assessment feedback for academic growth and providing feedback for real-world application. Teachers viewed feedback as a crucial tool for enhancing students' understanding of economic concepts and preparing them for future academic and professional challenges. The study concludes that teachers' feedback practices align with contemporary educational theories and demonstrate a commitment to contextualising economics education within the South African environment. Recommendations include implementing targeted professional development programs to enhance feedback literacy, revising curricula to incorporate opportunities for meaningful feedback, and conducting further research across diverse educational contexts. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of assessment practices in Economics education and has implications for teacher professional development and curriculum design in South African public schools, ultimately aiming to develop economically literate and critically engaged citizens.
... Analysis of the assessment outcomes allows the categorization of participants into three distinct levels of knowledge integration: novice, intermediate, and expertlike [36]. These levels represent a developmental progression from superficial understanding to deep conceptual comprehension [36,37]. ...
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Student learning in simple electric circuits has been an important area in physics education research. This study builds off a previous investigation that applied the conceptual framework model to examine knowledge integration in student learning of simple electric circuits and developed a multiple-choice concept test for assessing knowledge integration in simple electric circuits. In this study, a conceptual-framework-based teaching intervention was developed and implemented in a controlled study with high school students in China to evaluate the effectiveness of the new instruction. Using the instrument developed in the previous study, a pretest, a post-test, and a delayed post-test were conducted with both groups of students. The delayed post-test was included to further evaluate knowledge retention as evidence of knowledge integration. The results suggest that the conceptual-framework-based teaching intervention was effective in promoting knowledge integration compared to the existing instruction. Published by the American Physical Society 2024
... Ennis emphasized that Critical Thinking is a fundamental goal of contemporary education and asserted that Critical Thinking is essential to prepare students to deal with complex real-world problems (Ennis, 2018). Marton and Sä ljö (1976) proposed the deep learning theory to distinguish between surface learning and deep learning. Surface learning involves superficial exposure to materials, while deep learning requires a thorough understanding and the ability to apply knowledge in different contexts. ...
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This study aims to develop and evaluate a Chinese language course designed to enhance college students' critical thinking skills through the integration of deep learning theory and Outcome-Based Education (OBE). The research specifically addresses two questions: (1) What are the characteristics of a Chinese language course that integrates Deep Learning Theory and OBE? (2) What are the effects of this course on promoting critical thinking skills among undergraduate students? The study employs a quasi-experimental design, involving 120 undergraduate students divided into a control group and a test group from Nan fang College, Guangzhou, China. The control group received conventional teaching methods, while the test group participated in the newly developed course. Data were collected through pre-tests and post-tests using California critical thinking skills test (Chinese version), as well as semi-structured interviews. Results indicate a significant improvement in the critical thinking skills of students in the test group compared to the control group. The test group showed higher mean scores and lower standard deviations in post-test results, demonstrating the effectiveness of the course in enhancing critical thinking abilities. Qualitative data from interviews supported these findings, highlighting increased student engagement and deeper understanding of course materials. The findings suggest that this integrated approach can be effectively implemented in other educational contexts to achieve similar outcomes.
... Because academic self-efficacy beliefs may represent stable beliefs in one's ability to deal with academic tasks [53], we wanted to explore whether identification processes may also influence how working students approach the way they learn more dynamically. Therefore, we explored whether discipline identification or employee identification is associated with choosing approaches to learning [54] and academic achievement in Study 2. The two approaches to learning (deep and surface) consider how the learner uses the information they obtain in response to a given academic task [55]. The deep approach to learning signals an intrinsic desire in the learner to consume information to improve their own understanding of the material [56]. ...
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Previous research has linked working for pay while attending university with negative academic and health outcomes; yet, working students are often resilient when experiencing such adverse circumstances. This makes it crucial to explore potential psychological mechanisms that transform adverse experiences into sources of motivation and persistence for working students. We explore one mechanism—social identification—and its different foci—identifying as a student, employee, working student, or a student of one’s discipline of study—as potential predictors of important academic (academic self-efficacy, approaches to learning, and academic achievement) and social (status in society) outcomes in three cross-sectional studies. In Study 1, part-time working hours (but not identification processes) were associated with academic self-efficacy. In Study 2, discipline identification and part-time working hours were associated with using deep approaches to learning. In Study 3, student identification was associated with increased status in society. Overall, discipline identification may be solely linked to academic outcomes, but student identification should be explored further as a potential enhancer of social and graduate outcomes. We discuss additional mechanisms that can help to transform working students’ experiences through their social identities and suggest boundary conditions that can affect the link between these identities and important outcomes.
