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International Gender × Item Difficulty Interactions in Mathematics and Science Achievement Tests
Abstract
The author used data from the Third International Mathematics and Science Survey to examine whether Gender × Item Difficulty interactions like those in American mathematics exist in mathematics and science in 10 countries. For both mathematics and science, the author detected male advantages that were minimal on easy questions and increased as questions grew more difficult. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... The majority of studies that have compared the size of gender differences across countries examined high school and upper middle school students' performance on large-scale international assessments such as Trends of International Mathematical and Science Study (TIMSS) and Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) (e.g., Ayalon & Livneh, 2013;Bedard & Cho, 2010;Else-Quest et al., 2010;Penner, 2003). Many of these investigations reveal variability among countries in the size of gender differences in math achievement. ...
... It is possible, however, that this null effect is partly due to the kinds of problems children were asked to solve. Recent work on the interaction between task difficulty and gender (e.g., Gibbs, 2010;Penner, 2003) suggests that using simple tasks or even aggregating results from both challenging and simple tasks may mask differences between boys and girls. Consistent with this view, a recent study in which students were given only challenging computational and geometric problems revealed strong gender differences on both types of problems (Ganley et al., 2013). ...
... The current study integrated several existing lines of research, including cross-national comparisons of math performance (Geary et al., 1996;Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Arora, 2012), investigations of gender differences in strategy use (Carr & Davis, 2001;Carr et al., 2008), and research on the relation between gender and problem complexity (Gibbs, 2010;Penner, 2003). The findings highlight the intricate nature of the phenomenon of gender differences in mathematics. ...
... There have been many factors linked to the potential gender gap in science, particularly in relation to achievement and measures of student achievement. For example, the format and type of assessment have been linked to limitations in ability to assess the depth of student knowledge or to evaluate practices of communicating scientific understanding (e.g., Lee et al., 2011;Liu et al., 2011;Messick, 1995), particularly for performance on verbal and written assessments (e.g., Weaver and Raptis, 2001;Penner, 2003). Similarly, differences in problem-solving strategies and achievement between males and females are well documented in a variety of disciplines (e.g., Hedges and Nowell, 1995;Halpern, 2000;Madsen et al., 2013). ...
... Studies comparing assessment format (i.e., multiple choice [MC] vs. constructed response [CR]) have found that females underperform compared with males on MC assessments in math and science (Murphy, 1980;Bolger and Kellaghan, 1990;Garner and Englehard, 1999;Weaver and Raptis, 2001). Other studies have investigated the cognitive mechanisms underlying differences in achievement between males and females (e.g., Bielinski and Davison, 1998;Scheuneman and Garritz, 1990;Harris and Carlton, 1993;Royer et al., 1999;Penner, 2003). ...
... Bielinski and Davison (1998) also found that less complex mathematics items favor females over males. Similarly, in an international comparison of math and science achievement tests, Penner (2003) found that the gender gap is more pronounced on more difficult science items (compared with math items). ...
Understanding sources of performance bias in science assessment provides important insights into whether science curricula and/or assessments are valid representations of student abilities. Research investigating assessment bias due to factors such as instrument structure, participant characteristics, and item types are well documented across a variety of disciplines. However, the relationships among these factors are unclear for tasks evaluating understanding through performance on scientific practices, such as explanation. Using item-response theory (Rasch analysis), we evaluated differences in performance by gender on a constructed-response (CR) assessment about natural selection (ACORNS). Three isomorphic item strands of the instrument were administered to a sample of undergraduate biology majors and nonmajors (Group 1: n = 662 [female = 51.6%]; G2: n = 184 [female = 55.9%]; G3: n = 642 [female = 55.1%]). Overall, our results identify relationships between item features and performance by gender; however, the effect is small in the majority of cases, suggesting that males and females tend to incorporate similar concepts into their CR explanations. These results highlight the importance of examining gender effects on performance in written assessment tasks in biology.
... At grade eight, the content domains are biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science (Gonzales et al., 2008;Gonzales et al., 2004). The , 2003The , and 1999 results are analyzed by overall score differences by gender., Special reports created from the 1995 administration analyzed results by gender on content specific assessments as well as items that asked students about the classroom environment. ...
... Males scored higher on science knowledge and on reading comprehension whereas females scored significantly higher on science strategy knowledge (O'Reilly & McNamara, 2007). In terms of the format of questions and differences by gender on content-based tests, males were shown to score higher on both multiple choice and open-ended questions than females (Penner, 2003;O'Reilly & McNamara, 2007). ...
... Comparison of TIMSS 1995, 2003 Fourth Grade Score Results by Gender ...
National trends reveal mixed results with regard to the gender gap in science achievement. In some instances, such as coursework completed, females perform equal to male peers; however, assessments geared to measuring mastery of content, such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress, reveal that differences between males and females in K-12 education surface in elementary school and continue at the high school level (Ingels & Dalton, 2008). Differences in science achievement at the K-12 level are attributed in part to fewer females attaining degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Hazari, Tai, & Saddler, 2007; Madigan, 1997). The term "science" includes engineering, chemistry, physics, biology, or psychology, among others, or a composite of any or all areas of scientific knowledge. As the data presented show, the content as well as the format within a given science achievement test may influence the magnitude of any gender differences in test scores. For the purposes of this overview, science achievement is measured by mean scores on nationally administered standardized assessment tools. Achievement is also measured by the number and level of science courses students enroll in and the grade point average attained while enrolled in those courses. At the undergraduate level, science achievement is measured by the number and percentage of science degrees earned.
... In the past, various studies have focussed on the link between gender and academic performance where comparisons between mathematics and gender are the most general field of study. Research findings in this regard, however, are not significant, age-dependent or inconsequential (Gonzales et al. 2004;Penner 2003;Voyer, Voyer & Bryden 1995). The findings of Lachance and Mazzocco (2006) also support the general view of minimal or no gender differences in mathematical skills among primary school learners. ...
... However, Pagani et al. (2010) reported that girls who struggled with mathematics in kindergarten still had lower mathematics grades in Grade 2. These researchers further reported that the boys who struggled with mathematics in kindergarten outperformed the girls (who also had low mathematics scores in kindergarten) in Grade 2. One constant in the literature is the suggestion that the size of the differences varies with age (Voyer et al. 1995). In cases where gender differences are indicated, the extent of the differences is directly linked to the degree of difficulty of the problem, and it would seem that the differences are clearer between the groups of high or lower performing individuals (Gonzales et al. 2004;Penner 2003). Deary et al. (2007) in the United Kingdom did a 5-year longitudinal study on 74 403 English learners (36 894 boys and 37 509 girls) and found moderate differences between the genders in the different learning areas, where girls significantly outperformed the boys in all the learning areas with the exception of physics. ...
Background: Inconsistencies are found regarding the relationship between academic achievement and visual-motor integration (VMI), gender and socio-economic status (SES).
Aim: The study examined the associations between academic achievement in different compulsory learning areas and VMI skills, and what role gender and SES play.
Setting: A total of 863 participants (n = 538, low SES group; n = 325, high SES group) from 20 schools in four school districts in the North West province of South Africa were randomly selected to participate.
Methods: The Beery Visual-Motor Integration Test, 4th edition (VMI-4) was used to evaluate the VMI, visual perception and motor coordination skills; and the June mid-year school assessment (JMSA) and the Annual National Assessment (ANA) marks were used to examine their academic achievements. Spearman rank-order correlations and stepwise regression analyses were used to, examine significant associations and unique contributors, respectively.
Results: Small-to-moderate significant correlations were found between all the learning areas assessed during the JMSA and the ANA examinations and the VMI-4. The strongest correlations occurred between visual perception and most of the learning areas. Socio-economic status had the greatest predictive association with most of the academic learning areas. The largest contributions (≥ 10% moderate, ≥ 25% great) of SES were found during the JMSA in English, life orientation, mathematics, natural science, social sciences and in the grade point averages. During the ANA, SES had the highest predictive contribution to English and mathematics.
Conclusion: The overall academic achievement of learners could be negatively affected by their SES and visual perception skills, that suggest timeously prevention strategies to counter these effects.
... Previous studies of tests of mathematical ability have found an item difficulty x sex performance interaction such that males tend to perform relatively better on the harder items (Beller & Gafni, 2000;Bielinski & Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003). Note that this does not necessarily mean that males have an overall advantage, just that they are relatively more favored/less disfavored on the more difficult items, which might still mean that females do better on them. ...
... This finding is congruent with Richard Lynn's developmental model of sex differences of cognitive ability where females are expected to slightly outperform boys around age 10 (Bakhiet et al., 2017;Colom & Lynn, 2004;Lynn, 2017;Lynn & Kanazawa, 2011). Similar to previous studies (Beller & Gafni, 2000;Bielinski & Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003), an interaction was found between male advantage and item difficulty, seen as a correlation between item difficulty and male advantage of .57 (.68 after removal of 1 outlier). ...
Sex differences in mathematical ability were examined in a nation-wide sample of 32,346 Jordanian 4th graders (age 9-10) on a 40-item mathematics test. Overall, girls were found to perform slightly better (d = 0.12), while boys had slightly more variation in scores (standard deviations of 1.02 and 0.98 for boys and girls, respectively).2 parameter item response theory analysis showed that the item parameters were almost identical across sexes; correlations were .97 [95% confidence interval: .95 to .99] and .90 [.82 to .95] for difficulties and loadings, respectively. A bootstrapping analysis revealed that these could not be explained by sampling error alone, but reflected genuine departures from measurement invariance. However, sex differences in items showed no relationship to the relative size of the departure from measurement invariance.A correlation between item difficulty and male advantage was observed, r = .57 [.32 to .75] (.68 after exclusion of an outlier), such that the relative male advantage increased with increased item difficulty.Results were interpreted to be congruent with Richard Lynn’s developmental theory of sex differences in general intelligence.
