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An examination of race and gender differences in boredom proneness
Abstract
Examined the effects of race and gender on boredom proneness (BP) among 381 undergraduates (aged 17–55 yrs) asked to indicate their proneness to boredom. There were 202 Blacks and 176 Whites and 266 females and 115 males. Blacks were significantly more boredom-prone than Whites. Black females had the highest levels of BP, followed by Black males, White males, and White females. The effects of gender and the interaction of race and gender on BP were nonsignificant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Psychologists note that these behavioral variations also lead to psychological differences, with fast LH strategies exhibiting traits such as impulsivity, extensive risk-taking, social deviance, short-term thinking, and sexual promiscuity (Figueredo et al., 2005;Figueredo et al., 2006;Rushton, 1985;Simpson et al., 2012). Coincidentally, these characteristics are also linked to experiences of boredom (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986;Kılıç et al., 2020;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Watt & Ewing, 1996;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992), prompting individuals to make changes in their current surroundings. ...
... Psychological research has predominantly described boredom proneness as being associated with experiences such as depression, meaninglessness, loneliness, distraction, lack of motivation, and general dissatisfaction (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Additionally, boredom-prone individuals can exhibit traits such as impulsivity, susceptibility to sexual boredom, risk-taking, and reduced sociability (Kılıç et al., 2020;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Watt & Ewing, 1996;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992). ...
... For example, boredom-prone individuals frequently experience sexual disinterest and diminished passion for their current partners (Watt & Ewing, 1996), potentially motivating them to seek new sexual partners. They also tend to be impulsive, risk-taking, and more susceptible to distraction or lack motivation (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986;Kılıç et al., 2020;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992). This overlap suggests a potential evolutionary link between boredom proneness and fast LH strategies, particularly in how they shape behavior and decision-making. ...
Life history theory suggests that in harsh, unpredictable environments, individuals may benefit from adopting a fast life history strategy. This may involve experiencing boredom more frequently and intensely as an adaptive mechanism to seek novel stimuli, potentially increasing the number of sexual partners and offspring. This study explored the relationship between trait boredom—a chronic characteristic of feeling bored—and fast life history strategies. Our findings confirmed a positive association between boredom proneness and fast life history strategies at both individual and country levels. In Study 1, fast life history strategy was positively correlated with boredom proneness and mediated the relationship between perceived childhood support/resources and boredom proneness. In Study 2, we conducted a multi-level analysis using secondary data from 15 countries. The results showed that countries with higher boredom proneness scores showed more indicators of faster life history strategies. These results suggest that trait boredom may be a functional characteristic of fast life history strategists. This study is the first empirical investigation of trait boredom within a life history framework, highlighting trait boredom's functional role from evolutionary and ecological perspectives.
... In the extant research on state boredom among adolescents, a certain amount of controversy has emerged in recent years concerning gender differences (Wegner & Flisher, 2009), in line with research involving adults. Indeed, although several studies have shown that men are more susceptible to boredom than women (Vodanovich & Kass, 1990;Vodanovich, Wallace, & Kass, 2005;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992), Hunter et al. (2015) did not find any gender differences when studying state boredom, while Seib and Vodanovich (1998) have shown that women had significantly higher levels of boredom than men. Additionally, it has been found that men are more likely than women to experience boredom because of the need for excitement, change, and variety . ...
... Using impulsivity and time perspective dimensions to test the convergent validity of the MSBS-SF was necessary because the subjective experience of boredom involves both affect and reasoning (Baker, D'Mello, Rodrigo, & Graesser, 2010;D'Mello & Graesser, 2011;Hill & Perkins, 1985). Indeed, several studies attest that boredom and impulsiveness are positively correlated (e.g., Dahlen et al., 2004;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Moynihan, Igou, & van Tilburg, 2017;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992). As a result of this relationship, Moynihan et al. (2017) report that many researchers treat impulsiveness as a delinquent boredom consequence that often serves as the basis for several adverse effects associated with boredom. ...
... Our results confirmed earlier findings that established that state boredom is related to impulsivity (e.g., Dahlen et al., 2004;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Mercer-Lynn et al., 2013;Moynihan et al., 2017;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992), and time perspective (e.g., Danckert & Allman, 2005;London & Monell, 1974;Watt, 1991;Wittman & Paulus, 2008), despite the low Cronbach's alpha values found in the subscales that were used to measure these variables. Since these subscales are part of larger scales, they contain fewer items, which may explain their low internal consistency. ...
