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Psychosocial Correlates of Internalized Homophobia in Lesbians

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Abstract

Examined the reliability and construct validity of the scores on the Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale (LIHS) by investigating the psychosocial correlates of lesbian internalized homophobia. Ss were 157 women (aged 18–74 yrs) who completed a demographic questionnaire and a battery of measures including the LIHS and assessing sexual orientation, sexual identity, depression, somatic complaint, stability of self, and various forms of social support. The results generally support the reliability and construct validity of the scores on the LIHS. Specifically, internalized homophobia correlated with depression, passing as heterosexual, overall social support, satisfaction with social support, and overall gay social support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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... Likewise, internalized racism is the personal adoption of racist societal views about one's own racial/ethnic group (Pettigrew, 1967). Internalized LGBTQ discrimination has been associated with less use of personal resources, which has been linked to lower self-esteem (Szymanski et al., 2001), more depression, anxiety, and substance use among LGB individuals (Nicholson and Long, 1990;Lehavot and Simoni, 2011). Evidence of internalized racism similarly points to adverse effects across many domains of functioning (Blascovich et al., 2001;Chambers et al., 2004;Dornbusch et al., 1991;Jackson, 1990, 1991). ...
... Each item is assessed on a 6-point scale from 1 (the event has NEVER happened to you) to 6 (the event happened ALMOST ALL OF THE TIME [more than 70% of the time]). The total score and subscales have been validated (Szymanski et al., 2001) and found to be adequate in terms of internal consistency (Szymanski, 2006). In the current sample, Work/School (? = .85), ...
... Disclosure of sexual orientation by same-sex attracted clients in healthcare settings confers the advantage of better treatment outcomes, enabling clinicians to provide greater holistic care (Bjorkman & Malterud, 2007;Meckler et al., 2006;Steele, Tinmouth, & Lu, 2006;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001;Taylor, 1999). Australian and international research examining counsellor competency for working with LGBQ clients suggests that the majority of counsellors lack the appropriate knowledge, awareness, and skills required to work with these clients (Eliason & Hughes, 2004;Evans & Barker, 2010;Kocarek & Pelling, 2003;Lyons, Bieschke, Dendy, Worthington, & Georgemiller, 2010;McNair, Hegarty, & Taft, 2015). ...
... Clients who identify as same-sex attracted who are generally more open about their sexual orientation with family, friends, peers, and colleagues prior to treatment are expected to be more likely to disclose their sexual orientation to professionals (Taylor, 1999). Same-sex attracted clients possessing higher levels of internalised homophobia or those in the early stages of accepting their sexuality are less likely to disclose their sexuality to a professional than clients who are openly gay in other facets of their life (Szymanski et al., 2001). Although disclosure of same-sex attraction to health professionals is not always necessary, the perception by clients that disclosing their sexual orientation to a health professional is relevant, and may enhance treatment outcomes, may influence their decision to come out (Bjorkman & Malterud, 2007;Hughes, 2007;Steele et al., 2006). ...
Article
“Coming out” is a process that same-sex attracted people undergo if they choose to acknowledge it to others. Minimal research exists examining the coming-out experience for same-sex attracted women in counselling settings. This qualitative study addressed the gaps in existing research by exploring counsellors’ perceptions of factors influencing same-sex attracted female clients to disclose their sexual orientation to a counsellor. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 counsellors from diverse clinical backgrounds. In their view, the main factors influencing disclosure were the perceived lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ) friendliness of a service or counsellor; the presence of LGBQ symbols within services; using gender-neutral language; and the level of a client’s self-acceptance of their sexual orientation. These findings suggest that the utilisation of culturally affirming models by counsellors working with same-sex attracted female clients can create a safe environment for disclosure of sexual orientation.
... LGBTQ individuals who live with these social prejudices are sensitive to their rising internalized homophobia. At the same time, it has been proven that internalized homophobia is related to gender roles, heterosexist ideology, sense of conflict with their own sexual orientation, limitations in sharing their sexual orientation with their environment, difficulties in communicating with lesbian/gay groups and that the perceived support from the society and lesbian/gay groups is limited (Herek, Cogan, Gillis, & Glunt, 1997;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). ...
... While internalized homophobia values heterosexist beliefs, it is also a result of negative thoughts and assumptions internalized by lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals as a result of living in a stigmatizing culture that trivializes homosexual experience and orientation. Internalized homophobia has become an important concept in research and clinical practice in understanding homosexual experience because it is thought that all homosexual individuals experience internalized homophobia in some level and that this may lead to psychological tension in homosexual individuals (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). When viewed together, the link between attachment and internalized homophobia is important. ...
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Homophobia is seen as a factor which affects the mental health of not only heterosexual individuals but also of homosexual and bisexual individuals. In this study, attachment, self-compassion and internalised homophobia in lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals are evaluated. Furthermore, it is aimed to explain in detail the historical process of the place of the concept of homosexuality in mental health literature and the concepts related to internalised homophobia. Within this context, studies regarding attachment, self-compassion and internalised homophobia in LGB individuals are addressed and suggestions are made regarding their relationship with mental health.
... IH has been linked to problems in forming and sustaining a non-heterosexual identity (Peterson & Gerrity, 2006) and difficulty identifying as a lesbian (Fingerhut, Peplau, & Ghavami, 2005). Other studies have shown discomfort disclosing sexual orientation (Szymanski et al., 2008), discord related to sexual orientation, not affiliating as a part of an LGBT group, and attempting to appear heterosexual (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). In addition, IH has been shown to negatively impact psychosocial health, including lowered self-esteem , less social support (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), and higher rates of depression, self-harm, and demoralization (Herek, 1998), and relationship problems (Frost & Meyer, 2009). ...
... Other studies have shown discomfort disclosing sexual orientation (Szymanski et al., 2008), discord related to sexual orientation, not affiliating as a part of an LGBT group, and attempting to appear heterosexual (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). In addition, IH has been shown to negatively impact psychosocial health, including lowered self-esteem , less social support (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), and higher rates of depression, self-harm, and demoralization (Herek, 1998), and relationship problems (Frost & Meyer, 2009). Given the potential for challenges integrating sexual and religious identities and the myriad problems in well-being associated with high levels of IH, the present study seeks to understand how faith-based beliefs and behaviors relate to IH and ultimately to well-being. ...
Article
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Among lesbians, faith-based beliefs and behaviors may be associated with negative psychological health due to the interplay between religious and sexual identities. The present study examined health outcomes, faith-based beliefs (views of God as loving and controlling), faith-based behaviors (personal spiritual practices, religious activities), and internalized homonegativity in a sample of 225 self-identified lesbians. We hypothesized that internalized homonegativity would moderate the relationship between health outcomes and faith-based beliefs and behaviors among lesbians. Generally, results indicated that some faith-based beliefs and behaviors were related to negative health outcomes among lesbians with higher levels of internalized homonegativity, but among those with lower levels of internalized homonegativity, the negative associations with health were mitigated.
... investments, alternatives) (Barrantes et al., 2017). Several research studies relate to coping with internalised homophobia (Szymanski et al., 2001) and concealment (Mohr & Fassinger, 2006) as components of the process of identity development for LGB individuals. According to Greene and Britton (2012), lower selfacceptance of being LGB is associated with identity confusion and uncertainty. ...
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Research suggests that same-gender couples’ relationship quality is related to the levels of minority stresses they encounter. According to the investment model, relationship commitment is maintained through three constructs: satisfaction, perceived quality of alternatives, and investment. Employing the investment model, the present study investigated internalized homophobia and concealment of sexual identity as direct contributors to relationship commitment, and as moderators of the relationships between the investment model constructs. A questionnaire measuring study variables was administered to 358 Israeli gay and bisexual men in cohabiting same-gender relationships. Commitment to relationship was explained by satisfaction, investment, and alternatives, as well as concealment. Internalized homophobia moderated the relationships between investment and alternatives and commitment. Theoretical and practical contributions regarding the detrimental effect of minority stresses on same-gender couples’ romantic relationship quality are discussed.
... The psychological consequences of societal heterosexism on people with non-exclusively heterosexual desire orientations are well documented in US populations [1,2]. The results from Hatzenbuehler et al. [3] indicate that living in communities in the United States with high levels of anti-gay prejudice affects individuals on psychological and physiological levels. ...
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This research aimed to contribute to the task of understanding lesbian, gay and bisexual people’s lives in Spain using a positive psychology base. As an exploratory study, the present study sought to examine if the domains and themes identified in Riggle, Whitman, Oslon, Rostosky and Strong could be applied to the Spanish context. The responses from 150 Spanish residents demonstrated that positive aspects not only exist, but some are experienced by an overwhelming percentage of participants. The comparative analyses suggest that the belief in the existence of positive aspects and a sense of belonging to LGB communities may serve as protective factors.
... Similar to the better-known concept of internalized homonegativity, discriminatory and stigmatizing binegative external messages can be internalized by bisexual individuals as a set of negative beliefs about themselves and other bisexual persons (Dworkin, 2001;Shidlo, 1994). Researchers have shown that internalized binegativity is correlated with higher rates of depression in bisexual women (Beaber, 2008;Brewster et al., 2013;Paul et al., 2014) while internalized homonegativity for same-gender attracted individuals and couples has been correlated with higher rates of depression (Green & Mitchell, 2002;McGregor et al. 2001;Meyer, 1995;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). Thus, it could be expected that bisexual women who internalize binegativity may have lower self-esteem and higher levels of depression than those individuals who do not internalize such negative beliefs. ...
Article
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Although the larger lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) community has experienced increased visibility and acceptance in many areas of the United States, research shows that bisexual individuals continue to face negative messages about the legitimacy of their sexual orientation (Alarie & Gaudet, 2013). Using a national sample of 203 bisexual women, we ran a series of correlation, regression, and moderation models to examine (a) whether perceived binegative discrimination and internalized binegativity were correlated with self-esteem and depression and (b) whether perceived binegative discrimination and internalized bisexuality predicted self-esteem and depression. Based on findings from the regression models, we then examined whether involvement in the bisexual community reduced the impact of internalized binegativity on self-esteem and depression. A unique contribution of this study is that participants reported experiences of perceived binegative discrimination from heterosexual individuals as well as lesbians and gay men. Findings revealed that perceived binegative discrimination and internalized binegativity were statistically significantly correlated with self-esteem and depression but that only internalized binegativity predicted self-esteem and depression. Furthermore, we also found that participation in a bisexual-specific community at high levels (i.e., daily to 2 to 3 times per week) reduced the impact of internalized binegativity on depression but not self-esteem. Recommendations for future research, clinical practice, and advocacy are provided.