... Female students often have higher academic achievement scores than male students, particularly in reading literacy (Fleischman et al. 2010), and teachers also tend to have more favorable perceptions of female students than they do of male students (Hopf and Hatzichristou 1999;Krkovic et al. 2014). However, male students tend to score higher (Driessen and van Langen 2013) and are perceived as performing better in mathematics (Keller 2001;Penner 2003;Li 2006). Nonetheless, even when these gender differences also hold for Turkish students (Fleischmann and Kristen 2014), female Turkish students still tend to perform worse than their ethnic majority peers (Stanat et al. 2010), a tendency that might also be reflected in teachers' stereotypical expectations. ...
... In general, female students tend to outperform male students in reading literacy (Fleischman et al. 2010), whereas male students outperform female students in mathematics and science (Penner 2003). When teachers' judgments are taken into consideration, more favorable judgments of female students' language performance compared with male students have been found (Krkovic et al. 2014). ...
Teachers’ stereotypes may be one factor that contributes to the disadvantages ethnic minority students experience in school. According to dual-process theories, teachers have two strategies that they can apply to derive judgments of students. Teachers’ judgments are based on stereotypes when the information they have about students is consistent with teachers’ expectations, whereas teachers make judgments on a more individualized basis when their expectations are not supported by student information. We experimentally investigated this hypothesis with regard to teachers’ judgments of female ethnic minority and majority students. Teachers were presented with one of four different descriptions of a female student. The below average student was described as low performing, and the above average student represented an easy-to-teach student with high academic achievement. The two student descriptions were compiled for both an ethnic minority student and an ethnic majority student. Results showed that teachers judged the ethnic minority female student less favorably but only when comparing the below average students. The above average female ethnic minority student was judged more favorably than the above average ethnic majority student. Results are discussed with respect to the conditions that might result in advantages or in disadvantages for female ethnic minority students and their implications for future research.
... It has been proposed that differences between boys and girls in math skills might depend on the type of skill, students' age, and different distributions of boys' and girls'math test scores (Devine, Soltèsz, Nomes, Goswami, & Szücs, 2013;Martens, Hurks, Meijs, Wassenberg, & Jolles, 2011). For example, as a degree of difficulty increases, tasks become more difficult for girls compared to boys (Penner, 2003) and there are more boys among high achievers both in primary and middle school math (Martens et al., 2011). Longitudinal data demonstrates that boys show faster growth in math skills while there are no initial gender differences at the beginning of school (). ...
... Namely, in Grade 3, boys were better in more complex problem solving tasks than girls, while there were no gender differences in calculation skills. This is in accordance with previous results about boys' having an advantage in more demanding tasks (Lummis & Stevenson, 1990;Penner, 2003). An explanation for this phenomenon is purely hypothetical. ...
... Studies comparing mathematical achievement and gender have yielded mixed results. In cases where gender differences in mathematics are found to exist, the magnitude of these differences correlates with problem difficulty (Bielinski & Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003) and appear more pronounced among groups of low-or high-scoring 42 individuals (Swiatek, Lupkowski-Shoplik, & O'Donoghue , 2000). According to Penner (2003), boys have a slight advantage on easy math problems, and a greater advantage on more difficult math problems, with problem difficulty defined by the percentage of incorrect answers across the population (i.e., easy problems are those with a low percentage of incorrect answers). ...
... In cases where gender differences in mathematics are found to exist, the magnitude of these differences correlates with problem difficulty (Bielinski & Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003) and appear more pronounced among groups of low-or high-scoring 42 individuals (Swiatek, Lupkowski-Shoplik, & O'Donoghue , 2000). According to Penner (2003), boys have a slight advantage on easy math problems, and a greater advantage on more difficult math problems, with problem difficulty defined by the percentage of incorrect answers across the population (i.e., easy problems are those with a low percentage of incorrect answers). ...
... Cognitive restructuring is sometimes used synonymously with reframing, re-appraisal, re-labelling and attitude adjustment (Adesemowo, 2015). It is a technique that can help people identify, challenge and alter anxiety provoking thoughts patterns and beliefs (Penner, 2013). This is the process of learning to identify and challenge irrational or maladaptive thoughts using strategies such as logical disputation. ...
This study focused on the effect of Cognitive-Restructuring counselling techniques in managing chemistry anxiety among Senior Secondary School in Tambuwal local government area of Sokoto State. The researcher employed quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test factorial design in which selected students were assigned to experimental groups and control group. The experimental groups were treated with cognitive restructuring counselling technique while the control group didn’t receive any treatment. The population of the study is 160 students with chemistry anxiety. 114 students were selected to participate in the study. Purposive sampling technique was used. The treatments were carried out within eight weeks of counselling sessions. Group counselling method was employed in the study. Each of the subjects was administered with pre-test/post-test research instrument. Validated instruments namely Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (DCARS)) was used in generating response from the students. The researcher made use of dependent samples t-test to analysed hypothesis 1 and independent t-test was used to analysed hypothesis 2 tested at 0.05 level of significance. Results of this study shows that there was a significance differences in the effect of cognitive restructuring counselling technique on the pre-test/post-test means score on anxiety level among students with chemistry anxiety in Tambuwal local government. Equally there is no significant difference on the anxiety level between the group exposed to cognitive restructuring counselling technique and those in the control group in Tambuwal local government. Though there is difference but not significant. Based on these findings, it was recommended that counsellors could use Cognitive- Restructuring treatment as a technique to reduce anxiety in Chemistry among Secondary School Students since it has been identified as effective.
... Nevertheless, this perspective merely glances at gender differences, providing a snapshot of the gap between genders at some point or relating gender differences to other factors such as background and metacognitive aspects but failing to provide didactic information about the nature of these differences (differences that usually disadvantage girls more than boys), or explaining whether these differences are typically related to just some items or may concern all the test items. In this direction, part of the literature explores gender differences in relation to specific sub-domains of mathematical ability (for example, arguing that boys outperform girls in spatial ability and, more generally, in geometry items; e.g., [6,7]), other works at item level find a correlation between item difficulty and gender differences (e.g., [8,9]), and, finally, some studies examine the influence of item type in relation to gender (for instance, showing that boys outperform girls in multiplechoice items rather than constructed-response items, in which girls display better results; e.g., [10][11][12][13]). Less research has been carried out on possible relationships between task formulation and gender differences in relation to specific items, especially from a didactic perspective, considering the didactic milieu either as involved in the causes, or as an actor participating in the resolution. ...
This study is aimed at exploring how different formulations of the same mathematical item may influence students’ answers, and whether or not boys and girls are equally affected by differences in presentation. An experimental design was employed: the same stem-items (i.e., items with the same mathematical content and question intent) were formulated differently and administered to a probability sample of 1647 students (grade 8). All the achievement tests were anchored via a set of common items. Students’ answers, equated and then analysed using the Rasch model, confirmed that different formulations affect students’ performances and thus the psychometric functionality of items, with discernible differences according to gender. In particular, we explored students’ sensitivity to the effect of a typical misconception about multiplication with decimal numbers (often called “multiplication makes bigger”) and tested the hypothesis that girls are more prone than boys to be negatively affected by misconception.
... Earlier studies have already indicated the varying correlation of spatial working memory with simple and difficult mathematical tasks for closed(-ended) mathematical problems. Increasing difficulty of mathematical problems increases the demand of spatial visualization abilities (Manger and Eikeland 1998;Penner 2003). Similarly, depending on the specific mathematical branch that is being assessed, Liang et al. (2022) have found differing influences of the verbal and visual-spatial working memory on elementary school children's mathematical abilities. ...
Intelligence, as well as working memory and attention, affect the acquisition of mathematical competencies. This paper aimed to examine the influence of working memory and attention when taking different mathematical skills into account as a function of children’s intellectual ability. Overall, intelligence, working memory, attention and numerical skills were assessed twice in 1868 German pre-school children (t1, t2) and again at 2nd grade (t3). We defined three intellectual ability groups based on the results of intellectual assessment at t1 and t2. Group comparisons revealed significant differences between the three intellectual ability groups. Over time, children with low intellectual ability showed the lowest achievement in domain-general and numerical and mathematical skills compared to children of average intellectual ability. The highest achievement on the aforementioned variables was found for children of high intellectual ability. Additionally, path modelling revealed that, depending on the intellectual ability, different models of varying complexity could be generated. These models differed with regard to the relevance of the predictors (t2) and the future mathematical skills (t3). Causes and conclusions of these findings are discussed.
... This finding corroborates earlier findings of Habibollah, Abdullah, Aizan, Sharir and Kumar (2010), who found that there was no significant difference between male and female performances. However, it contradicts the findings of Penner (2003); O'Reily and McNamara (2007), who all found out a significant difference in performance of males and females in which males scored higher than females. It also contradicts the findings of Bacharach, Baumeister and Furr (2003) who found out a significant difference between males and females' performances. ...
The Ghanaian science curriculum is standardized nationally. In Practical Education Network (PEN)’s training, JHS science teachers learn a set of hands-on activities that match the curriculum. They receive a copy of PEN’s manual, which contains a list of materials and instructions for conducting a full set of practical activities. Some teachers end up modifying the activities during their lesson delivery. In this research, we study the relationship between personal and environmental factors and the modifications. By eliciting key enablers for modification, we can both design improvements in PEN’s approach and propose a framework for promoting knowledge creation or modification in other contexts involving indigenous innovation. Reasons why teachers make modification to content may include personal practices, attitudes, beliefs, accommodating different learning styles, student population, cognition of the students, time availability and others. Content modification in non-educational settings is dependent on experience level. In music, for example, years of building a knowledge base are needed before one can readily improvise. We seek to understand how these factors affect teachers’ ability to make these modifications. We carefully framed survey questions to elicit the teaching styles, teaching experience, educational background, and environmental conditions of the respondents in schools. The teaching styles recorded from the teachers were categorized into discipline-centred, teacher-centred, and student-centred. The questions were administered in-person to twelve teachers in the Greater Accra Region, who were identified as having made modifications. The factors that have a positive correlation with the content modification/knowledge creation tendencies appear to include teaching experience, tendency towards student-centred teaching styles and diversity in educational/professional background.