The Multidimensional State Boredom Scale (MSBS) is widely used, but evidence regarding its psychometric properties among adolescents is lacking. In particular, the functioning of the scale across genders is unknown. As a result, we used item response theory (IRT) to investigate gender invariance of the Short Form of the MSBS (MSBS-SF) among adolescents. Four hundred and sixty-six Italian high school students (51% male; M = 16.7, SD = 1.44) were recruited. A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated the unidimensionality of the scale, and IRT analyses indicated that the scale was sufficiently informative. Differential item functioning (DIF) across genders showed that only one item had DIF that was both nonuniform and small in size. Additionally, relationships with negative/positive urgency and present/future-oriented time perspectives were found. Overall, this study offers evidence that the MSBS-SF is a valuable and useful scale for measuring state boredom among male and female adolescents.
... In the extant research on state boredom among adolescents, a certain amount of controversy has emerged in recent years concerning gender differences (Wegner & Flisher, 2009), in line with research involving adults. Indeed, although several studies have shown that men are more susceptible to boredom than women (Vodanovich & Kass, 1990;Vodanovich, Wallace, & Kass, 2005;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992), Hunter et al. (2015) did not find any gender differences when studying state boredom, while Seib and Vodanovich (1998) have shown that women had significantly higher levels of boredom than men. Additionally, it has been found that men are more likely than women to experience boredom because of the need for excitement, change, and variety ). ...
... Using impulsivity and time perspective dimensions to test the convergent validity of the MSBS-SF was necessary because the subjective experience of boredom involves both affect and reasoning (Baker, D'Mello, Rodrigo, & Graesser, 2010;D'Mello & Graesser, 2011;Hill & Perkins, 1985). Indeed, several studies attest that boredom and impulsiveness are positively correlated (e.g., Dahlen et al., 2004;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Moynihan, Igou, & van Tilburg, 2017;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992). As a result of this relationship, Moynihan et al. (2017) report that many researchers treat impulsiveness as a delinquent boredom consequence that often serves as the basis for several adverse effects associated with boredom. ...
... Our results confirmed earlier findings that established that state boredom is related to impulsivity (e.g., Dahlen et al., 2004;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Mercer-Lynn et al., 2013;Moynihan et al., 2017;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992), and time perspective (e.g., Danckert & Allman, 2005;London & Monell, 1974;Watt, 1991;Wittman & Paulus, 2008), despite the low Cronbach's alpha values found in the subscales that were used to measure these variables. Since these subscales are part of larger scales, they contain fewer items, which may explain their low internal consistency. ...
The Multidimensional State Boredom Scale (MSBS) is widely used, but evidence regarding its psychometric properties among adolescents is lacking. In particular, the functioning of the scale across genders is unknown. As a result, we used item response theory (IRT) to investigate gender invariance of the Short Form of the MSBS (MSBS-SF) among adolescents. Four hundred and sixty-six Italian high school students (51% male; M = 16.7, SD = 1.44) were recruited. A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated the unidimensionality of the scale, and IRT analyses indicated that the scale was sufficiently informative. Differential item functioning (DIF) across genders showed that only one item had DIF that was both nonuniform and small in size. Additionally, relationships with negative/positive urgency and present/future-oriented time perspectives were found. Overall, this study offers evidence that the MSBS-SF is a valuable and useful scale for measuring state boredom among male and female adolescents.
... Some scholars speculated that these maladaptive behaviors are specific expressions of the general impulsiveness that boredom breeds (e.g., Gerritsen, Toplak, Sciaraffa, & Eastwood, 2014). Indeed, research confirms that boredom and impulsiveness are correlated (e.g., Dahlen et al., 2004;Fahlman et al., 2011;Leong & Schneller, 1993;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992). Not surprisingly, a number of researchers turned their attention to the study of impulsiveness as a delinquent boredom consequence that may stand at the basis of several of boredom's adverse effects. ...
... Other Effects of Boredom Furthermore, although we focused on the existential processes characteristic of boredom, boredom may prompt other psychological responses than those associated with meaning-regulation alone (Eastwood et al., 2012;van Tilburg & Igou, 2011. These responses may also be associated with impulsive behaviors (e.g., sensationseeking; Watt & Vodanovich, 1992). In this regard, Dahlen et al. (2004) found that the relationship between trait boredom and aggression was maintained after controlling for impulsiveness, measured by the BIS-11 (Patton et al., 1995). ...
High (vs. low) levels of boredom are associated with greater (vs. lesser) impulsiveness. It is important to examine the psychological processes that link boredom and impulsiveness to understand this relationship. We propose that heightened impulsiveness in response to boredom partly stems from people’s attempts to deal with meaninglessness when bored. In Studies 1–2, we found that perceived meaninglessness, characteristic of boredom, mediated the relationship between boredom and impulsiveness. In Study 3, we additionally hypothesized that self-awareness serves as a catalyst of boredom-induced impulsiveness by highlighting meaninglessness. Accordingly, Study 3 showed that manipulated boredom promoted impulsiveness through meaninglessness, particularly at greater levels of self-awareness. These studies support our hypothesis that impulsiveness is a response to boredom and the meaninglessness that boredom signals.