... IH môže mať škodlivý dopad na LGB jedinca, čo už popísali viaceré zahraničné štúdie. Vyššia miera IH je spájaná s nižším sebavedomím, 13 depresívnou symptomatológiou 14 a suicidálnou ideáciou, 15 či so slabou sociálnou podporou, 16 u lesbických a bisexuálnych žien bola nájdená korelácia medzi vysokou IH a sebapoškodzovaním, osamelosťou a nízkou emocionálnou inteligenciou; 16 u gejov a bisexuálnych mužov bolo poukázané na spojitosť medzi IH a pocitmi izolácie, osamelosti, hanby, nedôvery a nestability vlastného self; 17,18 vyššia miera IH bola taktiež spájaná s bulímiou a anorexiou 19 a v štúdiách je spojená s nižšou všeobecnou, ale aj psychologickou osobnou pohodou. 10,20,21 Psychologická osobná pohoda je dobrým ukazovateľom spokojnosti s vlastným životom, schopnosťou rásť a naplniť svoj potenciál, ovplyvňovať smer životnej cesty, či riešiť problémy, s ktorými sa jedinec bežne v živote stretáva. ...
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Internalizovaná homonegativita a psychologická osobná pohoda u gejov, lesieb a bisexuálnych ľudi. Hlavným cieľom výskumu bola analýza vzťahu medzi internalizovanou homonegativitou a psychologickou osobnou pohodou u LGB ľudí zo Slovenska. Výskumnú vzorku tvorilo 96 LGB/queer ľudí. Ako výskumné nástroje na meranie internalizovanej homonega-tivity sme použili Mayfieldovu IHNI škálu a na meranie psychologickej osobnej pohody Ryffovej škálu. Dáta boli zberané online formou. Hypotéza: Predpokladáme negatívny vzťah medzi stupňom internalizovanej ho-monegativity a psychologickou osobnou pohodou jednotlivca. Na skúmanie normality dát sme použili Kolmogorov-Smirnov a Shapirov-Wilkov test. Na skúmanie vzťahu medzi IH a PWB sme použili Spear-manov korelačný koeficient. Výsledky sme vypracovali deskriptívne aj graficky. Výsledky: Zistilo sa, že internalizovaná homonegativita a psychologická osobná pohoda negatívne korelujú (rs = 0, 787, p < 0,001), čo potvrdzuje našu hypotézu. Každá subškála PWB a IHNI tiež silne korelovala. Úroveň IH bola vyššia u slovenských LGB ľudí ako v iných zúčastnených krajinách. LGB ľudia vykazovali relatívne nízke skóre v subškálach PWB: autonómii, vplyv na prostredie a sebaakceptácii. Záver: Na základe výsledkov konštatujeme, že internalizovaná homonegativita negatívne vplýva na psychologickú osobnú pohodu LGB ľudí. Najvyššie hodnoty IH sme videli u bisexuálnych jedincov. Týmto sme poukázali na dôležitosť tohoto aspektu pri odbornej a poradenskej práci s LGB jedincami. Je preto potrebné vytvárať afirmatívne prostredie pre LGB ľudí nielen v odbornej praxi, ale aj na celospoločenskej úrovni. Summary Smitková H, Brada R. Internalized homonegativity and psychological well-being in gay, lesbian and bisexual people Objectives: The main aim of the research was analysis of the relation between inter-nalized homonegativity and psychological well-being in LGB people from Slovakia. Methods: Research sample consisted of 96 LGB/queer people. Internalized Homonegativity Scale and Ryff's Psychological Well-Being Scale were used as research tools. Data was collected via online questionnaire. Hypothesis: We assume a negative relationship between the degree of internalized homonegativity and the psychological well-being of the individual. Statistical analysis: We used the Kol-mogorov-Smirnov and the Shapiro-Wilk test to examine the normality of the data. We used the Spearman's correlation coefficient to investigate the relationship between IH and PWB. We elaborated on the results descriptively and graphically. Results: Internalized Homonegativity and Psychological Well Being were found to correlate (r s = 0,787, p < 0,001) thus proving our hypothesis. Every subscale of PWB and IHNI correlated strongly, too. The level of IH was higher in Slovak queer people than in other participated nations. LGB people scored relatively low in Autonomy, Environmental Mastery and Self-Acceptance. The results were presented descriptively and graphically. Conclusions: Based on the results, we state that internalized homonegativity negatively affects the psychological personal well-being of LGB people. We saw the highest IH values in bisexual individuals. We have thus pointed out the importance of this aspect in professional and counselling work with LGB individuals. It is therefore necessary to create an affirmative environment for LGB people not only in professional practice, but also at the societal level.
... Further, there is a clear association between social resources and mental health outcomes among sexual minority women. For instance, in several studies, social support was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and less anxiety among sexual minority women (Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;McGregor et al., 2001;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). Talking to friends and family about ones' discrimination experiences has also been shown to be helpful in processing stressful events and reducing maladaptive coping and negative mental health in LGB individuals (Lewis, Derlega, Clarke, & Kuang, 2006). ...
Article
Lesbians engage in similar or more disordered eating than heterosexual women. Yet, models of disordered eating have not been researched adequately among lesbians. Theories contend that experiencing discrimination is associated with increased risk for poorer mental and physical health. To increase our understanding of disordered eating among lesbians, we developed a model in which discrimination and disordered eating were connected via mediators of social support, affect (i.e., general negative affect and social anxiety), and weight discrepancy. We recruited a sample of 436 lesbians in the United States (18–30 years old) to participate in an online study. The majority of participants were White (77.3%), with some postsecondary education (84% had at least some college), and were fairly open about their sexual orientation (85% were mostly or completely “out”). Sexual orientation discrimination and weight discrimination were each indirectly associated with disordered eating through a network of mediators. Sexual orientation discrimination was indirectly related to disordered eating via 2 paths: (a) less social support from family and more general negative affect and (b) less social support from family and more social anxiety. Weight discrimination was indirectly associated with more disordered eating via 3 paths: (a) less social support from friends and increased social anxiety, (b) increased social anxiety alone, and (c) higher weight discrepancy alone. The results underscore the need for researchers and clinical providers to understand and assess both sexual orientation discrimination and weight discrimination among lesbians.
... The intersectional model's amended minority stress construct definition compliments and extends, rather than contradicts, this prevailing minority stress theoretical framework specific to sexual and gender minority populations (I. H. Meyer, 2003Meyer, , 2010 Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). Figure 11provides I.H. ...
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In response to a dearth of empirical literature concerning the mechanisms underlying female same-sex intimate partner violence (FSSIPV) perpetration, the purpose of this research is to inform intimate partner violence intervention and prevention strategies specific to sexual minority women. In particular, this research aims to inform a working intersectional model predicting FSSIPV perpetration, and to evaluate the face validity and construct coverage of existing survey measures related to gender, minority stress, and violence. Fourteen lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer women recruited from the greater Portland, Oregon area participated in a series of in-depth, semi- structured, open-ended one-on-one and focus group interviews. Participant recruitment involved a combination of purposive and convenience sampling methods aided by the involvement of multiple community partners working in violence and education related fields. Interview and focus group questions addressed participants' experiences with gender role stress and minority stress. Grounded theory analysis of participants' narrative responses informed the coverage and relevance of constructs in a working intersectional model predicting women's use of violence in their same-gender intimate relationships. In particular, findings indicate that sexual minority women's experiences of gender role stress and minority stress, particularly in combination, were especially influential on their identities. Sexual minority women's experiences with minority stressors were not confined to minority stressors specific to their gender identities and sexual orientations, but intersected with minority stressors related to race and class as well. These findings support an intersectional and contextually-minded approach to IPV intervention and prevention strategies.
... Currently, counselors may choose to use the Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale, which consists of 52 items in a Likert-scale questionnaire format (Henderson et al., 2009). This scale was developed for lesbian women to better assess the existence of internalized homophobia in this population, focusing on attitudes toward other lesbians, religious and moral attitudes toward lesbian identity, public identification as lesbian, connections within the lesbian community, and personal feelings regarding self-identification as lesbian (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). On a study by the scale's creators, internalized homophobia was correlated significantly with depression (r = .33), ...
Article
The full impact of intimate partner violence on cisgender women identifying as queer or lesbian is unknown. Messages from various systemic groups may affect whether an individual remains in a violent relationship, seeks help, or feels understood by counseling professionals. This study examined the perspectives of acceptance from a systemic perspective in order to better understand the role of these early messages and the presence of violence in future relationships. Using an ecological theoretical perspective, counselors and helping professionals can work to overcome the current disparity in helping services for lesbian victims of intimate partner violence.
... (Other Discrimination). Evidence of validity was demonstrated by correlations of the HHRDS with measures psychological distress, membership in an LGB group, and conflict regarding sexual orientation (Szymanski, Chung, and Balsam 2001). ...
Article
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This study examined the connections between heterosexism, mental health, body appreciation and community consciousness in sexual minority men (SMM). Participants (n = 89) completed a national online survey. Simultaneous multiple regressions found that heterosexism explained 9.4% of the variance in body appreciation and 25.8% of the variance in mental health; mental health accounted for 28.0% of the variance in body appreciation. Within these models, harassment/rejection heterosexism was a unique positive predictor of mental health problems and a unique negative predictor of body appreciation; depression was a unique negative predictor of body appreciation. A moderated mediational model found that depression mediated the relationship between harassment/rejection heterosexism and body appreciation, but only in men who endorsed high community consciousness. Intervention research might benefit from helping SMM explore the ways in which body image is affected by heterosexism and mental health, as well as the ways that contemporary Western gay communities might contribute to these connections.
... We will use the term "internalized homonegativity," including in reference to past work that used the previous term. Grappling with internalized homonegativity is often characterized as a component of the process of identity development for LGB individuals (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), and even with an individual's acceptance of a sexual minority identity, some amount of selfstigma often remains due to previous and continued experiences of stigma (Meyer, 2013). Thus, many LGB individuals experience some amount of internalized homonegativity at some point in their lives, and for some this experience may never completely subside. ...