... Lärande finns inte som något i sig självt. Vi lär oss alltid något (det vill säga, det finns alltid ofrånkomligen någon sorts innehåll i vad vi lär; se Marton & Säljö, 1976, för en tidig diskussion), vi kan inte lära inget (däremot kan vi lära oss att lära, att utveckla förmågan att få med oss mer från vad vi erfar och vad vi deltar i för aktiviteter). Lärande är ett mycket vitt fenomen -i en allmän mening kan vi säga att vi tar med oss något från alla situationer och möten -vi lär alltid något, frågan är bara vad. ...
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I denna artikel presenteras en teoretisk utveckling av undervisning och en didaktik relevant för förskolans sätt att organisera för barns lärande och utveckling i relation till lek. Teoretiseringen är empiriskt grundad i ett kombinerat utvecklings- och forskningsprojekt och syntetiserar insikter från ett flertal disciplinära traditioner. I projektet har förskollärare, utvecklingsledare och förskolechefer tillsammans med forskare studerat olika sätt varpå förskollärare söker tillträde till och medverkar i barns lek. Undervisning teoretiseras som en aktivitet – det vill säga som något som görs gemensamt av deltagare (förskollärare och barn) – i kontrast till instruktion som en handling. Några av de viktiga begrepp som används för att klargöra undervisningförlopp i förskolan såsom spänningen mellan tillfälligt tillräcklig intersubjektivitet och alteritet och skiften och relationer mellan ’som om’ och ’som är’ klargörs. Lek förstås i perspektivet inte som något att basera undervisning på (så kallad lekbaserad undervisning), som sedan kan lämnas; istället förstås undervisning som responsiv lek som en potentiell dimension av varje undervisande aktivitet i förskolan. Play-responsive teaching: A concept of teaching and a 'didaktik' for preschool In this article, we present a theoretical elaboration of teaching and a ’didaktik’ (as distinct to didactics) aligned with how preschool organizes for children’s learning and development in relation to play. This theorizing is both empirically grounded, in a combined development and research project, and synthesizes insights from a number of disciplinary traditions. In the project preschool teachers, development leaders, and preschool heads, together with researchers, have studied different ways in which preschool teachers seek entrance into, and participate in, children’s play. Teaching is theorized as an activity – that is, as something mutually constituted by participants (preschool teachers and children) – in contrast to instruction as an action. Some of the key concepts employed in analyzing teaching trajectories in preschool, such as the inherent tension between temporarily sufficient intersubjectivity and alterity, and the fluctuation and relations between ’as if’ and ’as is’ are clarified. Play is understood in this perspective not as something to base teaching on (so called play-based teaching), as something that can subsequently be left behind; rather, teaching is understood as inherently responsive to play, as a potential dimension of any teaching activity in preschool.
... The concept of deep learning, initially proposed by Marton and Säljö (1976), categorises students as deep-level or surface-level processors, based on their approach to acquiring and processing information. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive objectives emphasises six dimensions of learning, highlighting the progression from surface-level understanding to profound comprehension (Anderson et al., 2009). ...
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Background The introduction of Small Private Online Courses (SPOCs) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction at Higher Vocational Colleges (HVCs) signifies a shift in education. Understanding the factors that affect deep learning in this SPOC context is crucial for improving educational outcomes. Objectives By employing grounded theory, we seek to explore the key factors that shape deep learning experiences for students in SPOC learning environments at HVCs and clarify the interrelationships among these influencing factors. Methods Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with 18 EFL students and 4 teachers and NVivo 11 software was utilised to aid in the qualitative analysis of the collected data. Through a rigorous three‐tier coding analysis, an “environment‐person‐mediation ‐behaviour” (EPMB) model was constructed, aiming to clarify the mechanisms that influence deep learning among EFL students in HVCs. Results Our findings reveal that intrinsic motivation and cognitive abilities are crucial for deep learning among EFL students in HVCs. Blended learning settings, English curriculum satisfaction, and English teachers' teaching methods serve as situational influencing factors. These factors are interconnected, mediating positive or negative effects on deep learning through various intermediaries like continuity, attraction, guidance, motivation, and regulation. Implications The findings offer pedagogical insights for HVC stakeholders, enabling them to enhance students' deep learning experiences.