... Pozdější verze se sedmibodovou Likertovou škálou (Kass a Vodanovich, 1990) vykazovala vyšší hodnoty v rozmezí od α = = 0,79 do α = 0,84 (např. Harris, 2000;Watt a Vodanovich, 1992;Wink a Donahue, 1997) a v současné době její využití převažuje. Farmer a Sundberg (1986) nenavrhli žádnou vlastní teorii nudy, přestože se ve své práci odkazovali k některým dosavadním konceptualizacím či pojetím nudy, jejichž vztah k předkládanému uchopení dispoziční nudy v rámci studie ověřovali (OʼHanlon, 1981;Zuckerman et al., 1978). ...
Psychometric properties of the Czech version of the Boredom Proneness Scale: Factor structure, internal consistency, conceptual relations Objectives. The study is focused on the psychometric properties of the Czech version of the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS) evaluation.Sample and settings. The scale was completed by 661 secondary school students aged between 15 to 24 (M=17; SD=1,36) together with other measures of related constructs.Statistical analysis. Statistical analyses were realised using the environment of IBM SPSS Statistics (ver. 27) and JASP. Cronbachʼs α and McDonaldʼs ω were used to assess the internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analyses were performed to test the discriminant validity of different existing models. As none of them was a good fit to the present data, exploratory factor analysis using the Principal axis factoring method with promax solution was used to reveal specific factor structure within this sample. Correlation analysis was used for convergent validity estimation. Differences between men and women and with regard to grade point average were assessed using Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests.Results. The internal consistency of the BPS total score was adequate, but the item analysis did not confirm the scale to be unidimensional within this sample. Three-factor models derived from previous research studies were tested using the CFAs, but none of them was a reasonable fit to the data. Based on the results of EFA, a three-factor solution appeared to be the best fit to the sample. Despite the fact that one of the revealed factors could not have been fully mathematically supported, its validity and conceptual value within the BPS construct and with regard to other measured variables is further corroborated in this study. The study results indicate that the three-factor solution brings at least more subtle findings with regard to the relationship between the BPS and related constructs. Directions for further scale development and improvement are outlined in order to maximalize the research and diagnostic potential of the scale.Limitations: The major study limitation is related to the low representativeness of the research sample. Therefore, further research with different population samples is needed. Cíle. Cílem studie bylo ověřit psychometrické charakteristiky české verze Škály sklonu k nudě (Boredom Proneness Scale; BPS).Metoda. Škála byla administrována 661 žákům středních škol ve věku 15 až 24 let (M = 17; SD = 1,36) spolu s dalšími nástroji měřícími příbuzné konstrukty.Statistické analýzy. Veškeré statistické analýzy byly realizovány v prostředí IBM SPSS Statistics (ver. 27) a JASP. Vnitřní konzistence byla ověřována s využitím koeficientů reliability Cronbachovo α a McDonaldovo ω. Byly realizovány konfirmační faktorové analýzy ověřující diskriminační validitu pro existující faktorové modely. Faktorová struktura u daného vzorku byla následně zjišťována metodou PAF s šikmým řešením Promax. Konvergentní validita byla zjišťována s využitím korelační analýzy a pro zhodnocení rozdílů z hlediska pohlaví a studijního průměru bylo použito testů Mann-Whitney a Kruskal-Wallis.Výsledky. Vnitřní konzistence pro celkový skór BPS se ukázala být adekvátní, položková analýza však vyloučila unidimenzionalitu škály. S využitím konfirmačních faktorových analýz byly testovány tři faktorové modely z předchozích výzkumů, avšak žádný z nich nevykázal dostatečnou shodu s daty. Metodou explorační faktorové analýzy bylo u českého vzorku následně identifikováno jako nejvhodnější třífaktorové řešení. Přestože se nepodařilo jeden z faktorů z matematického hlediska obhájit, jeho validita a konceptuální hodnota vzhledem k celkovému konstruktu BPS a dalším proměnným se ukazuje v rámci tohoto výzkumu jako opodstatněná. Výsledky studie naznačují, že faktorové řešení o minimálně třech faktorech přináší detailnější výsledky, pokud jde o vztah BPS k příbuzným konstruktům. Výsledky studie přinášejí doporučení pro další práci na vývoji škály tak, aby byl plně využit její výzkumný i diagnostický potenciál.Omezení studie. S ohledem na nereprezentativnost výzkumného vzorku je pro budoucí výzkum v této oblasti potřebné zahrnutí také dalších populačních souborů.