Article
Prior research finds internalized homonegativity to be associated with reduced relationship quality in same-sex relationships. Yet, few studies on internalized homonegativity have examined different dimensions of relationship quality, the mechanisms involved, or whether the association varies by gender. This study sought to better understand the link between internalized homonegativity and relationship quality by examining multiple aspects of relationship quality, the mediational roles of anxiety and depressive symptoms, and the moderating role of gender. Using data from an online survey, we conducted analyses with a sample of 99 men and 86 women who were living in the United States, at least 18 years old, and in a same-sex relationship for at least 3 months. In the full analytic sample with both men and women, bootstrap mediation analyses revealed that internalized homonegativity was directly associated with greater anxiety and depressive symptoms, as well as indirectly associated with less relationship satisfaction and intimacy through the mechanism of greater depressive symptoms. Subsequent moderated mediation analyses revealed that internalized homonegativity’s direct associations with greater anxiety and depressive symptoms as well as indirect associations with less relationship satisfaction, commitment, and intimacy through greater depressive symptoms were significant for men but not for women. A better understanding of these dynamics can guide future research, inform clinical practice, and improve individual and relational functioning for individuals in same-sex relationships.
... Among SMW, IH has been found to be associated with perceived stigma (Lea, de Wit, & Reynolds, 2014) and perceived costs associated with one's sexual orientation . Those with higher levels of disclosure (Chow & Cheng, 2010;Herek et al., 1998Herek et al., , 2009McGregor et al., 2001;Radonsky & Borders, 1996;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001) tend to have lower IH. IH is negatively related to perceived social support and satisfaction with social support (Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;McGregor et al., 2001;. ...
Article
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We developed the first Vietnamese Internalized Homophobia (IH) scale for use with Vietnamese sexual minority women (SMW). Drawing from existing IH scales in the international literature and based on prior qualitative research about SMW in the Viet Nam context, the scale covers two domains: self-stigma (negative attitudes toward oneself as a sexual minority person) and sexual prejudice (negative attitudes toward homosexuality/same-sex relations in general). Scale items, including items borrowed from existing scales and items based on local expressions, were reviewed and confirmed by members of the target population. Quantitative evaluation used data from an anonymous web-based survey of Vietnamese SMW, including those who identified as lesbian (n = 1187), or as bisexual (n = 641) and those who were unsure about their sexual identity (n = 353). The scale was found to consist of two highly correlated factors reflecting self-stigma (not normal/wholesome and self-reproach and wishing away same-sex sexuality) and one factor reflecting sexual prejudice, and to have excellent internal consistency. Construct validity was evidenced by subscale associations with a wide range of hypothesized correlates, including perceived sexual stigma, outness, social support, connection to other SMW, relationship quality, psychological well-being, anticipation of heterosexual marriage, and endorsement of same-sex marriage legalization. Self-stigma was more strongly associated with psychosocial correlates, and sexual prejudice was more associated with endorsement of legal same-sex marriage. The variations in these associations across the hypothesized correlates and across sexual identity groups were consistent with the minority stress model and the IH literature, and exhibited context-specific features, which are discussed.
... En varones BH de Estados Unidos la homofobia internalizada se relaciona positivamente con desmoralización* (22,36), depresión (22), ideación e intento de suicidio (7,36), pero de forma negativa con la autoestima (22,28). En las mujeres BL ésta se asocia con mayor riesgo de distrés psicológico (33), afectivi-dad negativa, consumo de alcohol (8) y depresión (8,58), así como con niveles más bajos de autoestima (33). En concordancia con la bibliografía, en los BLH de la Ciudad de México la homofobia internalizada se relacionó con mayor riesgo de ideación suicida, intento de suicido, depresión y alcoholismo. ...
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Bisexuals, lesbians, and homosexuals (BLH) face diverse forms of social exclusion because their sexual orientation (SO) is viewed negatively in most societies. Studies performed in industrialized countries have shown that prejudices faced by the BLH population may have a deleterious effect in their mental health because, in comparison with heterosexuals, they present a higher prevalence of consumption of alcohol and other drugs, suicide attempts, suicide ideation and mental disorders. Meyer has pointed out in those studies that comparing BLH and heterosexual morbidity may only allow for the documentation of the existence of negative effects of heterosexism and homophobia on BLH health. Although this means a substantial advance, it does not allow for the exploration of mechanisms through which oppression leads to higher morbidity in the BLH population. It must be added that most of these studies are not guided by a conceptual framework which explains in detail the differences in mental morbidity between heterosexuals and BLH. Despite the fact that in Latin America increasingly more academics and politicians are worried by these problems, knowledge about health and disease conditions in BLH is still incipient. In a literature review it was evinced that almost all the researches performed in Latin America have been centered in the HIV/AIDS infection and other sexually transmissible diseases or traumatisms derived from certain sexual practices in homosexual and bisexual males. It was concluded that more studies are necessary about mental health in the BLH population in which bisexual and lesbian women are included, because they have been studied with less frequency than homosexual and bisexual males. Considering the above, the objective of this study was to analyze the effects of internalization of oppression on the risk of presenting mental health damages in the BLH population. The oppression of BLH is caused by three dominant norms deriving from the gender system: a) Heterosexism, which is the ideological system that denies, derides and stigmatizes any form of behavior, identity, relation or community different from the heterosexual ones. b) The adherence to gender stereotypes, according to which males must be masculine and women must be feminine. Culturally, homosexuality is equaled to the transgression of gender stereotypes (TGS): homosexual males are thought of as feminine and lesbians as masculine, although in reality this does not always the case. That is why many BLH have suffered diverse forms of violence because in infancy and adolescence they were feminine males or masculine women. c) Androcentrism consists in the subordination or inferiority of feminine before masculine, that is, the features, attitudes and values considered as masculine are evaluated positively and the individuals who have them possess a superior status, while the symbols defined as feminine are scorned. Androcentrism explains why homosexuality is more punished in males than in females. BLH, just like heterosexuals, grow up and live in a society structured in terms of the dominant norms of the gender system. This causes that BLH internalize the dominant values of the gender system. To understand how BLH incorporate oppression in their subjectivity, one may recover the concept of habitus which is defined as a system of categories of perception, thought and action. To be able to evaluate the habitus of the oppressed in BLH it is proposed to "deconstruct" it in three concepts: internalized homophobia, perception of the homosexual stigma and hiding. Internalized homophobia occurs when BLH incorporate in their self-esteem the negative meanings, the prejudices and stereotypes accrued to homosexuality and TGS, which causes them to have negative attitude towards their own homosexuality, the homosexuality of others, towards their TGS and that of others. Due to the symbolic link between TGS and homosexuality, it is important to incorporate the negative attitude towards TGS in the definition of internalized homophobia. The perception of the stigma due to homosexuality refers to the expectations of BLH about possible attitudes and reactions that other persons may have due to their SO. By hiding, BLH modify their physical appearance and their behavior with the goal to make invisible their homosexuality or the expressions considered TGS. An observational, cross-sectional and analytical study was performed. Between September and November of 2001, a questionnaire was applied to 506 BLH attending various organizations and institutions in Mexico City visited by different "sub-groups" of BLH. A part of the population was contacted through personal networks of the author and a list of e-mail addresses of a socialization group. The questionnaire was completed by the subjects themselves. Through the questionnaire, the three forms of internalized oppression were evaluated (internalized homophobia, perception of stigma and hiding) and five risks to health perception of the health status, suicide ideation, in the number of schoolmates or co-workers who knew the SO was related with a lower risk of alcoholism. Avoiding showing affection to their partner of the same sex was related with a higher risk or presenting alcoholism. The risks of suicide ideation, suicide attempts and mental disorders were higher in the persons that did all they could to hide their SO. BLH who avoided TGS had a higher probability of presenting suicide ideation, mental disorders and alcoholism. The results of the study showed that BLH population have important health problems such as suicide ideation and suicide attempts and alcoholism in the case of the LB women. Further, although there are differences between homosexual and bisexual males and lesbian and bisexual females regarding the most frequent type of internalized oppression, the three forms of internalized oppression (internalized homophobia, perception of the stigma due to homosexuality, and hiding) were associated with a higher risk of presenting suicide ideation, suicide attempts, mental disorders and alcoholism. These findings may be recovered to prevent health damages in the BLH population. The actions directed by governments towards the BLH population have been basically HIV/AIDS research and prevention programs in homosexual and bisexual males. These actions are the result of the magnitude of the problem and not because the existence of these sub-groups is recognized. However, this research has evidenced that besides the HIV/AIDS problem, BLH present other health problems such as suicide ideation and suicide attempts, mental disorders and alcoholism. Therefore, it is required that government institutions broaden the scope of the welfare and health programs directed towards the BLH population. Evidently, long term measures must be taken to eliminate prejudice against homosexuality and TGS, which may only be possible through modifications in the social institutions.
... In the case of LGB people, there is evidence that homophobia, both perceived and internalised, affects them in terms of their overall well-being and often in terms of their self-esteem. [8][9][10][11] Self-esteem is an individual's own evaluation of their personal worth and, according to Rosenberg,12 it refers to the notion of a relatively stable sense of an overall or global, as it is often described, personal worth. There is a voluminous amount of work which has found a relationship between self-esteem and depression, 13 anxiety, 14 anger, hostility and aggressiveness 15 and life satisfaction. ...
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Aims and method The relationship between homophobia (varying from actual and perceived to internalised) and measures of well-being is well documented. A study in Athens, Greece and London, UK attempted to examine this relationship in two cities with potentially different levels of homophobia. One-hundred and eighty-eight men who have sex with men (MSM) living in London and 173 MSM living in Athens completed a survey investigating their views on their sexuality, perceptions of local homophobia and their identity evaluation in terms of global self-esteem. Results The results confirmed a negative association between homophobia and self-esteem within each city sample. However, Athens MSM, despite perceiving significantly higher levels of local homophobia than London MSM, did not differ on most indicators of internalised homophobia and scored higher on global self-esteem than London MSM. The city context had a significant impact on the relationship. Clinical implications The findings are discussed in relation to the implications they pose for mental health professionals dealing with MSM from communities experiencing variable societal stigmatisation and its effect on a positive sense of self.
... In a coping process, individuals use specific coping strategies, and these coping strategies mediate the relationship of stress due to discrimination and psychological modification difficulties (Liang, Nathwani, Ahmad, & Prince, 2010). Among lesbian, gays, bisexual and transgender persons, studies of social support have found both direct and stress-buffering effects on mental health (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001) found that spirituality has been directly linked with adjustment and positive mental health (Lease, Horne, & Noffsinger-Frazier, 2005). Such psychological resources may thus mediate the relationship between stressors and health (lazarus, 1999). ...