... Through continuous reflection, learners can internalize knowledge and transform it into understanding and practical application, which is very important for the development of higher-order cognitive levels. (Marton & Sä ljö, 1976). Some practices further prove that high-frequency interactions can significantly enhance students' conceptual understanding and task execution capabilities, thereby providing strong support for developing higher-order cognitive skills (Lee, 2023). ...
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In the information era, how learners find, evaluate, and effectively use information has become a challenging issue, especially with the added complexity of large language models (LLMs) that have further confused learners in their information retrieval and search activities. This study attempts to unpack this complexity by combining exploratory search strategies with the theories of exploratory learning to form a new theoretical model of exploratory learning from the perspective of students' learning. Our work adapts Kolb's learning model by incorporating high-frequency exploration and feedback loops, aiming to promote deep cognitive and higher-order cognitive skill development in students. Additionally, this paper discusses and suggests how advanced LLMs integrated into information retrieval and information theory can support students in their exploratory searches, contributing theoretically to promoting student-computer interaction and supporting their learning journeys in the new era with LLMs.
... Djupnelaeringsomgrepet som er nedfelt i Laereplanverket Kunnskapsløftet 2020 (LK20) er forsøkt tilpassa den norske skulekonteksten. Omgrepet bygger mellom anna på internasjonal forsking som skil mellom djupne-og overflatelaering (Gilje et al., 2018;Marton & Säljö, 1976;NOU 2014: 7;Sawyer, 2005). Stortingsmelding 28 Fag- Fordypning-Forståelse (2015 set overflatelaering i kontrast til djupnelaering, forklart som innlaering av faktakunnskap som ikkje vert sett i ein større samanheng (Meld. ...
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... Therefore, the performance in problem-solving may result in a false evaluation of students' learning. It is possible that the learners are only engaged in surface-level processing (Marton & Säljö, 1976) ...
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Background Both learning and problem solving are major goals of complex problem solving in engineering education. The order of knowledge construction and problem solving in learning through problem solving, however, has not been explained in current literature. Objectives To understand their relationships, this study compared the effects of different goal type orders on collaborative simulation‐based inquiry in engineering problem solving. Methods In the study, 24 engineering undergraduate students worked in pairs to solve a wind tunnel problem using a computer simulation application. Process mining and epistemic network analysis were used to model the inquiry process and identify inquiry patterns based on the log data and discussion discourse. Results and Conclusions The results showed the goal type of first assigned subtask influenced the inquiry strategies of medium‐performance learners most. In addition, the goal type of first assigned subtask had influence on learners' inquiry process. The learners assigned with a problem‐solving goal subtask first (Problem solving goal‐Learning goal condition) had more simulation trials and centered their inquiry discourse around clarification while the learners assigned with a learning goal subtask first (Learning goal‐Problem solving goal condition) connected reflection with other inquiry phases more often. The findings of this study suggested assigning a learning goal subtask first in simulated‐based complex engineering problem solving could be used as an idea‐centered scaffolding, especially for medium‐performance learners. However, low‐performance learners would experience a “situate knowledge paradox” and needs extra guidance. It is important to monitor the knowledge construction process in complex problem solving, even when seeking a solution is the major task.
... 'Model-Based Systems Engineering' Grading Structure Students benefit from a wide range of learning styles. Accordingly, it has been recommended that instructors incorporate a range of teaching styles in their classroom19,20 . The 'Model-Based Systems Engineering' course offered by UA incorporates multiple teaching styles and techniques, including: • Instructional: instructors present terms and concepts in a traditional classroom style • Examples: instructors present examples of how these concept can be applied • Interactive demonstrations: all member of the classroom work together to develop a model • Discussions: students participate in discussion regarding a particular modeling topic ...
... A study (Marton & Säljö, 1976) introducing the concepts of a deep learning and a surface learning approach found that students who tried to obtain a genuine understanding of the academic material had a deep approach to learning. This type of student attaches personal value to the concepts and knowledge gained in class. ...
