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Employee drug use, demographic characteristics, work reactions, and absenteeism
Abstract
Investigated the relationships between employee use of illicit drugs, perceptions of and reactions to the work environment, and employee absenteeism and tardiness above and beyond that accounted for by demographic and work reaction variables. 162 employees in a large work organization completed demographic and background information and assessments of work perceptions and reactions and absenteeism and tardiness. Drug use was assessed with a questionnaire and urine testing. Employee drug use accounted for additional statistically significant variance in overall absenteeism and in absenteeism due to injuries and suspensions, as well as days tardy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Originally viewed as an intoxicant used only by deviant members of society, cannabis is now the most widely used illegal substance in the United States, Canada, and Europe (Beck & Legleye, 2008;Frone, 2006;Hajizadeh, 2016); this popularity translates into millions of employees who consume cannabis. Given such a state of affairs, it should be of little surprise that organizations spend billions of dollars each year (Frone, 2006;Normand et al., 1990) addressing what many believe is a problem (Bass et al., 1996;Harris, 2004;Lyons et al., 2016). Whereas some might believe steps taken by governments and organizations to screen and/or prevent cannabis use are supported by empirical evidence, "such commentary is often based on speculation, vested interests, and pseudo-science rather than on objective interpretation of all available scientific data" (Frone, 2008a, p. 519). ...
... As alluded to above, measuring cannabis use is not straightforward. Urinalysis or other medical tests provide objective confirmation of cannabis use, but they only detect the presence of cannabis metabolites not the frequency of nor the time in which (relative to work) cannabis was consumed (Bass et al., 1996;Harris, 2004). An employee who consumes cannabis during a weekend party would return similar testing results as someone who consumed cannabis immediately prior to their work shift. ...
... This does not eliminate methodological concerns, but it should lessen worries that common method bias was the driving force behind study results. We also recognize that self-reported cannabis use may raise concerns with some readers even though existing research indicates self-reported substance use is a reliable and valid methodology for collecting such data (Bass et al., 1996;Frone, 2008a;Harris, 2004). Nevertheless, if concern remains, we direct readers to existing findings that indicate selfreport measures sometimes underreport behaviors (e.g., substance use) that are socially undesirable (Aguinis et al., 1995;Harris, 2004). ...
As more local, state, and national governments change laws regarding the legality of cannabis use, it is essential for organizations to understand how the workplace may be influenced by these changes. The current study begins to answer this question by examining the relationship between three temporal-based cannabis measures and five forms of workplace performance. Using data from 281 employees and their direct supervisors, our results indicate that cannabis use before and during work negatively relate to task performance, organization-aimed citizenship behaviors, and two forms of counterproductive work behaviors. At the same time, after-work cannabis use was not related (positively or negatively) to any form of performance as rated by the user’s direct supervisor. We discuss methodological, theoretical, and practical implications for researchers, organizations, and governmental agencies concerned with cannabis use.
... In epidemiological and field studies, workplace performance has been defined by attendance and absenteeism (Bass et al., 1996;French et al., 1998;Van Hasselt et al., 2015), wages (French et al., 1998), employees' perceptions of their work performance (El-Bassel et al., 1997;Lehman and Simpson, 1992), injuries and workplace accidents (Normand et al., 1990), and supervisor ratings (Weiss et al., 2008). Likewise, drug use has been measured using a variety of strategies including self-report (e.g., Lehman and Simpson, 1992;Lim et al., 2000;Roche et al., 2008) and collection of biologically verified samples prior to employment or interview (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Normand et al., some suggesting drug-related performance impairment (Bass et al., 1996;El-Bassel et al., 1997;Lehman and Simpson, 1992;Normand et al., 1990;Roche et al., 2008;Van Hasselt et al., 2015;Zwerling et al., 1990), and others failing to find a significant relation between drug use and performance (French et al., 1998;Lim et al., 2000;Weiss et al., 2008). ...