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This study examines exposure to perceived discrimination and its association with loneliness among transgender individuals as well as evaluates the mediating role of coping strategies. Total of 153 transgender individuals were recruited through community based organizations and referrals by snow ball sampling technique. Perceived discrimination was assessed by (Day to Day Life Perceived Discrimination Measure: Williams, Yu, Jackson, & Anderson, 1997), presence of feelings of loneliness by (Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Scale: Asher et al. 1984) and coping strategies by (The Brief Cope Scale: Carver, 1997). Pearson correlation, linear and hierarchical regression was used to examine the association between perceived discrimination and loneliness and mediating role of coping strategies. A significant association between perceived discrimination and loneliness was identified. How exposure to discrimination leads to increased risk of loneliness and coping strategies mediate this relationship. The findings are helpful for mental health professional in treatment of minorities like transgender on the bases of coping strategies.
... The scale has both content and construct validity. [20][21][22] We used two subscales of the short form in the current study: CLC and PFL. ...
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Purpose: To assess the health and well-being of sexual minority women (SMW) with disabilities. Methods: A survey assessing physical and mental health and quality of life was administered to a convenience sample of 52 women with disabilities and 74 without disabilities. All had been recruited for an SMW's health intervention targeting women over 40 with potential for weight-related health problems. Results: Women with disabilities experienced more discrimination, had more posttraumatic stress disorder and anxiety disorders, were less connected to SMW's communities, had more physical health limitations, and reported poorer quality of life, mostly related to physical factors such as energy level and pain. Conclusion: SMW with disabilities have rarely been studied, and may have significant challenges with health, including greater need for community support. Studies are needed to further explore the influences on the health and well-being of SMW with disabilities.
... Additionally, Velez et al. (2013) found that increased IH was related to increased use of strategies to avoid or counterfeit one's LGB identity, but negatively related to the use of strategies that expose one's LGB identity. In research by Szymanski, Chung, and Balsam (2001) on a sample of lesbians, increased IH was related to increased frequency in trying to pass as a heterosexual. In sum, data support that higher levels of IH are related to the use of more passing or covering strategies, while lower levels are related to more explicit forms of disclosing one's identity. ...
Article
Examination of individual difference variables have been largely ignored within research on the use of workplace sexual identity management strategies. The current study examined personality traits (Extraversion, Openness, and Neuroticism), facets of sexual identity development (identity confusion, internalized heterosexism), and situational variables (e.g. perceptions of workplace climate and heterosexism) in explaining the use of management strategies, as well as possible interactions between individual and situational factors. Perceptions of the workplace climate toward lesbian and gay individuals significantly related to the use each of the management strategies, and Internalized Heterosexism was found to significantly predict the use of the Explicitly Out strategy. Most interactions between individual difference and situational variables were not supported, with the exception of an interaction between workplace heterosexism and internalized homophobia in explaining the use of the Explicitly Out strategy.
... One area that counselors must be aware of is how internalized stigma affects identity development. Internalized heterosexism has been shown to affect identity formation in gay men (Rowen & Malcolm, 2002) and lesbians (Fingerhut, Peplau, & Ghavami, 2005;Peterson & Gerrity, 2006;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), being associated with earlier stages of sexual minority identity development, as well as lower levels of outness (Herek, Gillis, & Cogan, 2009;Rostosky & Riggle, 2002;. For bisexual women, higher levels of internalized stigma have been associated with less identity congruence (i.e., variation in identity, sexual behavior, and attraction; Hoang, Holloway, & Mendoza, 2011) and in behaviorally bisexual men, internalized stigma has been associated with greater concealment about same-sex attractions and sexual relationships (Schrimshaw, Siegel, Downing, & Parsons, 2013). ...
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Internalized stigma (including internalized homophobia/heterosexism and internalized transphobia/genderism) negatively impacts lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals' mental health and well-being. Early writings framed internalized stigma as a reaction provoked by a susceptibility to external stigma (Weinberg, 197283. Weingberg, G. (1972). Society and the healthy homosexual. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.View all references) that should be addressed within the person. However, recent writers have drawn sustained connections between internalized stigma and heterosexist and transphobic sociopolitical atmospheres (Russell & Bohan, 200664. Russell, G. M., & Bohan, J. S. (2006). The case of internalized homophobia: Theory and/as practice. Theory & Psychology, 16, 343–366.View all references). Research on the experience of internalized stigma and its negative outcomes are reviewed and evidence-based therapeutic guidelines applicable across various theoretical orientations are presented for counselors working with sexual and gender minority clients.
... Total scores are obtained by adding the number that corresponds to each response. Higher total scores indicate higher levels of negative attitudes toward one's lesbianism (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). The IHS maintained the same questions and order as in the LIHS. ...
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We examine the relationships between internalized homonegativity, Confucianism, and self-esteem among LGBTQ adults who grew up during the Open Door Policy, or Đổi Mới, in Vietnam. Participants were identified via activist networks and social media groups. They comopleted on-line survey focused on internalized homo/transphobia, self-estem and confucian values. The study revealed that more exposure to Confucian values in early life is related to higher levels of internalized homonegativity. Male-born participants also had higher level of internalized homonegativity than female-born particiapnts. In general, lower levels of self-esteem were also related to higher levels of internalized homonegativity. We discuss the implications of these findings in light of conflicting values between Confucianism and the economic and social transformation that has occurred under Đổi Mới.
... This research intended to fill a gap in the literature and extend knowledge about attitudes toward same-sex parenting while also taking into account the perspective of lesbian and gay people, who have rarely been investigated in this topic's literature. Interestingly, recent contributions have indeed demonstrated that even people belonging to sexual minorities have negative attitudes toward same-sex marriage and parenting Herek et al. 2009;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam 2001). ...
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The present study aimed to: (a) investigate the relationship between attitudes toward same-sex parenting and sexism both in heterosexuals and sexual minorities; (b) verify whether sexism predicted negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting via the mediating role of sexual stigma (sexual prejudice in heterosexual people and internalized sexual stigma [ISS] in lesbians and gay men [LG]). An Italian sample of 477 participants (65.6% heterosexual people and 34.4% LG people) was used to verify three hypotheses: (a) heterosexual men showed higher levels of sexism than heterosexual women and LG people; (b) heterosexual men reported more negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting than those of heterosexual women and LG people; and (c) sexual prejudice in heterosexual people and ISS in LG people mediated the relationship between sexism and attitudes toward same-sex parenting. Overall, men and heterosexual people showed stronger sexist tendencies and more negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting. Moreover, sexism affected attitudes toward same-sex parenting via sexual prejudice in heterosexual people and ISS in LG people. These results suggest that negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting reflect sociocultural inequalities based on the traditional gender belief system and points to the necessity of social policies to reduce prejudice toward sexual minority groups.
... The HHRDS has demonstrated good internal consistency ( = .90) as well as good validity through correlations with measures of loneliness, self-esteem, depression, social support, membership in a LGB group, and conflict concerning sexual orientation (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). The HHRDS has evidenced adequate reliability estimates with samples of African American sexual minority women ( = .83; ...
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Objective: To examine the differential association of heterosexism and racism on depression as moderated by socioeconomic status (SES) among sexual minority people of color. Method: A cross-sectional sample of sexual minority people of color (n = 170) was surveyed on their experiences of heterosexism, racism, depression, and SES in a national online study based in the United States. Results: Bivariately, SES was inversely associated with depression, racism, and heterosexism. Moderation analyses found that for individuals with less socioeconomic advantage, the associations between heterosexism and depression were not as strong. However, at higher socioeconomic advantage, heterosexism was more strongly positively associated with depression. Conclusion: These results suggest that the effects of discrimination on depression in sexual minority individuals of color may be accentuated at higher socioeconomic levels. Implications suggest helping sexual minority clients of color from higher SES backgrounds explore the effects of discrimination on their mental health.
... In turn, those with the largest social networks saw reductions in depression and experienced better health and life satisfaction. This is also consistent with previous work on the buffering effects that social networks have on stress-related processes (Grossman et al., 2000;Szymanski et al., 2001). These findings also provide support for efforts to study discrimination and the inclusion of healthpromoting variables as outlined in the HEPM (Fredriksen-Goldsen et al., 2014). ...
Article
Objectives: Previous research has examined the link between discrimination and health in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and/or transgender (LGBT) individuals. The purpose of this study was to examine if health-promoting variables, like social networks, might disrupt this association. Method: Participants were 2,560 LGBT older adults who reported on the composition of their social network, level of discrimination, stress, and health/well-being. Results: Moderated mediation results indicated that social network size disrupted the associations between discrimination, stress, and health outcomes when social networks were (a) larger and (b) comprised of LGBT individuals (but not straight individuals), regardless of age. Discussion: Larger social networks that include fellow LGBT individuals helped buffer experiences of stress and discrimination on health outcomes among LGBT older adults. Implications for how protective factors can reduce the negative effects of discrimination and stress are discussed.
... In an attempt to explain these gender differences, Szymanski (2004) has suggested that lesbian women are exposed to a different kind of heterosexism and gender role socialization than gay men and, as a result, they may have access to unique protective factors. In particular, it seems that the connection with the lesbian community, the public and self-identification as a lesbian woman, and general attitudes towards lesbian women may act as mediators and lead to enhanced coping strategies (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001;Szymanski & Chung, 2003). ...
Article
This article explores the relationship between internalized homophobia and three main variables: attachment to mother, father, and peers; ego resiliency; and self-esteem. We recruited 51 Italian gay men and 54 lesbian women aged between 18 and 30, and asked them to complete self-report measures. The results showed that internalized homophobia negatively correlated with the security of attachment to father and self-esteem. On the other hand, no significant association was found between ego resiliency and internalized homophobia. The implications of these findings are considered in the discussion, along with the potential role of preventive programs targeting attachment relationships and self-esteem levels in order to promote well-being.