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The industrial world has witnessed an increased demand for computing based skills due to the advent of robotics, artificial intelligence, and analytics. However, the learning of computer programming is challenging and requires an intensive cognitive effort to attain a high degree of skill and expertise. Given this phenomenon, this study undertook to ascertain the factors that influence proficiency in computer programming. The study adopted a quantitative approach and a survey research strategy, guided by a conceptual model. A survey questionnaire was designed as the primary source of data collection. The respondents comprised students who were enrolled for Information Systems and Technology (IT) courses at a higher education institution. The main factors that were identified as significant predictors of computer programming performance were Problem-Solving Ability and Self-Efficacy. The findings contribute to enhancing computer programming pedagogy, which could lead to enhanced student performance in assessment, and validation of the conceptual model.
... In contrast to surface learning, deep learning (DL) involves a deliberate process wherein the learner actively interprets the text to establish connections with preexisting knowledge, synthesize ideas into coherent entities, and ultimately solve complex problems to make innovative decisions [10,11]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the utilization of DL methods can help foster the growth and development of higher-order cognitive skills among learners, including critical thinking and integrative thinking [12,13]. ...
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The advent of online education has become indispensable for nursing students seeking to acquire knowledge. However, the efficacy of online education often falls short of initial expectations. Deep learning (DL) can assist learners tackle complex problems and make innovative decisions. Despite its potential, there has been limited exploration into the underlying mechanisms of DL among nursing students, both domestically and globally. This study examined the potential moderating effect of psychological capital (PC) on the association between academic self-concept (AS-c) and DL among nursing students from China enrolled in online courses. Conducted from October 2022 to January 2023, the survey involved 635 nursing students from four public universities in eastern China, utilizing convenience sampling. Data was collected using the AS-c scale, psychological capital scale, and DL scale in online courses. Correlation analyses, univariate analyses, multiple linear regression analyses, and the PROCESS macro were employed for a comprehensive examination. The results revealed a strong positive relationship between nursing students' DL and both their AS-c (r = 0.766, P < 0.01) and PC (r = 0.714, P < 0.01), respectively. Additionally, the effect of AS-c on DL was stronger among individuals with high PC (β = 0.34, SE = 0.03, P < 0.001) compared to those with low (β = 0.29, SE = 0.02, P < 0.001) or medium (β = 0.24, SE = 0.02, P < 0.001) levels of PC, indicating that PC exerts moderating effects and promotes DL among nursing students enrolled in online courses. Based on these findings, several implications are suggested for the theory and practice of facilitating DL.
... Gerritsen et al. [22] studied the perceptions of 204 higher education students based on six aspects of assessment quality: effects on learning, fairness, conditions, interpretation of test scores, authenticity, and credibility. They found that students who had more positive perceptions of the effects of assessment on learning were more likely to employ deeper and strategic learning approaches, whereas students who had negative perceptions were more likely to apply a surface learning approach, which has been linked to worse learning outcomes [53]. They argue that this is due to students deepening their approach if they find the assessment appropriately challenging and motivating. ...
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Programming skills are typically developed through completing various hands-on exercises. Such programming problems can be contextualized to students' interests and cultural backgrounds. Prior research in educational psychology has demonstrated that context personalization of exercises stimulates learners' situational interests and positively affects their engagement. However, creating a varied and comprehensive set of programming exercises for students to practice on is a time-consuming and laborious task for computer science educators. Previous studies have shown that large language models can generate conceptually and contextually relevant programming exercises. Thus, they offer a possibility to automatically produce personalized programming problems to fit students' interests and needs. This article reports on a user study conducted in an elective introductory programming course that included contextually personalized programming exercises created with GPT-4. The quality of the exercises was evaluated by both the students and the authors. Additionally, this work investigated student attitudes towards the created exercises and their engagement with the system. The results demonstrate that the quality of exercises generated with GPT-4 was generally high. What is more, the course participants found them engaging and useful. This suggests that AI-generated programming problems can be a worthwhile addition to introductory programming courses, as they provide students with a practically unlimited pool of practice material tailored to their personal interests and educational needs.
