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Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation
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People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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... They are therefore dependent on one another (cf. Markus & Kitayama, 1991). ...
Cosmopolitanism is an ancient Greek notion which in modern times has found its way into educational practice. It expresses a moral responsibility toward everyone irrespective of cultural background, looks or ability. However, it is an ideology difficult to operationalise and convey in education if the objective is to change learners’ attitudes for the future benefit of mankind. There are several obstacles standing in the way such as concurrent but incompatible value systems, the rise of individual empowerment for global economic growth and most important perhaps, the evolutionary basis of human nature. It is, for example, not possible to encourage competitive behaviour and simultaneously aim at imparting moral values. It is difficult to effectively teach a cosmopolitan mindset, but this is not to say that we should not try. Drawing from the research of multiple disciplines the conclusion of this article is inevitably paradoxical. While the effort to strive for moral cosmopolitanism is a good one, it is also not a one that is entirely possible. We must adjust expectations rather than trying to find miraculous methods by which to enable a better World through general tolerance and acceptance everywhere. Sadly, the latter is not possible. We can at best expect to have a local impact made possible by dialogue.
... Early contributions to this strand of literature postulate that individualism incentivizes technological innovation through awarding social status to individuals' independence and accomplishments (Weber, 1958;Rosenberg and Birdzell, 2008). By contrast, collectivistic cultures, by emphasizing conformity and people's subordination to a cohesive group, discourage individuals from standing out, thereby hampering innovation (Mokyr, 1990;Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Given the importance of technological innovation in sustaining productivity growth, previous studies suggest that collectivistic societies, relative to their individualistic counterparts, are more likely to suffer from economic backwardness (Gorodnichenko and Roland, 2017). ...
This article establishes empirically that a persistent culture of "rugged individualism", captured by exposure to the American westward-moving frontier from 1790 to 1890, undermines pro-climate perceptions, environmental performance, and climate change preparedness across counties in the United States. It also demonstrates that individualism is associated with environmental underperformance at the state level, making it more difficult to mitigate the far-reaching consequences of changing climate conditions. To establish external validity of the subnational evidence, I employ a global sample of up to 97 countries and provide suggestive evidence that individualism creates barriers to climate change responses worldwide.
... However, it is important to note that these results were obtained with a group of participants from France, a Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic (WEIRD; country (Henrich et al., 2010), where the level of gender inequality is lower than in other countries (see Gender Inequality Index -United Nations Development Program) and where individuals develop self-reliance and self-independent values (Markus & Kitayama, 1991;Triandis, 1995). Cultural norms that encourage girls to view power as more masculine may have been counterbalanced by individualistic self-construal values. ...
Recent research has shown that by the age of 4, preschool children tend to associate social power with the male gender. The present study examined this association with a group of children from a Maya community in Guatemala, where gender inequalities are high, and tested the prediction that a strong gender hierarchy reduces girls’ perception of themselves as being dominant in dyadic power situations. However, contrary to our predictions, we did not find that children associated power with the male gender. In Experiment 1, we asked 4 to 7 years-old children (N = 70) to identify themselves with a dominant or subordinate character in same-gender and mixed-gender relationships. In contrast, to what was previously observed with French children, the results showed no significant difference between male and female participants, both of whom strongly identified with the dominant character. In Experiment 2, we asked 4 to 6 years-old participants (N = 70) to assign a gender to a dominant and subordinate character and found a strong own-gender effect, with all participants, males and females, assigning their own gender to the powerful character. Again, this contrasts with previous findings indicating that children from France, Norway and Lebanon did consistently associate power with the male gender. The absence of a male-power association in Maya children is discussed in terms of cultural differences regarding exposure to gender stereotypes, power values and representations of female-male comparisons.
... CI is an important aspect of an individual's sense of self, shaping their attitudes, behaviors, and worldview. (Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S., 1991) CI can also be influenced by factors such as race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, and other social identities. Individuals may have multiple cultural identities that intersect and interact with each other, creating a complex and dynamic sense of self. ...