... Although preliminary analyses in the current study failed to find significant differences based on participant sexual orientation, most participants identified as heterosexual. It would be interesting to see whether the general pattern of asymmetry is found with a sample who identify as homosexual; despite the existence of self-stigma among some homosexuals (e.g., Herek, Cogan, Gillis, & Glunt, 1998;Szymanski, 2005;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), that group generally should be relatively low in sexual prejudice. If sexual prejudice is driving the asymmetry in the way that gender-atypical males and females are evaluated, then the asymmetry should not be present for a sample who would, presumably, be low in sexual prejudice. ...
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Previous research has found that gender-atypical males are evaluated more negatively than gender-atypical females. According to the sexual orientation hypothesis, this asymmetry in evaluations occurs because the feminine characteristics taken on by males when they violate gender roles are more closely tied to perceived sexual orientation than are the masculine characteristics of gender-atypical females. The current series of studies were designed to confirm the existence and generality of the asymmetry phenomenon (Study 1), the preconditions for testing the sexual orientation hypothesis (Study 2), and then to test the hypothesis itself (Study 3). Study 1 found that, as predicted, adults (N = 195, females = 97) displayed more intolerance of males than of females committing gender-role violations across a wide variety of characteristics within multiple domains, although the existence of asymmetry varied somewhat depending on the domain. Study 2 revealed that, as predicted, adults (N = 196, females = 117) believed that gender-role violations indicate homosexuality more so for males than for females overall and across all four domains studied (occupation, activity, trait, and appearance). Study 3 directly tested the sexual orientation hypotheses by examining the relationship between intolerance of specific gender-role violations (scores from Study 1) and the perceived homosexuality associated with those violations (scores from Study 2). Overall, there was a positive relationship between intolerance and perceived homosexuality, indicating that the more a given gender-role violation is thought to implicate homosexuality, the more negatively/less positively people tend to react to the violation, consistent with the sexual orientation hypothesis.
... Theories of LGB identity development suggest that IH is often experienced by lesbians, gays, and bisexuals during their identity development, and that developing a healthy self-concept requires overcoming IH (Cass, 1979;Fingerhut, Peplau, & Ghavami, 2005;Mayfield, 2001;Rowen & Malcolm, 2002;Troiden, 1979Troiden, , 1989. IH has been implicated in a diverse range of negative outcomes for LGBT individuals, including depression (Alexander, 1986;Nicholson & Long, 1990;Shidlo, 1994), poor self-esteem (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), and a tendency to seek conversion therapy (Tozer & Hayes, 2004). IH in LGBT populations may be influenced by structural, cultural, and legal factors, and recent research suggests that religious and spiritual beliefs play a role in self-acceptance of sexual identity (Dahl & Galliher, 2009;min, 2016;Minwalla, Rosser, Feldman, & Varga, 2005;Schnoor, 2006). ...
Article
Individuals who identified as LGBT and Christian were administered measures of religiosity, their religious organization’s view of homosexuality, internalized homonegativity (IH), and psychological well-being, including eudaimonic well-being (an approach to well-being that focuses on meaning, self-realization, and optimal functioning rather than pleasure attainment and pain avoidance), depression, stress, and anxiety. Religiosity was associated with higher levels of eudaimonic well-being and lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Compared to participants who rated their church as rejecting of homosexuality, participants who rated their church as accepting of homosexuality had lower levels of depression and IH and higher levels of eudaimonic well-being. Moderation analyses indicated that church attendance moderated the relationship between religiosity and psychological well-being at moderate to high levels of church attendance, suggesting that church attendance plays a more important role than other religious practices in the relationship between religiosity and psychological well-being. Analyses indicated that IH and attendance did not mediate, nor did church type moderate, the relationship between religiosity and psychological well-being. Implications of findings are discussed.
... According to the literature, nonacceptance of sexual orientation, social discomfort and challenges in public identification may stimulate internal feelings of discomfort regarding sexual orientation, raising levels of internalized homophobia (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2016;Ross & Rosser, 1996). In regard to the exclusion of the four items due to low saturations (items 5, 6, 16 and 18), Szymanski et al. (2001) had already criticized some of these items as being problematic and that they could threaten the validity of the instrument. For example, item 6 "I do not feel confident to 'make eyes at' a person of the same sex as myself," confuses internalized homophobia with self-esteem. ...
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This article gathered evidence of the validity of the Internalized Homophobia Scale (EHI) for Brazilian gays and lesbians. Study 1 found evidence of content validity (performed by two area judges and 10 gay and lesbian people), based on the internal structure and still sought reliability/precision indicators of the instrument. Based on an online survey, 261 participants, with a mean age of 27.6 years (SD = 7.72), answered IHS and sociodemographic questions. Study 2 replicated the factorial solution from study 1, through confirmatory factorial analysis, in addition to seeking complementary evidence of construct validity and reliability, being carried out with 303 gays and lesbians, with a mean age of 30.6 years (SD = 8.29). The results of the two studies suggest a modified version of the IHS with 19 items and two dimensions (Internal Perception of Stigma and Perception [α = 0,814] of Social Oppression [α = 0,622]) because it presented evidence of validity and reliability/precision of the instrument.
... Gay men earn 23% less than heterosexual men in managerial and blue-collar jobs (Elmslie & Tebaldi, 2007) and may not have similar family benefits (Pizer, 2012). In addition, the stigma associated with LGBTQþ identities may be internalized (e.g., Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), influencing mental health, in particular depression and anxiety (Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010). This work has been critical in enabling both advocacy efforts to reduce discriminatory conditions and disciplinary guidance to provide appropriate supports for health care providers (e.g., Quiñones, Woodward, & Pantalone, 2017;Singh & dickey, 2016). ...
Article
I write this rejoinder to the thoughtful comments made by Tebbe (2019), Moradi (2019), and Watson (2019) in response to my functionalist theory of gender and gender identity communities (Levitt, 2019). First, I clarify the role of power as conceptualized in two forms. Hegemonic social power is positioned in the framework as the impetus for the functions of gender across the four domains that were articulated (i.e., it is oppression in each domain that demands genders to serve those functions). In addition, subversive power is conceptualized as an effect of gender across the domains, as gender identities transform norms and foster resilience in the face of marginalization. Also, I position power within critical feminist-multicultural and humanistic perspectives. Second, the theoretical framework was developed to act as an analytic tool for developing situated understandings of the functions and effects of gender in communities, rather than as a checklist to which all genders are expected to conform. I indicate vital research questions appropriate for the framework’s application and I suggest adaptations to investigate other identities (e.g., sexual orientations). Finally, I discuss methodological and demographic changes that support this use of this tradition of feminist research.
... Trans and gender-diverse appropriate expertise appeared strongly Ari, 32, Non-Binary The association between willingness to self-disclose minority identities and positive therapeutic outcomes is supported by previous findings (Bjorkman & Malterud, 2007;Magee & Spangaro, 2017;Meckler et al., 2006;Steele et al., 2006;Szymanski et al., 2001 Note: *Total numbers may vary due to missing data. **Percentages have been rounded up to the nearest whole percentage. ...
Article
Crisis helplines are typically easily accessible and deliver interventions in a timely manner, regardless of geographical location. The efficacy and user experiences of these services are the subject of considerable interest within the field, but the experiences of trans and gender-diverse individuals remain unexplored despite high rates of mental ill health being documented in this population. 134 trans Australians were surveyed about their experiences of personal crises and of utilising crisis helplines. Within our sample, 84.2 % (n=113) of participants recognised at least one service – however, only 32.8% (n=44) utilised a service to cope with a personal crisis. Participants cited poor recognition and understanding of the challenges specific to trans individuals among helpline workers as a primary reason for avoiding these services, and articulated needs which were a poor fit for the one-off intervention model commonly employed by helpline services. In order for helpline services to be viable avenues of support for trans individuals during a personal crisis, helpline workers must be sufficiently equipped to work with trans callers, and to facilitate their enrolment in ‘traditional’ mental health services.
... Negative beliefs about one's sexual identity might be considered a domain-specific component of self-esteem that might trigger, or result in, more global negative beliefs about the self. Indeed, an association between internalized homophobia and low self-esteem has been demonstrated in lesbian women (Peterson & Gerrity, 2006;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). ...
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Sexual minority individuals experience higher rates of mental health problems than heterosexual people. It has been suggested that minority stress explains this disparity, partly by elevating rates of general psychological risk factors such as low self-esteem. This study investigated self-esteem in sexual minority people compared with heterosexual people through a systematic review and meta-analysis. A systematic search of four databases was conducted. Observational studies comparing self-esteem in sexual minority and heterosexual men and women separately were included. A qualitative synthesis and random effects meta-analysis were conducted. Potential moderators were explored using subgroup analyses of age, sexual minority orientation, and sample type. Thirty-two eligible studies were identified; 25 compared self-esteem in men and 19 in women. Most studies used the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) to measure self-esteem. Compared with heterosexual men and women, there was significantly lower self-esteem in sexual minority men (SMD = -0.33, 95% CI [-0.44, -0.23]) and women (SMD = -0.20, 95% CI [-0.29, -0.11]). This difference appeared to be moderated by sample type: There was preliminary evidence for more robust differences in men and bisexual individuals. Findings are consistent with the suggestion that self-esteem is lower in sexual minorities than in heterosexual individuals. However, caution is required in drawing firm conclusions due to methodological limitations of the included studies. Self-esteem is a potential target for intervention to prevent psychological disorders in this population.
... Gay men earn 23% less than heterosexual men in managerial and blue-collar jobs (Elmslie & Tebaldi, 2007) and may not have similar family benefits (Pizer, 2012). In addition, the stigma associated with LGBTQþ identities may be internalized (e.g., Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001), influencing mental health, in particular depression and anxiety (Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010). This work has been critical in enabling both advocacy efforts to reduce discriminatory conditions and disciplinary guidance to provide appropriate supports for health care providers (e.g., Quiñones, Woodward, & Pantalone, 2017;Singh & dickey, 2016). ...
Article
In this invited article, I present an inclusive theory of gender that clarifies its interconnections with gender identity, gender expression, and sexuality. To support this functionalist theory, I summarize findings from an extensive body of mixed methods research on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other (LGBTQ+) genders in the United States. I use a feminist-intersectional lens to empirically base and historically situate a theory of gender that is grounded in research of LGBTQ+ communities (butch, femme, bear, leathermen, transgender, drag queens, and family/house systems). I define genders as either sets of personal qualities within a culture associated with physiological sex or sets of qualities that evolve in reaction to limitations of existing genders. The evolution of genders functions to meet needs in four domains: (1) psychological: an experience of fit between a core aspect of self and a gender construct; (2) cultural: the creation of an LGBTQ+ culture that asserts sets of gender characteristics, which were denied and stigmatized within preexisting cultural norms; (3) interpersonal: the communicating of affiliation and status to enhance safety; and (4) sexual: an erotic embodiment of signifiers of these needs via an aesthetic that structures sexual attraction. I detail how each function affects identity, security, belonging, and personal and social values.