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The teaching–learning process has undergone a profound transformation in recent years. The traditional lecture-based classroom model is increasingly being replaced by innovative methodologies that promote student autonomy, while still benefiting from teacher guidance and support. This shift is largely driven by the development of information and communication technologies, which provide students with immediate access to vast amounts of information. Additionally, the promotion of skills such as group work and oral communication, essential competencies within the current European framework of higher education, is emphasized. In the context of teaching Tax Law at the University of Almeria, we implemented a method involving group preparation and subsequent class presentations on various topics. To evaluate the effectiveness of this methodology, we surveyed students at the end of a four-month period, collecting 65 valid responses. The data, analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), revealed that the length of the assigned topic, the number of group members, and their formation method are critical factors, explaining 57.20% of the variance in teamwork and public presentation skills. Moreover, 76.80% of effective subject learning is explained by the time dedicated to study, the depth of study, and the level of autonomy achieved. Students identified the primary negative aspect as inequality in the level of commitment and work among group members. However, they also highlighted the benefits of learning to work collaboratively and overcoming the fear of public speaking.
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In the era of digital transformation, the integration of information technology into learning has posed challenges and opportunities. Navigating the global knowledge economy requires individuals to acquire skills facilitating adaptation to evolving economic and societal landscapes. Deep learning, recognized as pivotal for addressing real-world challenges and fostering adaptive capabilities, has garnered attention in educational research. This study investigates the effect of a deep learning teaching approach on the academic achievement of computer science students at a higher vocational institution. Employing an experimental research method with an experimental and control group, the study involved pre- and post-tests for first-grade computer science students. Results from a quasi-experimental analysis at a vocational college reveal that the implementation of deep learning teaching methods significantly enhanced both deep learning levels and academic performance in the experimental group, surpassing the outcomes of the control group under traditional teaching methods. Statistical analyses, including paired samples t-tests and independent samples t-tests, underscore the ineffectiveness of traditional teaching in fostering deep learning levels. The study provides robust evidence supporting the practical and substantial benefits of integrating deep learning methods into educational practices, emphasizing their potential for enhancing student outcomes.
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O tema deste ensaio teórico objetiva . A questão que norteou esta produção foi: aspectos psíquicos e discursivos estão envolvidos no laço social contemporâneo, que implica na opção filosófico-política de estudantes universitários? Como método, optou-se pela articulação dos conceitos: processos psicossociais, subjetivação, bem como, as concepções de Jacques Lacan sobre identificação, estádio do espelho, laço social e outro/Outro. Os resultados demonstram haver uma dinâmica a priori, decorrente das identificações e do estádio do espelho na relação parental; a posteriori, evidencia-se a importância dos laços sociais instituídos no período universitário como preponderante para novas identificações do sujeito. Tendo em todo este processo, o discurso do Outro como aquele que institui e regula o laço social do sujeito como imperativo relacionado a perspectiva filosófico-política dos estudantes.
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Background Tests are commonly and heavily used in fundamental engineering courses (FECs) to assess student learning of concepts. With existing literature presenting mixed benefits and disadvantages of testing to students' motivation to learn and documenting widely alternative assessments, the lack of questioning of heavy and common test usage must be addressed to diversify classroom assessment and promote intentionality in test usage. Purpose/Hypothesis This study begins to address the lack of questioning by exploring and uncovering test usage beliefs and behaviors of seven FEC instructors from two engineering departments in a land‐grant, public, Research 1 university Design/Method Grounded in the Situated Expectancy–Value Theory (SEVT), we conducted a multicase study. Data include two interviews, course syllabi, and sample tests provided by the participants, and public documents from the institution and departments. We conducted a priori and emergent coding and thematic analysis to identify the beliefs and behaviors before developing individual case summaries for cross‐case analysis to identify groupings. Results Three test usage groups emerged: enthusiastic, default, and questioning. All test usage groups featured tests heavily in their FECs, resulting in varying alignment between these participants' test usage beliefs and behaviors. Conclusions Our findings reveal the various factors that can shape FEC instructors' test usage beliefs and behaviors, and the complexity in terms of alignment. This work lays important implications, including laying the foundations for future scholarship on testing in engineering education research and leveraging findings to begin efforts in diversifying assessment approaches and promoting intentional test usage in FECs.