... Earlier studies have already indicated the varying correlation of spatial working memory with simple and difficult mathematical tasks for closed(-ended) mathematical problems. Increasing difficulty of mathematical problems increases the demand of spatial visualization abilities (Manger and Eikeland 1998;Penner 2003). Similarly, depending on the specific mathematical branch that is being assessed, Liang et al. (2022) have found differing influences of the verbal and visual-spatial working memory on elementary school children's mathematical abilities. ...
Intelligence, as well as working memory and attention, affect the acquisition of mathematical competencies. This paper aimed to examine the influence of working memory and attention when taking different mathematical skills into account as a function of children’s intellectual ability. Overall, intelligence, working memory, attention and numerical skills were assessed twice in 1868 German pre-school children (t1, t2) and again at 2nd grade (t3). We defined three intellectual ability groups based on the results of intellectual assessment at t1 and t2. Group comparisons revealed significant differences between the three intellectual ability groups. Over time, children with low intellectual ability showed the lowest achievement in domain-general and numerical and mathematical skills compared to children of average intellectual ability. The highest achievement on the aforementioned variables was found for children of high intellectual ability. Additionally, path modelling revealed that, depending on the intellectual ability, different models of varying complexity could be generated. These models differed with regard to the relevance of the predictors (t2) and the future mathematical skills (t3). Causes and conclusions of these findings are discussed.
... Although the type of math test used may be such a factor, our findings indicate that, regardless of the type of math test, sex differences in math achievement seem to be negligible during the primary school years. We must note however, that sex differences have been shown to vary between different math domains (Mullis et al., 2016;OECD, 2018) and with problem difficulty (Bielinski & Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003). Bielinski and Davison (2001), for example, repeatedly replicated an interaction between sex and item difficulty in a study with multiple samples of 4th, 8th, and 12th grade students assessed on different math tests. ...
Previous research on sex differences in mathematical achievement shows mixed findings, which have been argued to depend on types of math tests used and the type of solution strategies (i.e., verbal versus visual‐spatial) these tests evoke. The current study evaluated sex differences in (a) performance (development) on two types of math tests in primary schools and (b) the predictive value of verbal and visual‐spatial working memory on math achievement. Children (N = 3175) from grades 2 through five participated. Visual‐spatial and verbal working memory were assessed using online computerized tasks. Math performance was assessed five times during two school years using a speeded arithmetic test (math fluency) and a word problem test (math problem solving). Results from Multilevel Multigroup Latent Growth Modeling, showed that sex differences in level and growth of math performance were mixed and very small. Sex differences in the predictive value of verbal and visual‐spatial working memory for math performance suggested that boys seemed to rely more on verbal strategies than girls. Explanations focus on cognitive and emotional factors and how these may interact to possibly amplify sex differences as children grow older.
... Previous studies have shown that spatial visualisation and spatial working memory have a different correlation with easy and difficult math problems (mainly focusing on closed math problems). On the one hand, the more difficult math problems were, the more spatial visualisation ability was probably demanded (Manger & Eikeland, 1998;Penner, 2003). For example, one study investigated the spatial visualisation ability (paper form board test) and math problems solving ability (from easy to hard split with five categories) of 724 students in the sixth grade. ...
Open math problem solving is critical to help students deepen the understanding and promote transfer of mathematics knowledge. However, the cognitive mechanism for open math problem solving, particularly the role of spatial abilities, has not been paid enough attention. This study recruited 192 junior middle school students (14.30 ± 0.48 years old). Results showed that both spatial visualization (measured by paper folding) and spatial working memory (measured by spatial 2‐back) significantly associated with open math problem solving with controlled variables including age, sex, nonverbal matrix reasoning, and arithmetic principles. Moreover, spatial working memory was more associated with easy open math problem solving, while spatial visualization more associated with difficult open math problem solving. These findings suggested that as the difficulty of open math problems increased, the construction of problem space mattered more than retaining and updating problem space in open math problem solving. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Natomiast chłopcy, preferując uczenie się ze zrozumieniem, otrzymują lepsze rezultaty podczas rozwiązywania zadań -problemów matematycznych w nowych sytuacjach stosowania poznanej wiedzy takich, jak zewnętrzne testy matematyczne. Penner (2003) przeprowadził międzynarodowe badania na temat wzajemnego wpływu trudności zadań testowych na ilość ich rozwiązań w zależności od płci. Badacz zauważył, iż w każdym z 10 państw, różnych części świata, różnice w wynikach testów uzdolnień matematycznych między chłopcami a dziewczętami można zaostrzać lub łagodzić poprzez stosowanie testów z zadaniami o różnym stopniu trudności. ...
Celem artykułu jest próba systematyzacji wiedzy dotyczącej problematyki uzdolnień matematycznych. Systematyzacja wiedzy została oparta o przegląd psychologicznej literatury polskiej i anglojęzycznej opublikowanej w prze-dziale czasowym 1960-2006. Wieloaspektowy przegląd literatury przedmiotu dokonany został celem przybliżenia czytelnikowi złożonej tematyki zdolności matematycznych oraz prezentacji dotychczasowego stanu badań na ten temat. Zagadnienie uzdolnień matematycznych zostało omówione pod kątem defi-nicji, kierunków badań, struktury, pomiaru oraz czynników warunkujących poziom uzdolnień matematycznych. Wymienione aspekty uporządkowane zostały w kolejne części artykułu. Wielowymiarowe potraktowanie wyżej wymienionych kwestii pozwala na zapoznanie się, w aspekcie teoretycznym, z ciekawą, choć złożoną problematyką uzdolnień matematycznych. Natomiast w płaszczyźnie praktycznej pozwala, szczególnie psychologom, pedagogom oraz nauczycielom matematyki na skorzystanie z wniosków płynących z przeglądu badań, a mających zastosowanie w pracy z dziećmi i młodzieżą szkolną o zróżnicowanym poziomie uzdolnień matematycznych.
... Weitere relevante gestalterische Elemente von Aufgaben betreffen etwa das vorgegebene Antwortformat: Innerhalb der Literatur zeichnet sich für Multiple-Choice-und Closed-Response-Aufgaben ein Vorteil für männliche Probanden ab (Le, 2009;De-Mars, 1998), während DeMars (1998) Differenzen gerade für die jeweils best-performanten Probandinnen und Probanden besonders groß sind, während sich dieser Effekt umkehrt, wenn die anteilig jeweils schlechtesten Testteilnehmerinnen und -teilnehmer betrachtet werden (z. B. Contini et al., 2017;Fryer & Levitt, 2010;Ellison & Swanson, 2010;Penner & Paret, 2008;Penner, 2003;Xie & Shauman, 2003;Hedges & Novell, 1995). ...
Zusammenfassung: Im Rahmen der FALKE-Erhe-bung zum Funktionalen Denken wurde ein Leistungs-test zu funktionalen Zusammenhängen entwickelt und in Nordrhein-Westfalen mit über 3000 Schülerinnen und Schülern durchgeführt. Gerade für die Sekun-darstufe werden im Rahmen von Meta-Studien ma-thematischen Leistungstests häufig geschlechtsspezi-fische Effekte zu Gunsten des männlichen Ge-schlechts attestiert. Der vorliegende Beitrag analy-siert solche Effekte für die Stichprobe des FALKE-Tests und exploriert, welche Items besonders betrof-fen sind. Es lassen sich Merkmale von Aufgaben im Bereich des Funktionalen Denkens identifizieren, die besonders geschlechtssensitiv wirken. Abstract: Within the FALKE-study an achievement test for functional thinking has been administrated to more than 3000 students in the German federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Especially for the secondary school level meta studies find significant gender specific effects in favor of male test attendants. This article analyzes such effects for the sample of the FALKE-test and explores which items are affected in particular. Item characteristics which favor gender sensitivity of tasks in the field of functional thinking are identified.
... Für die Kategorie precocious, also Studien, die hochbegabte Personen untersuchten, wurde ebenfalls eine moderate Effektstärke von d = 0.41 festgestellt. Viele Studien berichten vom Trend, dass sich in oberen Leistungsniveaus klare Vorteile zugunsten der Jungen ergeben, die mit stärkerer Einschränkung des oberen Leistungsbereichs noch ansteigen (Ayalon & Livneh, 2013;Forgasz & Hill, 2013;Gilleece, Cosgrove & Sofroniou, 2010;Lonnemann u. a., 2013;Penner, 2003;Penner & Paret, 2008;Zhou, Fan, Wei & Tai, 2017). ...
Internationale Bildungsstudien zeigen ebenso wie nationale Standardüberprüfungen, dass es in Österreich erhebliche geschlechterspezifische Leistungsunterschiede im Fach Mathematik gibt. Da die bisherige Forschung stark auf mathematische Geschlechterun-terschiede in der Sekundarstufe fokussierte, leistet die vorliegende Arbeit einen Beitrag zur Untersuchung solcher Geschlechterdisparitäten in der Primarstufe. Dazu wurden die Mathematikleistungen von 367 Kindern der zweiten Klasse Volksschule mit zwei unterschiedlichen, standardisierten Testinstrumenten erhoben. Es zeigte sich, dass Ge-schlechterunterschiede sowohl im Spitzen-als auch im Risikobereich bereits am Ende der zweiten Schulstufe mit Effektstärken von bis zu d = 0.64 auftreten. Dabei waren in der Spitzengruppe die Jungen überrepräsentiert, während sich in der Risikogruppe ein tendenziell gegenläufiges Bild zeigte.