... We could find no research examining LGBQ involvement as a moderator in the relations between internalized heterosexism and mental health. However, researchers have found that membership in a LGBQ group is related to less internalized heterosexism among sexual minority women (Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001) and men (Ross & Rosser, 1996). These finding suggests that membership in LGBQ-related groups may buffer the relationship between internalized heterosexism and depression. ...
Article
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Given the high rates of depression among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ) college students, it is important to examine both risk and protective factors in this population. Using a national online sample of 568 LGBQ college students (M age = 20.59 years), we examined the direct relations between sexual orientation-based (LGBQ) microaggressions and internalized heterosexism and depression. We also considered the moderating/buffering roles of positive peer-group relations and involvement in LGBQ campus activities in these links. Results showed that LGBQ microaggressions and internalized heterosexism were positively related to depression at the bivariate level. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that positive peer-group relations moderated the relation between internalized heterosexism and depression. Internalized heterosexism predicted depression for students with low levels of positive peer-group relations, but not for those with moderate or high levels. We also found a conditional direct effect, where LGBQ microaggressions predicted depression, and this effect was stronger for those with high involvement in LGBQ campus activities. Our findings underscore the importance of attending to experiences of minority stress when working with LGBQ college students presenting with depression and helping them to increase positive peer-group relations while considering the potential costs and benefits involved in participating in LGBQ campus activities.
... cal measures that are theoretically and empirically relevant to internalized homonegativity in both bisexual and nonbisexual individuals. Similar to this study's findings, prior studies have found that higher levels of internalized homonegativity were related to lower self-esteem (Kimmel & Mahalik, 2005;Rowen & Malcolm, 2003;Szymanski & Gupta, 2009;Szymanski & Kashubeck-West, 2008), lower levels of disclosure of sexual identity or same-sex sexual behavior disclosure (Lingiardi, Baiocco, & Nardelli, 2012;Moradi et al., 2010;Rostosky & Riggle, 2002), decreased positive affect (Herek et al., 2009;Szymanski & Gupta, 2009), and lower general emotional support (Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001;Szymanski & Kashubeck-West, 2008). Positive associations between internalized homonegativity and numerous variables were also found in this study, including depression, anxiety, and concealment, thereby providing further evidence for these relationships as reported in past studies (Kaysen et al., 2014;Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;Lewis et al., 2003;Lingiardi et al., 2012;McLaren, 2016;Newcomb & Mustanski, 2011;Puckett et al., 2015;Rosario et al., 2002;Szymanski & Kashubeck-West, 2008;Walch, Ngamake, Bovornusvakool, & Walker, 2016). ...
Article
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Substantial evidence exists about the negative role of internalized homonegativity on the health and well-being of lesbian women and gay men. However, existing measures of internalized homonegativity assume a gay or lesbian sexual identity (“I wish I wasn’t gay”) and therefore may be inappropriate for non–gay-identified individuals, including bisexual people. Therefore, we developed and tested the psychometric properties of the Negative Attitudes Toward Same-Sex Behavior Inventory (NATSBI), which was designed to assess one’s negative attitudes toward their same-sex behavior, regardless of their self-identification. Using data from an ethnically diverse sample of 203 non–gay-identified behaviorally bisexual men, we examined the factor structure, construct validity, and reliability of the NATSBI. A factor analysis of the NATSBI yielded three subscales: (a) personal homonegativity, (b) disclosure discomfort, and (c) privacy preference, with very good internal consistency reliability estimates for all three subscales (α = .90, α = .89, and α = .84, respectively). The reliability was also strong within each of various demographic subgroups within the sample (e.g., race/ethnicity, age, sexual identity). The correlations of the NATSBI with various constructs (e.g., self-esteem, depression, emotional support) provided evidence of the concurrent (i.e., construct) validity of the NATSBI. These findings on the reliability and validity of the NATSBI suggest that it is possible to assess internalized homonegativity based on sexual behavior rather than assuming specific sexual identity labels. As such, we propose the NATSBI for use in studies that focus on bisexual and other non–gay-identified MSM, as well as studies that anticipate including non–gay-identified MSM.
... Strong internal consistency (α = .90) and adequate construct validity have been established for the scale (Szymanski, 2006;Szymanski, Chung, & Balsam, 2001). ...
Article
The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationships among discrimination, mental health, and body image in a national sample of transgender adults. Participants (N = 78) identified as transgender, genderqueer, or other gender-non-binary identities and were recruited via a national online survey. Harassment/rejection, work/school, and other discrimination explained 10.4% of the variance in body appreciation, while satisfaction with life, anxiety, self-esteem, and depression explained 60.7%. Within these models, harassment/rejection was inversely associated with body appreciation, while self-esteem and satisfaction with life were positively associated. A series of path models moving from a measurement model to a more parsimonious and excellent-fitting model found that the effect of harassment/rejection on body appreciation was fully mediated by self-esteem and satisfaction with life, resulting in a multiple mediation.
Article
Internalized homonegativity (IH) has received increased attention in the literature on sexual minorities. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research on IH in conservative Arab cultures like Lebanon. The present study aimed to cover this gap by exploring risk and protective factors of IH in Lebanese sexual minorities. A hierarchical multiple regression (N = 210) revealed that religiosity, parental rejection (actual or anticipated), and legal discrimination were significant risk factors of IH, while sense of belonging to the LGBT community was a strong protective factor. Although self-compassion did not emerge as a predictor, it had interesting interactions on the bivariate level. Results, limitations, clinical implications, and recommendations for future research and policy making are discussed.
Article
Perinatal depression is associated with wide‐ranging negative outcomes for women and their families, though little research has examined perinatal depression in sexual minority women. We examined depression in sexual minority women in the perinatal period, and whether there were unique minority stress‐related risk and protective factors that predicted perinatal depression. 194 perinatal sexual minority women aged 18 years and older were recruited from the US and Australia. Participants completed an online questionnaire incorporating the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and measures of minority stress and social support. Over one third (35.6%) of the sample scored in the clinical range on the EPDS. Experiences of discrimination were associated with greater depression symptoms via poor social support from family. Higher concealment motivation was associated with greater depression symptoms via poor family and partner support. There were no direct or indirect effects of internalized stigma on depression. Rates of clinically elevated perinatal depression symptoms among sexual minority women are high, extending previous research demonstrating mental health disparities between sexual minorities and their heterosexual counterparts to the perinatal period. The role of social support in mediating the relationships between minority stress and depression suggests that increasing partner and family support might be effective targets for therapeutic interventions during the perinatal period.
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Borrowing concepts from public health, we examined the association of several social determinants with the mental health of middle-aged and older queer men in India by combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies. A cross-sectional survey guided by Meyer’s Minority Stress Model was carried out to assess the links between minority stressors (internalized homophobia and degree of closetedness), age-related stressors (ageism and fear of ageing) and psychological wellbeing (loneliness, depressive symptoms and sexual compulsivity) among 207 Indian men (aged 40 years and above) who identified themselves as non-heterosexuals. Results from simple and multivariable linear regression models showed significant positive associations of ageism, internalized homophobia, and fear of ageing with loneliness, even after accounting for sociodemographic and stress mitigating factors. Ageism was not significantly related to depressive symptoms. However, fear of ageing and internalized homophobia was positively associated with depressive symptoms after accounting for covariates. Further, regression models demonstrated a consistent and statistically significant inverse association between income and adverse psychological outcomes suggesting the centrality of social class in the lived experience of Indian gay and bisexual men. The qualitative inquiry addressed the same research questions as the quantitative survey through in-depth interviews of thirty middle-aged and older gay and bisexual men in Mumbai. We found that older and midlife gay and bisexual men with higher income (a proxy for social class) found ways to manage their masculinities with no discernible adverse psychological outcomes. Depressive symptoms and loneliness in this population made them further vulnerable to excessive sexual impulses, especially in the older queer men who were passing off as heterosexuals. Overall, the theory-driven empirical findings suggest that even in India, where family and friends are social insurance for later life, the issues of ageism and internalized homophobia have the potential to lead to worse mental health outcomes among older queer men.
Article
The mediating effect of perceived social support on the influence of insecure attachment orientations on internalized homophobia was assessed in a group of 70 Italian gay men (mean age = 28.8, SD = 6.2, range: 19–46 years). Participants completed self-report measures of adult attachment (Experiences in Close Relationships—Revised), perceived social support (Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support), and internalized homophobia (Measure of Internalized Sexual Stigma for Lesbians and Gay). Higher levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance, and perceptions of lower social support were correlated with higher levels of internalized homophobia. The mediation analyses showed that only attachment anxiety, but not avoidance, may have a direct link with internalized homophobia, while both anxiety and avoidance may have an indirect influence on internalized homophobia mediated by perceived social support. Improving social support can reduce the negative effects of homophobia on gay men, thus mitigating the detrimental fallout of any insecure attachment orientations.
Article
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Although there are wide differences in alcohol use patterns among countries, men are consistently more likely than women to be drinkers and to drink heavily. Studies of alcohol use among sexual minorities (SMs), however, reflect a more complex picture. Such research has found higher rates of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among SM persons than among heterosexuals and greater differences between SM and heterosexual women than between SM and heterosexual men. A variety of factors may contribute to differences in alcohol use and alcohol-related problems between men and women and between SM and heterosexual people. An improved understanding of these factors is important to guide prevention and treatment efforts. Although there is a dearth of literature on use of alcohol by SMs in many parts of the world, especially lower- and middle-income countries, we attempt to review and integrate the sparse data that are available from these lower-resourced countries. The global perspective presented in this article is the first attempt to go beyond a general review of literature in the Western world to document the gender paradox in alcohol use among heterosexuals and SMs in diverse countries worldwide.
Article
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nose who identify as gay male or lesbian must make decisions about whether to disclose their sexual orientation in work environments that may be discriminatory. As part of a larger Web-based survey of love, work, and health in gay male and lesbian couples, the authors examined the predictors of individuals' workplace disclosure status in 118 couples. Findings indicated that, at the individual level, having a workplace nondiscrimination policy and less internalized homophobia were positively associated with the extent to which an individual was out at work. Beyond these individual effects, an individual's disclosure status at work was also positively associated with her or his partner having a workplace nondiscrimination policy and less internalized homophobia. The implications for counseling and for wider interventions at the policy level are discussed.