... In epidemiological and field studies, workplace performance has been defined by attendance and absenteeism (Bass et al., 1996;French et al., 1998;Van Hasselt et al., 2015), wages (French et al., 1998), employees' perceptions of their work performance (El-Bassel et al., 1997;Lehman and Simpson, 1992), injuries and workplace accidents (Normand et al., 1990), and supervisor ratings (Weiss et al., 2008). Likewise, drug use has been measured using a variety of strategies including self-report (e.g., Lehman and Simpson, 1992;Lim et al., 2000;Roche et al., 2008) and collection of biologically verified samples prior to employment or interview (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Normand et al., some suggesting drug-related performance impairment (Bass et al., 1996;El-Bassel et al., 1997;Lehman and Simpson, 1992;Normand et al., 1990;Roche et al., 2008;Van Hasselt et al., 2015;Zwerling et al., 1990), and others failing to find a significant relation between drug use and performance (French et al., 1998;Lim et al., 2000;Weiss et al., 2008). ...
... In epidemiological and field studies, workplace performance has been defined by attendance and absenteeism (Bass et al., 1996;French et al., 1998;Van Hasselt et al., 2015), wages (French et al., 1998), employees' perceptions of their work performance (El-Bassel et al., 1997;Lehman and Simpson, 1992), injuries and workplace accidents (Normand et al., 1990), and supervisor ratings (Weiss et al., 2008). Likewise, drug use has been measured using a variety of strategies including self-report (e.g., Lehman and Simpson, 1992;Lim et al., 2000;Roche et al., 2008) and collection of biologically verified samples prior to employment or interview (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Normand et al., some suggesting drug-related performance impairment (Bass et al., 1996;El-Bassel et al., 1997;Lehman and Simpson, 1992;Normand et al., 1990;Roche et al., 2008;Van Hasselt et al., 2015;Zwerling et al., 1990), and others failing to find a significant relation between drug use and performance (French et al., 1998;Lim et al., 2000;Weiss et al., 2008). ...
Background:
The link between illicit drug use and impaired employee performance in the workplace has been assumed, but the relation has not been demonstrated clearly in research. This study was an evaluation of the relations between cocaine and opiate use, attendance, and performance in a job skills training program in a population with high rates of drug use.
Methods:
Out-of-treatment injection drug users (N = 42) attended a model therapeutic workplace where they could earn a maximum pay of around $10 per hour, 4 h every weekday, for 30 weeks. At the workplace, participants could complete practice trials on computer-based typing and keypad training programs. Participants were asked to provide urine samples thrice weekly, which were tested for opiates and cocaine.
Results:
Participants worked for more hours on a program that resulted in a flat hourly wage when their urine was negative for opiates and cocaine than when their urine was opiate and cocaine positive. Attendance was positively associated with opiate-negative samples during the study. When participants attended the workplace, however, their performance was not related to drug use. Participants completed the same number of practice trials, performed at the same accuracy, and typed at the same speed when they were positive and negative for cocaine and opiates.
Conclusions:
Contrary to common expectations, this study failed to show that the use of opiates or cocaine affected in-training performance, even though opiate and cocaine use predicted reduced attendance under some circumstances.
... Second, it may decrease the probability of being employed, which, again, may interfere with human capital accumulation ( Gill and Michaels, 1992;Register and Williams, 1992). Third, it may increase absenteeism, which directly influences the productivity of not only the drug user, but also those individuals who work with that user (French, Zarkin, and Dunlap, 1998;Bass et al., 1996). Finally, substance abuse may reduce an individual's productivity on the job, which should translate directly into lower wages if wages are indeed a good indicator of marginal productivity (Hoyt, 1992). ...
... The literature suggests that employee drug use is associated with increased absenteeism ( Bass et al., 1996;Bross, Pace, and Cronin, 1992;Normand, Salyards, and Mahoney, 1990), though the causality of the relationship is not established. The only economics study examining the relationship between illicit drug use and absenteeism that explicitly dealt with the issue of causality found no statistically significant effect between past-year drug use and absenteeism (French, Roebuck, and Alexandre, 2001). ...
This monograph presents the first national estimate of the economic cost of methamphetamine (meth) use in the United States. The analysis suggests that the economic cost of meth use in the United States reached $23.4 billion in 2005. Given the uncertainty in estimating the costs of meth use, the study provides a lower-bound estimate of $16.2 billion and an upper-bound estimate of $48.3 billion. The analysis undertaken to generate these estimates considers a wide range of consequences due to meth use, including the burden of addiction, premature death, drug treatment, and aspects of lost productivity, crime and criminal justice, health care, production and environmental hazards, and child endangerment. Other potential harms of meth, however, could not be included due to a lack of scientific evidence or to data issues. Although meth causes some unique harms, many of the primary cost drivers are similar to those identified in economic assessments of other illicit drugs. Among the most costly elements are the intangible burden of addiction and premature death, which account for nearly two-thirds of the economic costs. The intangible burden of addiction measures the lower quality of life experienced by those addicted to the drug. Crime and criminal justice costs also account for a significant share of economic costs. These costs include the burden of processing and incarcerating drug offenders as well as the costs of additional nondrug crimes generated by meth use. Other costs that significantly contribute include lost productivity, the costs of removing a child from his or her parents' home due to meth, and the cost of drug treatment. One unusual cost captured in the analysis is that associated with the production of meth, which requires toxic chemicals that can result in fire, explosions, and other negative events.