... after a two-week time frame (McGiboney & Carter, 1988). Internal consistency estimates for the 7-point scale have ranged between .79 to .84 across a wide range of studies (e.g., McLeod & Vodano-vich, 1991;Polly, Vodanovich, Watt, & Blanchard, 1993;Seib & Vodanovich, 1998;Watt & Blanchard, 1994;Watt & Ewing, 1996;Watt & Vodanovich, 1992a). ...
The relationship between boredom proneness and health-symptom reporting was examined. Undergraduate students (N 5 200) completed the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. A multiple analysis of covariance indicated that individuals with high boredomproneness total scores reported significantly higher ratings on all five subscales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Obsessive–Compulsive, Somatization, Anxiety, Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Depression). The results suggest that boredom proneness may be an important element to consider when assessing symptom reporting. Implications for determining the effects of boredom proneness on psychological- and physical-health symptoms, as well as the application in clinical settings, are discussed. © 2000 John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 56: 149–155, 2000.
... In terms of individual variables, the word coined was Boredom Proneness, which is seen as the personality of an individual. Boredom-prone individuals are more likely to be impulsive (Watt and Vodanovich 1992), less alert (Sawin and Scerbo 1995), and less sociable (Leong and Schneller 1993). ...
... Considering the prior literature among impulsive individuals, these participants may have misattributed boredom as sedation. High levels of boredom are common in impulsive individuals (Watt and Vodanovich, 1992) and prior investigators have reasoned that boredom may have influenced ratings of subjective response to alcohol (Davidson et al., 1997). Thus, on an exploratory, post hoc basis, we explored boredom as a possible alternate predictor of sedative response. ...
Aims:
Subjective response to alcohol and impulsivity are both independent predictors of alcohol use and may be related risk factors for alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Recent findings suggest that more impulsive individuals may experience higher risk subjective response patterns at moderate-to-high doses of alcohol. However, whether these relationships are observable early in a drinking occasion remains an open question. This study examined multiple measures of impulsivity in relation to subjective response following low-dose alcohol.
Method:
Eighty-seven non-treatment-seeking heavy drinkers were enrolled in a placebo-controlled alcohol administration study testing the effects of NMDA receptor antagonist, Memantine. Baseline impulsivity assessments included the Cued Go/No-Go Task, Experiential Discounting Task, and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Version 11 (BIS-11). Following consumption of low-dose alcohol aimed to increase blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.03%, subjective stimulation and sedation were measured using the Biphasic Alcohol Effects Scale. Models were tested to relate impulsivity measures to subjective response with a post hoc exploratory model exploring boredom as an alternate predictor.
Results:
Increases in stimulation and sedation were observed following low-dose alcohol, but were not predicted significantly by impulsivity measures. Although greater impulsivity on the BIS-11 was a trend-level predictor of increased sedation, post hoc analyses suggested these results were an artifact of boredom.
Conclusion:
Although impulsivity did not predict subjective response to low-dose alcohol, the results suggest that small amounts of alcohol can produce a range of subjective effects, even among heavy drinkers. Future studies would benefit by examining subjective response across a range of BACs among both light and heavy drinkers.
This chapter explores what psychology and psychiatry, including psychoanalysis, tells us about the experience of boredom and boredom’s antithesis—the experience of “interest-entertainment.” In addition, this chapter permits the assessing points of convergence/divergence of knowledge claims about boredom deriving from the perspectives of psychology and psychiatry (including psychoanalysis) relative to knowledge claims emanating from the review, in the previous chapter, of contributions emanating from Western literature and philosophy. For a variety of reasons, the task of assessing what psychology and psychiatry have to say about boredom/interest is neither easy nor straightforward.
This review and synthesis of relevant literature considers the nature of boredom and boredom proneness in general terms before focusing on how the academic boredom experienced by undergraduates at university is sufficiently different from other known types to warrant a unique and important field of study. Derived from within the literature itself, academic boredom is commonly presented as a largely negative and deactivating achievement-related emotion known to impact usually adversely on student engagement and performance. Tracing traditional as well as contemporary views from within psychology, which has tended to dominate the field, findings that remain largely quantitative and highly statistical in nature are exemplified alongside the more exploratory but mixed-methods and educational work recently conducted in the UK. A comparison of the questionnaire-based self-report instruments frequently used in data collection is also included. Rooted largely within Control-Value Theory, the implications associated with academic boredom are far from trivial, particularly with respect to understanding sites and triggers, how students respond and cope and how the overall quality of the student experience might be improved. Limitations in the work undertaken to date draw attention to opportunities for further educational and interdisciplinary research.
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