Article
A random-effects, correlation-based meta-analysis of 27 effect size estimates resulted in identification of a small to moderate effect between indices of wellness and of psycho-social distress in samples of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people. This outcome was moderated by whether study measures were validated with LGBTQ populations and by type of LGBTQ population sampled. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Article
The geographies of sexuality literature is a great source of information for the experiences of gay men and lesbians as they navigate heteronormativity in both private and public spaces, and engage in gay and lesbian counter-space production. However, this literature has yet to fully incorporate bisexual experiences into its paradigm. This article finds that bisexuals experience the spatial (re)production of a sexuality binary (gay/straight) through three interrelated processes: passing, blending, and biphobia. These processes occur throughout the spaces they inhabit, whether those be public or private. The data was gathered through semi-structured interviews with participants from a Midwest U.S. college town. Additionally, examples of exclusion from gay spaces arise during interviews, suggesting that binary sexuality is connected to the queer unwanted. Information on bisexual experiences can further expand geographers’ understanding of how sexuality is spatialized, and further make room for non-binary subjectivities.
Article
Research on intimate partner violence (IPV) has largely focused on heterosexual relationships, but, in recent years, researchers have expanded their focus to include same-sex relationships. Using meta-analytic techniques, this study was conducted to examine the relative strength of various risk markers for men and women being perpetrators and victims of physical IPV in same-sex relationships. Articles were identified through research search engines and screened to identify articles fitting the inclusion criteria, a process that resulted in 24 studies and 114 effect sizes for the meta-analysis. The strongest risk marker among those with at least two effect sizes for both male and female perpetration was psychological abuse perpetration. The strongest risk marker among those with at least two effect sizes for IPV victimization was also perpetration of psychological abuse for males and psychological abuse victimization for females. Among same-sex-specific risk markers, internalized homophobia and fusion were the strongest predictors for being perpetrators of IPV for men and women, respectively. HIV status and internalized homophobia were the strongest risk markers for IPV victimization for men and women, respectively. Of 10 comparisons between men and women in risk markers for IPV perpetration and victimization, only 1 significant difference was found. The results suggest that although same-sex and heterosexual relationships may share a number of risk markers for IPV, there are risk markers for physical IPV unique to same-sex relationships. Further research and increased specificity in measurement are needed to better study and understand the influence of same-sex-specific risk markers for IPV.
Chapter
Navigating romantic relationships in adolescence/young adulthood is a normative developmental task that can be both pleasurable and challenging for youth. The success with which one does so is both predicted by and subsequently affects psychological well-being. This chapter reviews the literature on the associations between psychopathology and youth romantic relationships and experiences. We focus particularly on internalizing and externalizing disorders, for which the bulk of the literature exists. We also cover eating disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as well as other disorders and issues of comorbidity. Following the reviews of specific disorders and symptoms, we review the emerging literature on psychopathology and same-sex relationships among youth. We then address key peer and family contexts in which psychopathology and skills for romantic relationships are developing, and we discuss the intergenerational transmission of psychopathology and romantic dysfunction. The chapter closes with discussions of methodological issues and implications for prevention and intervention, emphasizing the need for ongoing basic research that can translate into novel approaches that can treat or prevent youth romantic dysfunction and psychopathology.
Article
There is limited research evidence about the specific factors influencing disordered eating for lesbian and bisexual women. Therefore, this study investigated relationships among binge eating, internalized homophobia, shame, depression, and distress tolerance in a sample of lesbian (n = 72) and bisexual women (n = 66). Two hypotheses were tested. First, it was hypothesized that shame and depression would mediate the relationship between internalized homophobia and binge eating. Second, it was hypothesized that distress tolerance would moderate the relationship between shame and binge eating and the relationship between depression and binge eating in the mediation relationships proposed in the first hypothesis. Results indicated that shame was a significant mediator for the relationship between internalized homophobia and binge eating, that depression was not a significant mediator, and that distress tolerance did not moderate the significant mediation relationship between shame and binge eating. The data in this study also indicated that the proportions of lesbian and bisexual participants who reported binge eating and compensatory behavior did not differ significantly, but that bisexual participants reported significantly more depression and shame than lesbian participants.
Article
Objective: Few studies have examined unique factors predicting psychological distress among sexual minority (i.e., lesbian and bisexual) women postbreast cancer diagnosis. The present study assessed the association of minority stress and psychosocial resource factors with depression and anxiety symptoms among sexual minority breast cancer survivors. Method: Two hundred one sexual minority women who had ductal carcinoma in situ or Stage I-IV breast cancer participated in this study through the Love/Avon Army of Women. Self-report questionnaires were used to assess demographic and clinical factors, minority stress factors (discrimination, minority identity development, outness), psychosocial resources (resilience, social support), and psychological distress (anxiety and depression). These factors were included in a structural equation model, testing psychosocial resources as mediators between minority stress and psychological distress. Results: There were no significant differences noted between lesbian and bisexual women. The final structural equation model demonstrated acceptable fit across all sexual minority women, χ2 = 27.83, p > .05; confirmatory fit index = 0.97, root-mean-square error of approximation = 0.04, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.93. The model accounted for significant variance in psychological distress (56%). Examination of indirect effects confirmed that exposure to discrimination was associated with distress via association with resilience. Conclusions: Factors unique to sexual minority populations, such as minority stress, may be associated with higher rates of psychological distress among sexual minority breast cancer survivors. However, presence of psychosocial resources may mediate relationships with distress in this population; enhancement of resilience, in particular, could be an aim of psychological intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record
Research
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College Senior Survey (2017). Through the extrapolation of queer-spectrum and trans-spectrum student responses among these datasets, our research team assembled a snapshot of their experiences at 4-year colleges and universities in the United States. This snapshot reveals a campus climate that is failing to provide an equitable learning environment for queer-spectrum and trans-spectrum students, along with troubling disparities across academic engagement and student health. In an increasingly data-driven culture, empirical evidence of queer-spectrum and trans-spectrum student experiences is critical not only to the goal of understanding their unique challenges and needs, but paramount to the pursuit of establishing comprehensive resource provisions that ensure their overall success in the academy. Indeed, less than 15% of American colleges and universities have either one full-time employee whose job duties are at least 50% dedicated to, or one graduate assistant who is fully dedicated (20 hours a week), to serving the unique needs of queer-spectrum and trans-spectrum populations. 1
Chapter
Disclosing a lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) identity to others, or coming out, yields mental health benefits, but it can carry the risk of stigmatization, rejection and even violence. We use a self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan RM, Deci EL. Am Psychol 55:68–78, 2000) framework to understand how relationships impact coming out and identity-development processes. We review evidence that autonomy support, or interpersonal acceptance and encouragement for authentic self-expression, conveys acceptance and safety in relationships, and fosters self-disclosure and acceptance of oneself as LGBT. We conclude by proposing some future directions for this line of inquiry, highlighting the importance of furthering research in this area.
Article
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The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
Article
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Draws parallels between the painful effects of sexual/physical abuse (S/PHA) and heterosexism (HM). HM is defined as a form of cultural victimization that oppresses gay/lesbian/bisexual persons. HM stymies individual growth and development just as victims of S/PHA struggle with the pain of their own victimization. Recognizing HM as victimization and abuse, the parallels between the effects of S/PHA and HM become clearer. A paradigm based on the healing process for S/PHA can also be used with Ss who have been culturally victimized. The paradigm provides helping professionals and their gay/lesbian/bisexual clients a means to articulate (1) how HM is abusive, (2) the painful consequences of victimization, and (3) the healing process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
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Discusses the psychotherapy of lesbians within the sociopolitical context of compulsory heterosexuality, focusing on the treatment of lesbian clients by "out" lesbian therapists who can assist clients in their coming-out process. Some of the many ways in which coming out has a positive impact on lesbians' self-esteem and self-image are pointed out. It is suggested that increasing lesbian visibility will not only dispel destructive stereotyping and homophobia but that it will also demonstrate to nonlesbian women that there are other models for intimate, egalitarian, and emotionally fulfilling relationships. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
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We developed a scale to measure internalized homophobia in men who have sex with men, which is comprised of items derived from theoretical and clinical reports of internalized homophobia. Two hundred two men who have sex with men and who attend "Man to Man" sexual health seminars in a midwestern U.S. city completed the scale at baseline. Orthogonal factor analysis revealed four dimensions of internalized homophobia: public identification as gay, perception of stigma associated with being homosexual, social comfort with gay men, and the moral and religious acceptability of being gay. Factor scoring of these dimensions indicated that they were associated significantly with relationship satisfaction, duration of longest relationship, extent of attraction to men and women, proportion of social time with gay people, membership of gay/bisexual groups, HIV serostatus, and disclosure of sexual orientation. Internalized homophobia is measurable and consists of four dimensions that are associated significantly with low disclosure, shorter length of and satisfaction with relationships, lower degree of sexual attraction to men and higher degree of attraction to women, and lower social time with gay people.
Chapter
Every classification of depressive disorders uses the “Linnaean” binomial approach to its nomenclature that is familiar in taxonomies of both plant and animal kingdoms. Thus, the endogenous-reactive depressions, neurotic-psychotic depressions, or unipolar-bipolar depressions become depression endogenous, depression reactive, depression neurotic, depression psychotic, depression unipolar, or depression bipolar. The term depression is used as an equivalent to the “genus” and is modified by a term that is equivalent to the “species” of the binomial nomenclature. Conceptualized in this manner, the genus denotes depression as a disorder with common characteristics of types or subtypes of depression. To be operationally effective, symptomatology that can be demonstrated in patients diagnosed as having depression (genus), regardless of the type or subtype (species), must have a high degree of universal agreement.