... This finding corroborates earlier findings of Habibollah, Abdullah, Aizan, Sharir and Kumar (2010), who found that there was no significant difference between male and female performances. However, it contradicts the findings of Penner (2003); O'Reily and McNamara (2007), who all found out a significant difference in performance of males and females in which males scored higher than females. It also contradicts the findings of Bacharach, Baumeister and Furr (2003) who found out a significant difference between males and females' performances. ...
This article aims to provide insights into how employability skills, career development and entrepreneurial mind-sets are embedded into entrepreneurship education to enhance graduate employability in tertiary education. Recent initiatives in United Kingdom universities respond to the calls from The Association of Business Schools to incorporate more practice into the teaching, learning and assessment of entrepreneurship curricular. The calls aim to encourage the development of entrepreneurial skills and mind sets relevant for graduate employability. One of the most appropriate approaches for designing such practice-based curricular is Problem-based learning (PBL). The authors reviewed the literature on entrepreneurship education and also drew on constructivist theories of teaching and learning based on two case studies to demonstrate how entrepreneurship curricular development could enhance graduate employability. Case story approach was used to accurately report the full extent of the knowledge of entrepreneurship educators. The findings showed a critique and rethinking of current university education in the United Kingdom. Instead of the traditional teaching and learning methods, entrepreneurship educators use a portfolio of practice-based pedagogies including starting businesses, design thinking and reflective practice to embed practice into learning and assessment. The findings therefore show how the choice of teaching, learning and assessment focus on enhancing the development of entrepreneurial mind-sets and employability skills in learners. The article analysed practices and techniques for embedding entrepreneurial skills, mind-sets and employability in entrepreneurship education. It therefore highlights the processes through which practice-based curricular design enhance entrepreneurial and employability skills among university graduates.
... This finding corroborates earlier findings of Habibollah, Abdullah, Aizan, Sharir and Kumar (2010), who found that there was no significant difference between male and female performances. However, it contradicts the findings of Penner (2003); O'Reily and McNamara (2007), who all found out a significant difference in performance of males and females in which males scored higher than females. It also contradicts the findings of Bacharach, Baumeister and Furr (2003) who found out a significant difference between males and females' performances. ...
This study assesses how corruption impacts on the management of educational infrastructural projects in Ghana. Corruption is a constant concern for countries facing economic problems. Increasingly, researchers have devoted research to the discussion of the phenomenon; however, these discussions have focused mainly on the relationship between corruption and variables such as; economic development, social effects, innovation, firm management quality, gross domestic product (GDP), returns on investment, increase in government budget, political discontent, instability and violence, rule-violating intentions, democracy, and inequality. Despite the extensive research devoted to the subject, there is limited research on the potential impact of corruption on the management of educational infrastructural projects in developing countries. We, therefore, contribute to both academia and practice by assessing the potential impact of corruption on these projects using multiple project management success/failure criteria as the assessment tool. Using an in-depth semi-structured interview, we solicit the views of thirty (30) project management practitioners in Ghana on the subject. The findings indicate that corruption impact negatively on the management of Ghanaian educationalinfrastructural projects on all the performance criteria used as the evaluating tool. The findings indicate that corruption influence government projects failure on all the failure criteria used as the evaluating tool. However, most of the corrupt practices that impact negatively on these projects are traced to partisanship politics, political culture, national culture and institutional system in the country.
... Studies have shown that male students are more advantageous in problem solving in geometry, cause-effect determination and spatial situations in nature (Geary, 1996;Hyde, Fennema & Lamon, 1990). In addition, as the item difficulty increases, they are more disadvantaged in terms of mathematics performance (Bielinski & Davidson, 2001;Penner, 2003). ...
The measurement tool not measuring the specific construct has a validity problem. Individuals based on the results obtained from this type of tool should not be evaluated. The purpose of this study was to examine the differentiated item functioning and item bias of mathematics items in the Programme for International Student Achievement 2012 assessment for gender using two-level hierarchical generalized linear model, logistic regression and experts’ opinions. Also differentiated item functioning sources (anxiety, interest and self-efficacy) at student level were tested. The current study was created under take into account of quantitative and qualitative methods. It was conducted with 1458 students selected from 166 schools of Turkey sample. The results reveal that hierarchical generalized linear models approach is more conservative than logistic regression approach. When the student level variables were added to the model as potential sources, differentiated item functioning did not disappear for the three items. Also half of the experts argued that the items identified as in favor of boys are biased. Statements in the items and the context were given as the reasons for this bias.
... Science topic is also full of data, fact, theory, hypothesis, and experiment [31,32]. All of them acquire complex cognitive skills [33]. The one who talk about science topic aren't allowed to show only opinion or argument without any data supported that. ...
This research is aimed to evaluate and compare the argumentation skill in science and non-science students. This research is quantitative research which involved two classes including 30 science students who taught human physiology subject and 30 social and humanities students who taught curriculum development subject. Both classes using blended learning with "argueweb" for online learning and debate for offline learning. The data collected from argumentation score using argumentation observation sheet. The data collected then to analyze descriptively and statistically using t-test. The result showed that there are differences between argumentation skill in science and non-science students. There are differences in quality of argumentation in science and non-science students. Science students showed good and clear backing with so many evidences. While non-science students provide strong and arguable warrant. Thus the quality of both science and non-science students argumentation need improvement to achieve better argument and learning outcomes.
... As noted, magnitudes of sex differences depend on knowledge domains and item characteristics. Regarding the latter, it has been found that girls do worse on more difficult mathematical items (Beller & Gafni, 2000;Bielinski & Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003). However, it has also been found that girls perform no worse on more cognitively complex items, as indexed using Bloom's cognitive taxonomy (Bloom, 1984), according to which questions are categorized as knowledge, application, and reasoning based (Lan, 2014;Else-Quest et al., 2010). ...
Sex differences in mathematical ability were examined in a nationwide sample of 32,346 Jordanian 4th graders (age 9-10 year) on a 40-item mathematics test. Overall, boys were found to perform slightly worse (d = À0.12) but had slightly more variation in scores (SD = 1.02 and SD = 0.98 for boys and girls, respectively). However, when results were disaggregated by school type, single-sex versus coed (i.e., coeducational), boys were found to perform better than girls in coed schools (d = 0.27) but worse across single-sex schools (d = À0.37). Two-parameter item response theory analysis showed that item difficulty was similar across sexes in the full sample. Item loadings exhibited substantial departure from measurement invariance with respect to boys and girls at single-sex schools, though. For boys and girls at coed schools, both the item difficulty and item loading correlations were highly similar, evincing that measurement invariance largely held in this case. Partially consistent with findings from other countries, a correlation between item difficulty and male advantage was observed, r = .57, such that the relative male advantage increased with increased item difficulty. Complicating interpretation, this association did not replicate within coed schools. Item content, Bloom's cognitive taxonomy category, and item position showed no relation to sex differences.
... Gender effects at the item level have been researched on different dimensions such as item difficulty, item format, and math content domain. Penner (2003) examined the relationship between gender differences and item difficulty in math items using the 1995 TIMSS data set. The study showed a general pattern of a male advantage on easy math items and an increasing male advantage on more difficult math items. ...
This book uses the publicly available TEDS-M data to answer such questions as: How does teacher education contribute to the learning outcomes of future teachers? Are there programs that are more successful than others in helping teachers learn to teach mathematics? How does the local and national policy environment contribute to teacher education outcomes? It invites readers to explore these questions across a large number of international settings. The importance of preparing future mathematics teachers has become a priority across many nations. Across the globe nations have allocated resources and expertise to this endeavour. Yet in spite of the importance accorded to teacher education not much is known about different approaches to preparing knowledgeable teachers and whether these approaches do in fact achieve their purpose. The Mathematics Teacher Education and Development Study (TEDS-M) is the first, and to date the only, cross-national study using scientific and representative samples to provide empirical data on the knowledge that future mathematics teachers of primary and secondary school acquire in their teacher education programs. The study addresses the central importance of teacher knowledge in learning to teach mathematics by examining variation in the nature and influence of teacher education programs within and across countries. The study collected data on teacher education programs structure, curriculum and opportunities to learn, on teacher educators' characteristics and beliefs, and on future mathematics teachers' individual characteristics, beliefs, and mathematics and pedagogical knowledge across 17 countries providing a unique opportunity to explore enduring questions in the field. © Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018. All Rights Reserved.
... Most research that has focused explicitly on math skill difficulty in the context of math actually relates to the difficulty of test item content (e.g., Harris & Carlton, 1993;Penner, 2003), the instructional complexity of learning objectives (Krathwohl, 2002), or hierarchical nature of numerosity skill development (Cirino, Tolar, Fuchs, & Huston-Warren, 2016;Siegler & Lortie-Forgues, 2014). For example, contemporary computer adaptive assessments (CATs), which are typically constructed using item response theory, enable probabilistic statements that a student with a given level of ability will answer a given item correctly (Embretson & Reise, 2013). ...
In the present study, we evaluated the number of attempts required to master specific subskills for working with whole and rational numbers among students at risk for math difficulties. Participants included a subset of students in grades four through eight receiving supplemental math support. Mastery—defined as 85% correct on short tests—was assessed following instruction for each subskill. Using survival analysis, we evaluated the number of attempts required to reach a .50 and a .90 probability of mastery on each subskill. The number of required attempts varied across subskills, with many subskills requiring more than one attempt to demonstrate mastery. Further, some of the most difficult content was aligned with curricular standards below students’ grade level. Thus, among students identified for supplemental support, it may be worthwhile to remediate select subskills that fall outside of the grade‐level curriculum before providing additional instruction on grade‐level content. Implications for math subskill assessment and remediation are discussed along with limitations and directions for future research.