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This chapter considers the pedagogical approaches used within college-based higher education (CBHE) in England. While a rich literature exists concerning the teaching and learning approaches adopted in university-based higher education, teaching practice in CBHE has been largely under-researched. Using data from a three-round online Delphi panel study comprising 16 expert CBHE teachers, this chapter provides novel insights into teaching practice in this sector. The data generated through this innovative methodology is unique and transforms what we know about CBHE teaching in England, complementing the handful of previous studies in the area. The expert panel identified 76 teaching methods, strategies and tools before reaching a consensus agreement on 54 of these which they viewed to be commonly adopted pedagogical approaches in CBHE. The chapter offers a detailed exploration of the Delphi methodology before revealing practical conclusions pertaining to the commonly adopted pedagogical approaches. These insights can arguably also be transferred to the wider college-based education teaching contexts such as 14-19 provision, adult education, and apprenticeship delivery. Furthermore, the findings identify workforce gaps in knowledge which may serve as a catalyst for college-based professional development activities.
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Purpose Social media (SM) has been heavily criticised in recent years for its damaging effects on societies globally. Tasked with empowering those same societies, libraries’ continued use of SM is considered ethically contentious. This study presents the findings of a University of Sheffield study that investigated the ethical tension between libraries and their use of SM by aiming to establish whether: (1) libraries’ use of SM is ethically motivated; (2) ethically informed; (3) and compatible with codes of ethics in the Library and Information Science (LIS) sector. Design/methodology/approach A phenomenographic approach was employed to gather and analyse the data for this study, which is drawn from the transcripts of seven online interviews with Bodleian Libraries staff who used Twitter, now X, in a professional capacity. Findings Three categories of description were identified among participants: (1) Collectivist conception; (2) Settled conception; (3) Questioning conception. The categories are bound by a shared context of conceptualisation made up of a small set of internal and external influences discussed in the interviews which affected all participants to varying degrees. Originality/value The findings were used to support the following determinations: (1) Libraries’ use of SM is ethically motivated. (2) Libraries’ use of SM is ethically informed, in part. Due to lack of evidence, no determination was made about whether libraries’ use of SM is compatible with codes of ethics in the LIS sector. Recommendations for LIS professions and professional bodies are offered based on these determinations.
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Purpose Student engagement evaluation is considered to be connected to many aspects of the management of higher education, but outside Western higher education, research and evaluation on student engagement and experiences has been limited so far. Our study focuses on the underexplored aspects of Palestinian higher education with the aim of gaining an actionable understanding from the overall student engagement situation to enhance the management and development of local teaching and learning practices. Design/methodology/approach A quantitatively oriented, sequential mixed-methods design was adopted. With the applied and validated engagement measurement we collected 946 engagement questionnaire responses from Palestinian university students. Quantitative data were analysed using structural equation modelling, K-means cluster analysis and chi-squared tests. Inductive and deductive thematic analysis was employed for the open answers. Findings With the three validated student engagement dimensions, the applied cluster analysis allowed three different engagement profile groups to be distinguished: strongly, moderately and loosely engaged. In the subsequent statistical and qualitative thematic analyses, these three engagement clusters differ in the degree to which they had a clear vision of a future profession or in their academic engagement with their studies. Moreover, qualitative analysis brought up many shared concerns regarding theoretically oriented studies and uncertain professional and career prospects in the Palestinian higher education context. Originality/value This study is one of the first attempts to develop tools for student engagement management in Palestinian higher education. The study findings are particularly significant for developing micro- and meso-level management practices in Palestinian higher education institutions.
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Solving chemical problems entails content knowledge and mastery of problem-solving processes. However, students sometimes lack metacognitive processes required for problem solving in chemistry. This study investigated how first-year chemistry students...
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This study explored the learning experiences of first-year information technology students at the beginning of their studies. Identifying the early experiences is important, as we know they can predict later challenges and persistence in studies. We focus on a novel understanding of relations between learning approaches, self-efficacy and burnout experiences, and relations between these experiences and study progress. We combined the quantitative survey data and the qualitative interviews to create a detailed view of first-year challenges. Interview data was used to deepen the understanding about students’ experiences. We found that burnout and self-efficacy correlated negatively with each other. Burnout also correlated negatively with organised studying, and positively with surface approach. Self-efficacy correlated negatively with surface approach. Study progress correlated negatively only with surface approach. Two-folded causal relationships are considered, and possible interventions to enhance students’ self-efficacy, support them with time management and studying skills, and prevent burnout are discussed.
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