Article
ABSTRACT Body dissatisfaction in lesbians is a subject which has traditionally been ignored in the psychological literature on body image and eating disorders. Early feminist theorists and researchers argued that body dissatisfaction in women developed as a way of dealing with the oppression and misogyny they are faced with on a daily basis. However, these theories failed to take issues of race, class, and sexual orientation into account, thereby excluding the experiences of a diversity of women. This article focuses specifically on the lesbian experience and explores how cultural messages about thinness, femininity, and heterosexuality shape lesbians' feelings about their sexuality and about their bodies. Through the inevitable process of internalizing homophobia and fat hatred, both of which are institutionalized ways of keeping heterosexuality and female oppression in place, lesbians may begin to believe that there is something inherently wrong with them and with their bodies. This article explores how the impact of racism, classism, sexism, and homophobia on women may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural forces behind women's dissatisfaction with their bodies.
Article
Two studies leading to the development of a short form of the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ) are reported. In Study 1 three items selected for high correlations with the total score (SSQ3) were administered to 182 university students together with several personality measures. SSQ3 had acceptable test-retest reliability and correlations with personality variables similar to those of the SSQ. Internal reliability was marginal although acceptable for an instrument with so few items. Study 2 employed three sets of data in developing a six-item instrument (SSQ6). The SSQ6 had high internal reliability and correlated highly with the SSQ and similarly to it with personality variables. The research findings accompanying the development of the short form social support measure suggest that perceived social support in adults may be a reflection of early attachment experience.
Article
Glass's estimator of effect size, the sample mean difference divided by the sample standard deviation, is studied in the context of an explicit statistical model. The exact distribution of Glass's estimator is obtained and the estimator is shown to have a small sample bias. The minimum variance unbiased estimator is obtained and shown to have uniformly smaller variance than Glass's (biased) estimator. Measurement error is shown to attenuate estimates of effect size and a correction is given. The effects of measurement invalidity are discussed. Expressions for weights that yield the most precise weighted estimate of effect size are also derived.
Article
will briefly review earlier approaches to psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men from other psychotherapeutic theoretical perspectives / those views will be critiqued from the perspective of feminist therapy specific applications of feminist therapy theory with issues common to lesbian and gay male therapy clients will be described (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
This book addresses core issues in counseling women within the context of two major theoretical positions and a sample of client concerns. The book will be useful both to beginning graduate students who desire an introduction to counseling women, as well as to more advanced and professional clinicians. Advanced professionals may want to discover and integrate these emerging approaches into their therapeutic repertoire, or may selectively adapt text materials for workshops and continuing education training. Each chapter contains a self-assessment pretest on knowledge or attitudes, an introductory overview, a chapter summary, and self-awareness activities. The self-assessment and self-awareness exercises are excellent learning strategies for students, and contribute to the usefulness of this book as a classroom or continuing education text. The underlying theme of the text emphasizes that effective counseling with women clients requires an awareness of personal stereotypes about this client population, an understanding of self in relation to women, and a sensitivity to the special psychological and social environments within which women's development takes place. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Describes the process through which female homosexuals recognize and accept their true sexual identities and the psychosocial and developmental issues involved therein. The awareness of "being different" at an early age, the characteristics of the emerging sexuality of adolescence and young adulthood, and the transition into relationships with others are delineated. The 6-point continuum developed by A. C. Kinsey et al (1948) to illustrate the range of same-sex/opposite-sex feelings and attractions often serves as a reference point to help define sexual identities. It is argued that, because of changing social climates and values and because of the advent of movements like women's liberation and gay liberation, women who are choosing to identify themselves as lesbians in the 1980's might well have been fairly well-adjusted heterosexuals in the 1930's and 1940's . The inner conflicts experienced by lesbians in a heterosexually oriented, patriarchal culture are examined. These conflicts will affect the lesbian's choice of separatist, nonseparatist, and family relationships; these events signify steps in the coming-out process that eventually leads to a stable identity. This identity then becomes integrated into a positive self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
assess the status of theory and empirical data on internalized homophobia / a framework adopted from J. Brewer and A. Hunter (1989) is used to evaluate the status of internalized homophobia as a construct / these writers suggest that "for measurements to be useful in building and testing theories, the measures must provide good empirical estimates of the social phenomena about which we theorize" / an important question is how the simplification involved in operationalizing and measuring a phenomenon affects the realism of the resulting theory [begin] with an examination of the conceptual issues involved in the definition, operationalization, and assessment of internalized homophobia / review . . . the empirical work in this area / data on the construct validity of internalized homophobia are presented / [argue] that the construct of internalized homophobia can serve as a central organizing concept for gay and lesbian affirmative psychology (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Psychotherapeutic work with lesbians is confounded by both sexist and heterosexist factors. This paper traces three aspects of women's socialization—self-concept, feminine sex-role behavior, and sexuality— which have particular implications for lesbians and discusses the implications of these three in therapy. The impact of women's conditioning to base self-esteem on acceptance by others is noted, particularly as such conditioning combines with the cumulative stresses of lesbian life. Finally, examples of ways in which heterosexual bias may become apparent in therapy are given, and alternative therapeutic approaches are discussed.
Article
Typescript. Thesis (M.A.)--Georgia State University, 1990. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 86-95).
Article
A six-stage model of homosexual identity formation is outlined within the framework of interpersonal congruency theory. Stages are differentiated on the basis of the person's perceptions of his/her own behavior and the actions that arise as a consequence of this perception. The person is seen to have an active role in the acquisition of a homosexual identity. Alternative paths of development are proposed within each stage. The notion that people can accept homosexuality as a positively valued status is assumed. Several factors believed to be influential in determining whether a person takes one line of development or another are discussed. The model is intended to be applied to both female and male homosexuals.
Article
This paper presents suggestions for therapists working with women who are having difficulty accepting their attractions to other women, lesbian behavior and identity, or both, with the goal of promoting self-acceptance and reducing internalized homophobia. After a discussion of the therapeutic relationship, several coping strategies which have been used successfully by many women are described and therapeutic applications are offered. These strategies include cognitive restructuring, avoiding a negative identity, adopting an identity label, self-disclosure, meeting other lesbians, and habituation to lesbianism. Finally, behavioral indications of success or failure to achieve the goal of self-acceptance are presented.
Article
This paper focuses on a much-neglected aspect of therapy with lesbian clients: treatment of sexual dysfunction. It examines roots of dysfunction that can be found in cultural homophobia and misogyny, and presents a theoretical framework for intervention in the sexual problems of lesbian clients.
Article
This paper reports a series of factor analyses of responses to attitude statements about lesbians and gay men. Using a common factor model with oblique rotation, a bipolar "Condemnation-Tolerance" factor was observed repeatedly in four separate samples of undergraduates. The factor accounts for 35-45% of the total common variance in responses, and is similar for male and female respondents and for questionnaires concerning both lesbians and gay men. A "Beliefs" factor accounts for another 5% of the total variance. It is argued that scales assessing attitudes toward lesbians and gay men should restrict their content to items loading highly on the Condemnation-Tolerance factor.
Article
The construction and evaluation of a new self-report depression inventory was presented. Altogether 833 subjects participated in the various phases of the study. A sequential item selection strategy resulted in an inventory that provided separate scores for ten subscales: Sad Mood, Fatigue, Learned Helplessness, Guilt, Pessimism, Social Introversion, Irritability, Instrumental Helplessness, Low Self-Esteem, and Cognitive Difficulty. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability were satisfactory. Concurrent validity of the full scale was demonstrated by high correlations with existing measures. Criterion related validity and face validity were also demonstrated. It was concluded that the new inventory might prove to be a useful research tool for studying depression in normal populations, and the need for further evaluation of psychometric properties in normal and clinical populations was noted.
Article
This article provides a critical review of various methods for assessing sexual orientation in previous lesbian/gay/bisexual studies. A content analysis of 144 lesbian/gay/bisexual studies published in the Journal of Homosexuality (Volumes 1 to 24; 1974-93) was conducted by two independent reviewers. Findings suggest that women and bisexuals were underrepresented, and, in about one third of the studies, participants' sexual orientations were assumed rather than assessed. Five methods for the assessment of sexual orientation were identified, with self-identification (as heterosexual/homosexual/bisexual/lesbian/gay) the most typical. Each assessment method was critically examined and a 2-by-2 multidimensional assessment model was suggested for use in lesbian/gay/bisexual studies.
Article
The present study investigated relations between lesbians' disclosure of their sexual orientation and psychological adjustment. The 499 participants responded to a questionnaire assessing level of self-disclosure, sources of social support, forms of socializing, self-description of sexual orientation, and length of self-identification as a lesbian. The more widely a woman disclosed her sexual orientation the less anxiety, more positive affectivity, and greater self-esteem she reported. Degree of disclosure to family, gay and lesbian friends, straight friends, and co-workers was related to overall level of social support, with those who more widely disclosed reporting greater levels of support. Participants who more widely disclosed their sexual orientation were less likely to engage in anonymous socializing, had a larger percentage of lesbian friends, and were more involved in the gay and lesbian community. Path analyses revealed a mediating effect of social reactions (both initial and current) on the relation between identity development and self-disclosure.
Article
This article reports the development and psychometric properties of a new scale that measures internalized homophobia in lesbians: the Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale (LIHS). This 52-item measure was developed using a rational/theoretical approach of test construction and includes five subscales. Research findings, based on a sample of 303 female participants, supported the reliability and validity of the LIHS in assessing internalized homophobia in lesbians. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Article
The fact that there is a need for assessing depression, whether as an affect, a symptom, or a disorder is obvious by the numerous scales and inventories available and in use today.
Poster session presented at the 106th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association
  • M A Jones
  • M A Gabriel
Ego-dystonic homosexuality scale. Unpublished manuscript, Columbia University
  • J L Martin
  • L L Dean
Homosexual acts, actors, and identities
  • L G Nungesser
The relationship between internalized homophobia and depression and low self-esteem in gay men. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
  • R A Alexander
Developmental stages of the coming out process
  • E Coleman
Lesbian sex. San Francisco: Spinsters
  • J Loulan
Internalized homophobia: Identifying and treating the oppressor within
  • L Margolies
  • M Becker
  • K Jackson-Brewer
Self-esteem, social support, internalized homophobia, and coping strategies of HIV+ gay men
  • W D Nicholson
  • B C Long
Homonegativity and gay enmeshment: An investigation of adjustment in gay males
  • A Shidlo
AIDS related health behavior: Psychosocial correlates in gay men
  • A Shidlo
The saga of continuing clash in lesbian community, or will an army of ex-lovers fail?
  • S Pearlman
The effects of women's socialization on lesbian couples
  • S Vargo
Invisibility, fantasy, and intimacy: Princess Charming is not a prince
  • L Zevy
  • S A Cavallaro