... De plus, les filles réussissent en général mieux les questions à réponse ouverte et les items contextualisés tandis que les garçons réussissent mieux les Questions à Choix Multiples (e.g., PISA, 2000). Enfin, il semble que les garçons réussissent mieux que les filles uniquement sur les items les plus difficiles des tests standardisés (Penner, 2003). ...
Les stéréotypes de genre qui attribuent des compétences intellectuelles différentes aux femmes et aux hommes sont rémanents et particulièrement utiles pour fonder les différences de statut social. En particulier, le stéréotype d'incompétence mathématique des femmes influence profondément leurs performances et leurs choix d'orientations scolaire et professionnelle. Cette influence s'exerce à la fois durablement, parce que la socialisation au sein d'une société androcentrée encourage les filles à intérioriser le fait qu'elles ne sont pas censées être compétentes dans les domaines scientifiques et techniques (Modèle de l'intériorisation du stéréotype ; Eccles, 1987) et, plus ponctuellement, dans l'instant de la situation de test qui rend saillante, explicitement ou implicitement, leur identité sociale stigmatisée (Théorie de la menace du stéréotype ; Steele, 1997). Nous proposons dans cette thèse d'envisager l'influence conjointe de l'intériorisation du stéréotype et de la menace du stéréotype sur la performance.
... Female students typically outperform male students in language proficiency, in particular, in reading literacy (Fleischman et al. 2010;Driessen and van Langen 2013). In mathematical achievement, male students show higher scores than female students (Penner 2003;Driessen and van Langen 2013). Moreover, teachers evaluate female students more favorably in language performance (Krkovica et al. 2014) and male students as more proficient in mathematics (Keller 2001). ...
Ethnic minority students face many disadvantages in school, which might be due in part to teachers’ stereotypical expectations and attitudes. Dual process theories of impression and judgment formation specify person information that confirms or disconfirms stereotypical expectations as determinants of how judgments are formed. While expectation-confirming information should result in stereotype-based judgments, expectation-disconfirming information should lead to more information-integrating processes. Moreover, attitudes should also be affected in a positive way when a person encounters expectation-disconfirming information. The current study experimentally investigated these hypotheses with regard to stereotypical expectations about ethnic minority students. Eighty-three experienced teachers were randomly divided into four different groups. One group judged a below-average ethnic minority student (confirming) and another group a below-average ethnic majority student. Two other groups judged either an above-average ethnic minority (disconfirming) or ethnic majority student. When assessing a below-average student, teachers judged the confirming ethnic minority student as less proficient in language than the ethnic majority student. These differences could not be found for mathematical achievement or between the above-average ethnic minority and majority students. Attitudes toward ethnic minority students were not affected in the expected way. Findings are discussed with respect to their implications for future research.
... The caveat that apparent changes in the gender gap in reading may be due to differences in test material also applies to mathematics. The gender gap in mathematics is sensitive to question format, subject matter and item difficulty (see Penner, 2003). Arguably, changes in the types of material selected, for example, more 'wordy' questions, for the testing of mathematics contributed to declining gender differences. ...
In most countries, girls perform better than boys in reading but worse in mathematics. However, there is much variation between countries. Explanations for the gender gaps include the organisation of the school system, students' expectations and macro-societal factors. This paper accounts for gender differences in both reading and mathematics among 15-year-old students using data from the OECD's 2000 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) project. In most countries, school system factors are associated with the gender gap in reading but not in mathematics. Generally, gender differences in students' occupational expectations do not account for the gender gaps, although expectations contribute to the gender gaps in reading in New Zealand and the United States. Although several macro-societal factors - the proportion of women in the workforce, societal inequality and public sector spending - are associated with the gender gap in reading, the correlations are only moderate, unstable and, importantly, are not associated with the gender gaps in mathematics. The much stronger association between the gender gaps in reading and mathematics across countries implies that they are both influenced by policy: the extent that countries have successfully implemented policies to promote the educational outcomes of girls and young women. In such countries the gender gap in mathematics is small or non-existent but the gender gap in reading is relatively large. Policies shift both gender gaps in tandem.
... Las diferencias de género encontradas en este trabajo coinciden con los resultados de numerosos estudios que señalan una ejecución superior de los hombres en la solución de problemas de ciencias que las mujeres (Cleary, 1991;Beller y Gafni, 1996;Penner, 2003). Esta diferencia de ejecución se ha explicado por la cultura de género, como los estereotipos de competencias atribuidos a los sexos (Smith, Sansone y White, 2007) y por diferencias en determinadas habilidades de origen biológico (Baron-Cohen, 2003). ...
This study examines 80 elementary school teachers' conceptions of the planet earth (shape and reference system determined by gravity). The information was collected through a semi-structured interview. A qualitative analysis of the answers identified four conceptions: a) The planet earth has an undefined shape; b) the planet earth is spherical in shape, in the interior of which the people live; c) the earth is spherical and the people live around the spherical surface oriented in an absolute system of reference, and d) scientific conception. The teachers' frequency distribution in diverse conceptions showed that almost half of the teachers (49%) held alternative conceptions, the rest of the teachers maintained the scientific conception. The results offered relevant information for designing teachers' courses using a constructivist approach.
... Teachers and systems may hold perceptions that males have more innate abilities related to math and science and may subconsciously preference, motivate and track males toward math and science as appropriate interests (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003). Also, tests may be designed in such a way as to preference males versus females (Penner, 2003). ...
This review outlines the potential of ribonucleic acid (RNA) methods for biological evidence analysis. Nucleic acid sequence based amplification (NASBA) is a laboratory method for identification of body fluid type, as well as a more common RNA-based detection method, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). NASBA and RT-PCR are directly indicative of gene expression levels in cells/tissues of interest. Either NASBA or RT-PCR could be used for extremely sensitive body fluid identification based upon amplification of tissue-specific mRNA transcripts present in a given forensic sample, commonly known as 'transcriptome' analysis, especially when combined with real-time detection chemistries.
... A review of the literature on gender DIF in mathematics tests suggested that the item characteristics displaying DIF in favor of boys include: (a) problem solving (Innabi & Dodeen, 2006;Mendes-Barnett & Ercikan, 2006;Ryan & Chiu, 2001), (b) difficult items (Penner, 2003), (c) space and shape (Gierl et al., 2003;Innabi & Dodeen, 2006;Liu & Wilson, 2009;Williams, Hadjidemetriou, Ryan, & Jones, 1999), and (d) mental mathematics (Ong et al., 2011). However, item characteristics exhibiting DIF in favor of girls include: (a) computation (Mendes- Barnett & Ercikan, 2006), (b) algorithms (Innabi & Dodeen, 2006;Williams et al., 1999), (c) verbal demand (Gallagher et al., 2000;Ong et al., 2011;Walker et al., 2008;Williams et al., 1999), and (d) memorization (Gierl et al., 2003). ...
The purpose of this article is to explore crossing differential item functioning (DIF) in a test drawn from a national examination of mathematics for 11-year-old pupils in England. An empirical dataset was analyzed to explore DIF by gender in a mathematics assessment. A two-step process involving the logistic regression (LR) procedure for detecting uniform and nonuniform DIF was applied to identify crossing DIF. The results showed 36 uniform and 19 nonuniform statistically significant gender DIF items. Out of the 19 nonuniform DIF items, 10 items were crossing DIF. We explained nonuniform DIF using the crossing point in item characteristic curves and the LR-DIF coding scheme. This study showed that crossing DIF exists in empirical data and the findings from this study provide a potentially valuable contribution in understanding such items.
... Since studies have showed that another psychometric property of an item, i.e. difficulty, may mediate the differentiate probability of correct answers between boys and girls (Bielinski and Davison, 2001;Penner, 2003), c-parameters were regressed on the percentage omission and the difficulty parameters for all MCQs within the domain tested over the analysed years. The result was four linear regression analyses: all MCQs from tests on maths from 2012-2014, language ability, science, humanities. ...
Guessing and item omission may be regarded as risk-taking or risk-avoidance strategies – sex specific adaptations to testing situations. In this article, these phenomena were analysed by (a) percentage of omissions by sex, (b) negative binomial regression to asses sex differences in the number of omissions, (c) c-DIF analysis
using IRT-LR test and (d) linear regression using item attributes, to assess whether the c-parameter is sex
differentiated by the percentage of omits (controlling item difficulty). The data set analysed were from
the 2012–2014 Polish lower-secondary schools final exams, comprising tests in maths, language, science
and humanities. Contrary to the vast body of literature, boys omitted items slightly more frequently than
girls. Possible explanations of this finding – specific to the Polish examination system – were provided. The
hypothesis of a higher c-parameter for boys did not find strong support from this study. It was shown that
the c-parameter should not only be interpreted as resulting from item non-omission. This supports the
modern concept of the c-parameter as a consequence not only of random guessing, but also problem solving,
creative guessing or cheating.
... A review of the literature on gender DIF in mathematics tests suggested that the item characteristics displaying DIF in favor of boys include: (a) problem solving (Innabi & Dodeen, 2006;Mendes-Barnett & Ercikan, 2006;Ryan & Chiu, 2001), (b) difficult items (Penner, 2003), (c) space and shape (Gierl et al., 2003;Innabi & Dodeen, 2006;Liu & Wilson, 2009;Williams, Hadjidemetriou, Ryan, & Jones, 1999), and (d) mental mathematics (Ong et al., 2011). However, item characteristics exhibiting DIF in favor of girls include: (a) computation (Mendes- Barnett & Ercikan, 2006), (b) algorithms (Innabi & Dodeen, 2006;Williams et al., 1999), (c) verbal demand (Gallagher et al., 2000;Ong et al., 2011;Walker et al., 2008;Williams et al., 1999), and (d) memorization (Gierl et al., 2003). ...