Using a mixed-method approach, quantitative and qualitative, this study employs a comprehensive analytical eclectic model to investigate the national and political identity construction in the inauguration speeches of Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin. The study highlights the distinct ways in which each leader constructs their identity through language. The model consists of three interrelated components: textual analysis, contextual analysis, and social analysis. The study concludes that it is evident that language plays a crucial role in constructing political and national identity through its use of linguistic devices. These devices have the power to effectively influence and achieve the intended goals. The findings of this study have implications for understanding the role of language and discourse in shaping political and national identity, and how it impacts social and political realities. In conclusion, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the ways in which language is used to construct and communicate political and national identity. The study's findings have important implications for education, policy-making, and society as a whole, as they highlight the importance of language in shaping our perceptions of identity and culture.
Introduction: Culture plays a fundamental role in shaping human behavior, with individualism and collectivism being key cultural dimensions. However, existing scales for measuring these constructs, such as the INDCOL scale, have demonstrated issues when applied in diverse cultural contexts. To address this, we present the translation and adaptation of the Mexican Vertical and Horizontal Individualism and Collectivism Scale (MXINDCOL) into English, aiming to identify both universal and culture-specific elements.
Methods: Data were collected from 1124 participants (371 from the United States, 753 from Mexico) using the MXINDCOL and INDCOL scales. Propensity score matching was applied to balance demographic differences between the samples. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) assessed model fit, and cross-cultural measurement invariance was examined. Reliability, convergent and discriminant validity were also assessed. Results: The English-translated MXINDCOL scale demonstrated good model fit in both US and Mexican samples, outperforming the INDCOL scale. Reliability values were higher for the MXINDCOL scale compared to INDCOL. Cross-cultural measurement invariance was established, allowing for meaningful comparisons between the two cultures. US participants scored higher on vertical collectivism, while Mexican participants scored higher on horizontal collectivism and horizontal individualism.
Discussion: The MXINDCOL scale offers a culturally sensitive measurement of individualism and collectivism, addressing issues found in existing scales. It provides a more accurate assessment of cultural orientations and enriches the understanding of cultural dimensions by incorporating idiosyncratic elements. Further research in diverse cultural contexts is recommended to validate and refine the scale, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of cultural variations in individualism and collectivism.
Despite the prevalence of the virtue of considerateness in everyday moral discourse and the proliferation of philosophical studies of virtue language, considerateness hardly ever appears on philosophical agendas. When discussed in academia, its meaning seems fuzzy and unclear. This article makes amends for this gap by subjecting considerateness to conceptual scrutiny. The author argues that considerateness designates a cluster concept, encompassing three types of virtuousness that share a family resemblance only. One is a hybrid civic-moral social-glue virtue, extensionally equivalent to Aristotle's virtue of agreeableness. The second is an intellectual virtue of phronetic consideration (moral sensitivity and integration). The third is a full-fledged discrete moral virtue with standard Aristotelian features of a golden-mean structure and an emotional component as a motivator. The advantages of identifying these three types of virtuousness are elicited, as are some of the educational ramifications of analyzing the differentia of considerateness in this way.
This study revisits the concepts and measurement scales of Hashimoto and Yamagishi's ( Asian Journal of Social Psychology , 2016, 19, 286) adaptationist model of self‐construals, which provides a promising framework for intercultural and cross‐cultural research. Responding to a call for the establishment of measurement invariance of the scales across cultures, this study revised the scales and conducted a series of tests including tests of their dimensionality and measurement invariance across cultures. Additionally, this study examined construct and predictive validity of the revised scales across cultures. A total of 649 undergraduates from Japan and the United States were invited to respond to a survey designed for the purposes of the study. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the four‐factor model, which consists of dual interdependence (harmony seeking and rejection avoidance) and dual independence (distinctiveness of the self and self‐expression), fit the data better than alternative models across cultures. The invariance tests provided evidence to support partial configural, metric, and scalar invariance of the revised scales across cultures. The validity tests provided evidence to support construct and predictive validity of the revised scales across cultures. The results were discussed and the implications were offered.
Preface PART 1: TWO NATURAL KINDS 1. Approaching the Literary 2. Two Modes of Thought 3. Possible Castles PART 2: LANGUAGE AND REALITY 4. The Transactional Self 5. The Inspiration of Vygotsky 6. Psychological Reality 7. Nelson Goodman's Worlds 8. Thought and Emotion PART 3: ACTING IN CONSTRUCTED WORLDS 9. The Language of Education 10. Developmental Theory as Culture Afterword Appendix: A Reader's Retelling of "Clay" by James Joyce Notes Credits Index