... A significative difference (P<.05) has been identified when for the general domain (normalized sum of the scores obtained in the six dimensions, is a general indicator of performance) subjects have been divided for quartiles of performance and male and female were confronted. In the fourth quartile there is a over representation of males, that is coherent with the work of Penner (2003). In all the considered domains Swiss students obtain significative better results than foreigners (Table 6) There are significative differences among the 9 districts in all the six domains considered. ...
Since 2010 a project with the aim of producing and administering a standardized test (Woolfolk, 2007) to evaluate mathematical competencies in the fourth class of primary school has been started in Ticino. In order to produce the test several steps was necessary: a team has first identified the areas of the mathematical program to be tested, second a group composed by primary and lower secondary school teachers, discipline experts and teachers of mathematical didactics has produced items coherent with the aim and with the characteristics of students and school programs, third the item produced were tested on a sample of students to evaluate the discriminative capacities of the items, fourth a preliminary analysis of the items was carried out, fifth the test was produced and administered to the whole population of students. In the fourth phase we used the classical Rasch model (1960) to evaluate and select the items and the software ConQuest supported in the analysis.
... Some researchers report no gender difference; others find gender differences, sometimes in favour of males, other times the gender difference favours females. For example, Demie (2001), Gorard, Rees, and Salisbury (2001), and Penner (2003) have found gender differences in mathematical ability. The later researcher found that gender differences favoured males in all areas measured. ...
... Such a conclusion is supported by Lee et al. (2005) who determined in their study that when a gender difference existed, it was not due to participating in science inquiry instruction. Our findings of gender difference in science achievement where male outperform female students, in general, are aligned with current research findings (Bacharach et al., 2003;Kohlhass et al., 2010; Reading/Literacy-Integrated Science Intervention 21 NCES, 2012b), and we posit that it might be due to the test format (recall with multiple-choice type questions vs. problem-solving, open format questions), the specific constructs (science knowledge vs. science strategy), and/or the percent of constructs measured on the benchmark and TAKS tests, because according to Penner (2003) and O'Reilly and McNamara's (2007) analyses, males scored higher on science knowledge whereas females scored significantly higher on science strategy knowledge. In addition, males were shown to score higher on multiple-choice questions (as was the case in our science assessments) than were females. ...
This paper presents the findings from a randomized control trial study of reading/literacy-integrated science inquiry intervention after 1 year of implementation and the treatment effect on 5th-grade low-socio-economic African-American and Hispanic students’ achievement in science and English reading. A total of 94 treatment students and 194 comparison students from four randomized intermediate schools participated in the current project. The intervention consisted of ongoing professional development and specific instructional science lessons with inquiry-based learning, direct and explicit vocabulary instruction, and integration of reading and writing. Results suggested that (a) there was a significantly positive treatment effect as reflected in students' higher performance in district-wide curriculum-based tests of science and reading and standardized tests of science, reading, and English reading fluency; (b) males and females did not differ significantly from participating in science inquiry instruction; (c) African-American students had lower chance of sufficiently mastering the science concepts and achieving above the state standards when compared with Hispanic students across gender and condition, and (d) below-poverty African-American females are the most vulnerable group in science learning. Our study confirmed that even a modest amount of literacy integration in inquiry-based science instruction can promote students' science and reading achievement. Therefore, we call for more experimental research that focus on the quality of literacy-integrated science instruction from which middle grade students, particularly low-socio-economic status students, can benefit.
This research was the first research integrating decision making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) and structural equation modeling (SEM) to analysis factors, including interest in science, value in science and confidence in science, affecting female students’ science achievements from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011. The research constructed two causal models base on mutual effect of value in science and confidence in science by DEMATEL analysis. The causality of two factors in model 1 was value in science affected confidence in science and model 2 vice versa. According to the results of SEM analysis, fit indices of CFI, GFI and AGFI in model 1 were 0.851, 0.796 and 0.745; in model 2 were 0.818, 0.772, and 0.873. And results showed that female students had better fitness in model 1; in other words, the causality of value in science to confidence in science might have an important effect on the science achievement of female students. Lastly, these findings could provide not only a different perspective for future researches but also a useful insight as a reference for policy making and improvement by relevant decision makers.
Research on differential item functioning (DIF) has focused traditionally on the detection of effects. However, recent studies have investigated potential sources of DIF, in an attempt to determine how or why it may occur. This study examines variability in item difficulty in math performance that is accounted for by gender, referred to as gender DIF, and the extent to which gender DIF is explained by both person predictors (opportunity to learn [OTL]) and item characteristics (item format). Cross-classified multilevel IRT models are used to examine the relationships among item difficulty, gender, OTL, and item format. Data come from the U.S. cohort of an international study of future math teachers, the Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics.
This study explored the impact of peer-reputations for academic ability and affect/liking on academic outcomes in a sample of preadolescents. In light of the popular stereotypes regarding the differential academic abilities of girls and boys (favoring girls in English, and boys in math and science), it was hypothesized that peer-reputations in English would be more predictive of academic outcomes (measured via school-grades and standardized test-scores) for girls than for boys, while math and science reputations would be most predictive of boys’ academic outcomes. Further, it was also hypothesized that these links would be stronger for school-grades than for standardized test-scores. As expected, overall, peer-reputations were found to be predictive of school-grades but not standardized test-scores. Further, the results reveal that although ability reputations in most areas were predictive of grades for both sexes, gender differences were observed which were consistent with hypotheses. Results suggest that children’s peer-reputations may play an important role in their academic achievement, especially within domains most central to their gender identities.
Through five waves of data collection, this longitudinal study investigated the development of spatial skills in 304 elementary school children (Mage = 7.64 years) as they progressed from the second to fourth grade. The study focused on whether multiple latent classes with different developmental profiles best explain development. Spatial skills were measured by tests featuring two-dimensional figures. Mathematics achievement was measured by the statewide end-of-year test and was included as a distal outcome variable. The role of covariates, including socioeconomic status, verbal working memory, and gender, was also explored. The results indicate a need to view two-dimensional spatial skills development as multidimensional with two developmental profiles predicted by socioeconomic status, verbal working memory, and gender. The developmental profiles predicted differences in mathematics achievement.
Larry Summers war 2005 als Redner auf einer Konferenz über Wissenschaft und Technik in Massachussetts eingeladen und löste ein politisches und gesellschaftliches Erdbeben aus. Der damalige Präsident der Universität Harvard behauptete, angeborene Unterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen in bestimmten kognitiven Fähigkeiten seien unter anderem ein Grund dafür, warum es weniger Frauen in wissenschaftlichen Spitzenpositionen gebe. Einige Teilnehmer verließen daraufhin entrüstet den Saal und eine weltweite, hitzig geführte Debatte entbrannte. Aber Summers, den diese Rede letzten Endes seinen Job kostete, hatte nicht einfach bloß behauptet, dass Frauen schlechter in bestimmten kognitiven Fähigkeiten seien, er hatte sich dabei auf wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen berufen. Hat Summers die wissenschaftlichen Befunde falsch interpretiert oder gibt es tatsächlich eine biologische Basis für kognitive Geschlechtsunterschiede? Sind Frauen „von Natur aus“ für bestimmte Berufe weniger geeignet? Dieses Buchkapitel versucht einen Überblick über den aktuellen Stand der biopsychologischen Forschung über Geschlechtsunterschiede in verschiedenen kognitiven Fähigkeiten zu liefern. Dabei sollen die Fragen beantwortet werden, in welchen kognitiven Bereichen Geschlechtsunterschiede existieren, welche biologischen, psychologischen und sozialen Erklärungsmodelle es für diese Geschlechtsunterschiede gibt und schließlich welche Konsequenzen daraus für unsere Gesellschaft erwachsen.
This study provides insights into elementary teachers' perceptions of classroom environments spanning the launch of a major state science initiative. The initiative promotes science literacy through inquiry-based science kits. Results indicate that, after the launch, inquiry-based kits are more prominent in regional classrooms, there is an absence of science safety plans, and nearly 60% of students participate in science fairs. Reported challenges and rewards of teaching elementary science were examined. Teachers report a diminishing challenge for needed equipment and technology and a significantly rising challenge for balancing kit dynamics. Rewards of student interest and using hands-on learning science were reported.
Why are men, like other primate males, usually the aggressors and risk takers? Why do women typically have fewer sexual partners? In Why Sex Matters, Bobbi Low ranges from ancient Rome to modern America, from the Amazon to the Arctic, and from single-celled organisms to international politics, to show that these and many other questions about human behavior largely come down to evolution and sex. More precisely, as she shows in this uniquely comprehensive and accessible survey of behavioral and evolutionary ecology, they come down to the basic principle that all organisms evolved to maximize their reproductive success and seek resources to do so, but that sometimes cooperation and collaboration are the most effective ways to succeed. This newly revised edition has been thoroughly updated to include the latest research and reflect exciting changes in the field, including how our evolutionary past continues to affect our ecological present.
This is a new summaryn of how evolutionary thinking may be able to influence conservation strategies.
Although a substantial amount of research has been conducted on differential item functioning in testing, studies have focused on detecting differential item functioning rather than on explaining how or why it may occur. Some recent work has explored sources of differential functioning using explanatory and multilevel item response models. This study uses hierarchical generalized linear modeling to examine differential performance due to gender and opportunity to learn, two variables that have been examined in the literature primarily in isolation, or in terms of mean performance as opposed to item performance. The relationships between item difficulty, gender, and opportunity to learn are explored using data for three countries from an international survey of preservice mathematics teachers.
The principles of sexual selection were used as an organizing framework for interpreting cross-national patterns of sex differences in mathematical abilities. Cross-national studies suggest that there are no sex differences in biologically primary mathematical abilities, that is, for those mathematical abilities that are found in all cultures as well as in nonhuman primates, and show moderate heritability estimates. Sex differences in several biologically secondary mathematical domains (i.e., those that emerge primarily in school) are found throughout the industrialized world. In particular, males consistently outperform females in the solving of mathematical word problems and geometry. Sexual selection and any associated proximate mechanisms (e.g., sex hormones) influence these sex differences in mathematical performance indirectly. First, sexual selection resulted in greater elaboration in males than in females of the neurocognitive systems that support navigation in three-dimensional space. Knowledge implicit in these systems reflects an understanding of basic Euclidean geometry, and may thus be one source of the male advantage in geometry. Males also use more readily than females these spatial systems in problem-solving situations, which provides them with an advantage in solving word problems and geometry. In addition, sex differences in social styles and interests, which also appear to be related in part to sexual selection, result in sex differences in engagement iii mathematics-related activities, thus further increasing the male advantage in certain mathematical domains. A model that integrates these biological influences with sociocultural influences on the sex differences in mathematical performance is presented in this article.
Alternative explanations for the male advantage in arithmetical reasoning, as measured by the ability to solve complex word problems, include a male advantage in spatial cognition and a male advantage in computational fluency. The current study was designed to test these competing hypotheses. To this end, 113 male and 123 female undergraduates were administered arithmetical computations and arithmetical reasoning tests, along with an IQ test and a test of spatial cognition. There was no sex difference on the IQ test, but males showed significantly higher mean scores on the arithmetical computations, arithmetical reasoning, and spatial cognition measures. A series of structural equation models indicated that individual differences in arithmetical reasoning were related to individual differences in IQ, spatial abilities, and computational fluency. Moreover, the results suggested that the male advantage in arithmetical reasoning is mediated by the male advantages in both computational fluency and spatial cognition.
This study uses data on sex differences in the eighth-grade mathematical performance of over 77,000 students in 19 countries, 1964 and 1982 data on such differences in 9 countries, and data on gender stratification of advanced educational and occupational opportunities to explore when and where gender will affect students' performance in mathematics. The analyses show that there is cross-national variation in the performance of mathematics and that it is related to variation in the gender stratification of educational and occupational opportunities in adulthood, that sex differences have declined over time, and that school and family factors leading to higher mathematical performance are less stratified by gender when women have more equal access to jobs and higher education.
From the finding that males are more variable than females on mathematics test scores, it is argued that one might expect a gender-by-item-difficulty interaction such that easy items are easier for females than for males and hard items are harder for females than for males. This prediction was tested in two studies using data from nine forms of a basic skills test in mathematics. The hypothesis was generally supported. For each form, there was a negative correlation between the item difficulty differences (males-females) estimated on males and females separately and the difficulty of the item estimated on the combined sample. Males tended to outperform females on the hardest items; females tended to outperform males on the easiest items. A possible explanation is offered for the finding, one which posits a shift in the ability measured as items become more difficult. Implications for the construction of mathematics tests and the conduct of meta-analyses are discussed.
Item responses of a group of mathematically talented junior high school students were studied to explore the significant advantages that have been reported for males on the mathematical sections of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT-M). Rasch latent trait item difficulties were estimated, and a regression-like linear analysis was used to examine the interactions of item features with sex of examinees. SAT-M items were classified by subject-matter content, item format, section membership, and whether a figure was presented with the item; their serial position also was considered. Examinees were grouped by sex, grade, and level of performance. Data sufficiency items were easier for all examinees than were multiple-choice items, and were much easier for the girls than for the bosys. Serial position of the items was important, with later items being more difficult, and girls found the first and last items "more extreme" than did the boys. Girls found miscellaneous items to be much easier than did the boys, but found the algebra items more difficult. Differences between mean item difficulties of boys and girls for arithmetic and geometry items were negligible. Results suggested that a number of specific aspects of mathematical performance were being measured by the SAT-M for this group of able youths. The patterns of response suggested weaknesses and strengths that might be a focus of mathematics instruction for these bright students.
Recent research has questioned socialization explanations for sex differences in mathematics performance. In particular, the hypothesis that differences in the details of males' and females' high school programs are responsible for the sizable average difference between the sexes in quantitative Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) performance has been challenged in a recent study byBenbow and Stanley (1980). This research, however, considered sex-linked coursework differences only indirectly and was based on the experiences of an unusual sample of gifted youth. Using a more broadly representative sample, we provide a direct test of the hypothesis that the sex difference in quantitative SAT performance may be due to differences in the pattern of quantitative coursework taken by males and females in high school. We find that the male-female gap in SAT-M performance shrinks considerably when sex differences in quantitative high school coursework are controlled. These findings suggest that increasing females' rates of enrollment in high level mathematics courses would greatly reduce the sex difference in quantitative SAT performance and that it is premature to reject socialization and experiential explanations for the male-female gap in levels of quantitative performance.
This investigation examined whether the patterns of gender differential item functioning (DIF) present in parcels of items are influenced by changes in item position. Items were studied collectively to detect differential bundle functioning (DBF) on 2 forms of a test of mathematics for college freshmen. To investigate order effects, 2 forms of the test were assembled: Form 1 (random) and Form 2 (easy to difficult within content area; n = 3,932 for Form 1; n = 1,074 for Form 2). Based on an attribute analysis (Harnisch, Tatsuoka, & Wilkins, 1995; Tatsuoka, 1993), item categories were constructed to examine the relation between DBF and specific item characteristics identified in previous work (e.g., word problems, items requiring higher order thinking skills, and items containing figures or graphs). Findings suggest that the amount of gender DIF and DIF present in item parcels tends not to be influenced by changes in item position. The gender DIF findings for the word problem category are an issue; the beta value was .46 for Form 1 and .39 for Form 2.
The effects of test consequences, response formats (multiple choice or constructed response), gender, and ethnicity were studied for the math and science sections of a high school diploma endorsement test. There was an interaction between response format and test consequences: Under both response formats, students performed better under high stakes (diploma endorsement) than under low stakes (pilot test), but the difference was larger for the constructed response items. Gender and ethnicity did not interact with test stakes; the means of all groups increased when the test had high stakes. Gender interacted with format; boys scored higher than girls on multiple-choice items, girls scored higher than boys on constructed-response items.
Gender differences in performance on the mathematics section of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) persist. To add to our understanding of these differences, we systematically examined differential item functioning (DIF) on six forms of the SAT in order to identify relative strengths and weaknesses for male and female students associated with three general areas: the points being tested, the format in which the test items are presented, and the subject matter in which the test items are embedded. In each set of comparisons, the DIF procedure matches male and female students on the basis of overall mathematics score on the test and then identifies test items on which groups with the same total score perform differently. Results suggest that there are identifiable patterns of gender differences in how male and female students arrive at their total scores. These differences have implications for test developers, policymakers, and teachers of mathematics.
The joint effects of gender differences in mean and variability on 28 cognitive ability scales were recently examined by Feingold (1992a). He noted that gender differences in extreme score ranges (e.g., in the tails of the distribution of scores) may be influenced by differences in both mean and variability and offered subjective evaluations of effect sizes in the center and tails of these distributions. We provide an analytic evaluation of the effect sizes in the tails and show that the effect sizes in the tails of these distributions are typically smaller than Feingold assumed. We also evaluate the joint effect of gender differences in mean and variability via a different index: the number of females and males in the extreme score ranges. Males outnumber females in the upper tail of the score distribution of 22 of 28 ability scales, including 3 of the scales in which females have a higher overall mean.
Examined whether changes in format of mathematics items in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) had any effect on gender differences in performance using a Swedish sample of 8,851 sixth, seventh, and eighth graders. Results show no significant changes in gender differences when item format is altered. (SLD)
Used a 20-item set of problems (similar to those used by E. Sweeney [1953]) in 9 experiments with 558 male and 578 female undergraduates to determine which sex was superior in problem solving, the role of previous experience, whether sex differences extended throughout the domain of problem-solving tasks, whether they extended to other word problems, the role of spatial ability and verbal ability, the role of mathematics aptitude, and the relative importance of aptitude and social learning variables. Results show that the male advantage, averaging 35% across experiments, persisted at the same level as in experiments conducted in the 1950's. Sex differences extended to other word problems. The male advantage was related to similar advantages in spatial and mathematical ability. Aptitude variables dominated attitude and mathematics experience variables in accounting for the sex difference. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study explored gender-related differences in participation in and scores on the College Board's Advanced Placement Program and Achievement examinations. In both sets of tests, the numbers of male and female high school students were unequal for several subject areas. The French, Spanish, and Modern Hebrew examinations attracted many more female than male students, whereas many more male than female students took the Physics, Chemistry, and Computer Science examinations. There was little change in most of the patterns of enrollment from 1982 through 1992. Male students had moderately higher scores on the Physics, Chemistry, and Computer Science tests, whereas female students had a slight advantage on some of the language examinations. Although the patterns of gender-related score differences were stable, there were some indications that gender differences are narrowing, especially in the areas of American history and computer science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article presents an examination of the little noted sex-related difference in classroom grades. In contrast to standardized measures of mathematics achievement, girls receive better math grades than do boys. Three hypotheses are proposed to account for this difference. The first hypothesis proposes that boys' greater math experience facilitates their performance on standardized tests. The second hypothesis proposes that math learning styles account for the observed differences. Autonomous learning behavior is presumed to facilitate performance on standardized tests, whereas rote learning is presumed to facilitate performance on classroom exams. The third hypothesis proposes that boys and girls respond differently to novel and familiar achievement situations. It is hypothesized that girls do better when dealing with familiar situations such as classroom exams, whereas boys do better when dealing with novel situations such as standardized tests. Theoretical and empirical evidence consistent with each hypothesis is reviewed, and directions for further research are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study provides a global perspective on gender differences in performance of 9- and 13-year-olds on mathematics and science exams by reanalyzing and interpreting results on the 1991 International Assessment of Educational Progress. The analyses were performed across 20 countries that tested 13-year-olds and 14 countries that tested 9-year-olds. A random sample of 3,300 students was selected from each population at each age level; half were assessed in mathematics and half in science. The gender effect sizes on the mathematics assessment at both the subdomains level and the total scores were found to be small, especially among 9-year-olds. In general, the gender effects for science were substantially larger than those for mathematics (SD = 0.16 and 0.26 SDs on the total score, in favor of boys, for 9- and 13-year-olds, respectively). Analyses were carried out in seven selected countries—Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Korea, Scotland, Spain, and the United States. Gender differences in variability, reliability, and the structure of the intercorrelations among the subdomains were discussed as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several hundred thousand intellectually talented 12-to 13-year-olds have been tested nationwide over the past 16 years with the mathematics and verbal sections of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Although no sex differences in verbal ability have been found, there have been consistent sex differences favoring males in mathematical reasoning ability, as measured by the mathematics section of the SAT (SAT-M). These differences are most pronounced at the highest levels of mathematical reasoning, they are stable over time, and they are observed in other countries as well. The sex difference in mathematical reasoning ability can predict subsequent sex differences in achievement in mathematics and science and is therefore of practical importance. To date a primarily environmental explanation for the difference in ability has not received support from the numerous studies conducted over many years by the staff of Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) and others. We have studied some of the classical environmental hypotheses: attitudes toward mathematics, perceived usefulness of mathematics, confidence, expectations/ encouragement from parents and others, sex-typing, and differential course-taking. In addition, several physiological correlates of extremely high mathematical reasoning ability have been identified (left-handedness, allergies, myopia, and perhaps bilateral representation of cognitive functions and prenatal hormonal exposure). It is therefore proposed that the sex difference in SAT-M scores among intellectually talented students, which may be related to greater male variability, results from both environmental and biological factors.
A re-analysis of the cross-national data gathered by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) was undertaken to determine the magnitude, direction, and nature of differences in 17-year-old boys' and girls' attitudes and achievement in mathematics. A 10-item attitude scale and a 70-item achievement test were administered to 13,056 students attending school in ten countries. Sex differences in both attitude and achievement were small, but with few exceptions they favored males. Considerable variation existed between countries in the extent to which the achievement of boys exceeded that of girls, and in many cases, the magnitude of the differences was associated with psychosocial patterns found in the diverse cultures.
A procedure for the detection of differential item performance (DIP) is used to investigate the relationships between characteristics of mathematics achievement items and gender differences in performance. Eight randomly equivalent samples of high school seniors were each given a unique form of the ACT Assessment Mathematics Usage Test (ACTM). Students without requisite mathematics courses were deleted from the samples to reduce the confounding effects of differences in instruction at the high school level. Signed measures of DIP were obtained for each item in the eight ACTM forms. These DIP estimates were then analyzed in a 6 × 8 (item category by form) experimental design. A significant item category effect was found indicating a relationship between item characteristics and gender-based DIP. Predictions, based on previous research about the categories of items that would contribute to gender-based DIP, were supported: Geometry and mathematics reasoning items were relatively more difficult for female examinees and the more algorithmic, computation-oriented items were relatively easier.
A cross-cultural quantitative review of contemporary findings of gender differences in variability in verbal, mathematical, and spatial abilities was conducted to assess the generalizability of U.S. findings that (a) males are more variable than females in mathematical and spatial abilities, and (b) the sexes are equally variable in verbal ability. No consistent gender differences (variance ratios) were found across countries in any of the three broad ability domains. Instead, males were more variable than females in some nations and females were more variable than males in other nations. Thus, the well-established U.S. findings of consistently greater male variability in mathematical and spatial abilities were not invariant across cultures and nations.
Much of the male-female wage differential exists because men and women are assigned to different jobs. Within narrow job categories, there is no male-female differential. Only a tortured taste theory of discrimination can reconcile these facts. The authors argue that differential movement along job ladders entails comparative advantage, so the ability standard for promotion is higher for women. This implies that more able women will be passed over in favor of less able men. Women, assumed to have the same ability distribution as men, earn less. The differential reflects females' lower promotion probability, not within-job discrimination. Copyright 1990 by University of Chicago Press.
Human capital models have mainly focused on the rate of return to investment in a homogeneous stock of capital. Yet, individuals have different initial attributes that determine comparative advantage in producing different types of human capital. The authors find that mathematical ability is an important determinant of field choice for college students and that differences in earnings across fields are largely explained as a return to the use of scarce quantitative abilities in the production of each type of human capital. The model successfully accounts for the observed male-female differences in earnings and occupational choices of recent college graduates. Copyright 1990 by University of Chicago Press.
Reviewers have consistently concluded that males perform better on mathematics tests than females do. To make a refined assessment of the magnitude of gender differences in mathematics performance, we performed a meta-analysis of 100 studies. They yielded 254 independent effect sizes, representing the testing of 3,175,188 Ss. Averaged over all effect sizes based on samples of the general population, d was -0.05, indicating that females outperformed males by only a negligible amount. For computation, d was -0.14 (the negative value indicating superior performance by females). For understanding of mathematical concepts, d was -0.03; for complex problem solving, d was 0.08. An examination of age trends indicated that girls showed a slight superiority in computation in elementary school and middle school. There were no gender differences in problem solving in elementary or middle school; differences favoring men emerged in high school (d = 0.29) and in college (d = 0.32). Gender differences were smallest and actually favored females in samples of the general population, grew larger with increasingly selective samples, and were largest for highly selected samples and samples of highly precocious persons. The magnitude of the gender difference has declined over the years; for studies published in 1973 or earlier d was 0.31, whereas it was 0.14 for studies published in 1974 or later. We conclude that gender differences in mathematics performance are small. Nonetheless, the lower performance of women in problem solving that is evident in high school requires attention.
In this study, I investigated the relationship of mathematics performance to math anxiety, mother's education, and gender. A secondary analysis was conducted using nationally representative samples of 13-year-old children in the United States (N = 4,091) and Thailand (N = 3,613) collected as a part of the Second International Mathematics Study (Garden, 1987). Separate ANOVAs (Math Anxiety x Mother's Education x Gender) were run within each country using a 40-item math performance test as the dependent variable. Math anxiety has an inverse relationship with mathematics performance in the United States (r = -.24) and in Thailand (r = -.14). The relationship between math anxiety and mathematics performance is significant in both countries after controlling for previous achievement, mother's education, and gender, although the data suggest that there is a three-way interaction between math anxiety, mother's education, and gender in Thailand.
Sex differences in central tendency, variability, and numbers of high scores on mental tests have been extensively studied.
Research has not always seemed to yield consistent results, partly because most studies have not used representative samples
of national populations. An analysis of mental test scores from six studies that used national probability samples provided
evidence that although average sex differences have been generally small and stable over time, the test scores of males consistently
have larger variance. Except in tests of reading comprehension, perceptual speed, and associative memory, males typically
outnumber females substantially among high-scoring individuals.
Males from select populations receive better scores on standardized math achievement tests than females. The research reported in this article evaluates the hypothesis that the reason for these differences is that males are faster at retrieving basic math facts. Studies 1-3 demonstrate that math-fact retrieval predicts performance on math achievement tests with students in grades 5-8 and in college. Studies 4-6 show that males and females in grades 2-8 and in college have different patterns of math-fact retrieval performance and that males at the high positive end of the retrieval distribution are faster than comparable females. Study 5 also demonstrates that math-fact retrieval varies in three populations (Anglo-American, Chinese-American, Hong Kong Chinese) and that speed of retrieval improves with practice. Studies 7-9 tested the hypothesis that males are faster than females on retrieval tasks in general. Study 7 showed that there were no gender differences on simple retrieval tasks, and Studies 8 and 9 showed that females were slightly faster than males on verbal-processing tasks. The General Discussion indicates that the math-fact retrieval hypothesis is consistent with previous research. It also relates the math-fact retrieval hypothesis to theories of cognitive performance and introduces the practice and engagement hypothesis. This hypothesis explains the origin of gender differences in math and reading and relates those differences to the existing literature on gender differences in academic performance. The article concludes with a description of needed future research and a discussion of the educational implications of the math-fact retrieval hypothesis. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.
U.S. math-science graduate students possessing world-class talent (368 males, 346 females) were assessed on psychological attributes and personal experiences in order to examine how their talents emerged and developed. Comparisons were made, using similar assessments, with mathematically talented students (528 males, 228 females) identified around age 13 and tracked into adulthood by the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY). Well before college, both samples were academically distinguished: however, the graduate students could be identified during adolescence as a subset of mathematically talented youths based on their nonintellectual attributes. Their profiles corresponded to what earlier psychological studies found to characterize distinguished (and exclusively male) scientists: exceptional quantitative reasoning abilities, relatively stronger quantitative than verbal reasoning ability, salient scientific interests and values, and finally, persistence in seeking out opportunities to study scientific topics and develop scientific skills. On these attributes, sex differences were minimal for the graduate students (but notfor the SMPY comparison groups). Developing exceptional scientific expertise apparently requires special educational experiences, but these necessary experiences are similar for the two sexes.
- Geddes