... AOD use by workers can have detrimental effects on occupational health and safety [62,[74][75][76]. Studies have found employee AOD use to be associated with workplace injuries [75], missing work, poor quality work, arriving late/ leaving early, doing less work, arguing with colleagues [77], withdrawal behaviors [78], absenteeism [79,80] and presenteeism [81]. Furthermore, productivity losses associated with AOD-related illness/injury, premature mortality, and absenteeism/presenteeism can place a substantial fiscal burden on businesses and the economy [82][83][84][85][86][87]. ...
Stigma related to alcohol and other drug (AOD) use is highly prevalent in society, including within the workplace. Workers who use AOD in ways contrary to social norms may be subject to negative assumptions regarding their capacity to be valuable employees. As a result, they can experience discrimination in hiring and career progression decisions, as well as marginalization and exclusion from full participation in work life. Workplaces may also implement policies and procedures in an effort to manage employee AOD use but in doing so inadvertently promote and perpetuate the stigmatization of individuals who use AOD. A “whole-of-workplace” approach is recommended as an alternative method of addressing workplace AOD use without concomitantly increasing stigma. In addition, a number of targeted antistigma strategies are suggested to decrease AOD-related stigma in the workplace, including information and education, workplace policies and supports, and societal strategies.
... Illicit drug use is reliably connected to absence-taking, generating > 50% more absenteeism among users (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Normand, Salyards & Mahoney, 1990). The effect of drinking, however, is more complex. ...
... Workforce alcohol and other drug use is associated with substantial negative consequences (Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee, 2006), including workplace injuries (Spicer, Miller, & Smith, 2003), missing work, poor quality work, arriving late/leaving early, doing less work, arguing with colleagues (Amick et al., 1999), withdrawal behaviours (Lehman & Simpson, 1992), absenteeism (Bass et al., 1996;Harrison, 2006) andpresenteeism (de Graff, Tuithof, van Dorsselaer, &ten Have, 2012). It has been estimated that alcohol-related absenteeism alone costs businesses up to $2 billion per year in Australia (Roche et al., in 2015), $4 billion in America, and s9 billion in the European Union (Anderson & Baumberg, 2006;Bouchery, Harwood, Sacks, Simon, & Brewer, 2011). ...
Background:
There is growing interest in workplace policies as a strategy to prevent or manage alcohol and other drug (AOD) problems. This study is the first to explore the prevalence and impact of AOD policies in Australian workplaces using a nationally representative dataset.
Methods:
A secondary analysis of the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey was conducted (n=13,590). Descriptive analyses explored the prevalence of AOD policies. Multinomial and logistic regression assessed the relationship between policies and health behaviours.
Results:
Workplace AOD policies were associated with reduced employee substance use. Having any AOD policy in place was associated with significantly decreased odds of high risk drinking (OR: 0.61). In terms of specific policy types, policies on 'use' and 'use plus assistance' were associated with significantly decreased odds of high risk drinking (OR: 0.64 and 0.43, respectively). 'Comprehensive' policies were associated with significantly decreased odds of drug use (OR: 0.72). AOD policies were not significantly related to absence due to AOD use, attending work under the influence, or usually consuming AOD at work.
Conclusion:
These findings provide empirical support for the value and efficacy of policies to reduce alcohol and drug problems. While basic policies on 'use' were associated with a reduction in high risk drinking, more comprehensive policies were required to impact drug use. Notably, alcohol/drug testing in isolation does not appear to be related to reduced employee substance use. Scope exists for Australian workplaces to implement effective AOD policies. This could result in considerable benefits for both individuals and workplaces.
... Illicit drug use is reliably connected to absence-taking, generating > 50% more absenteeism among users (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Normand, Salyards & Mahoney, 1990). The effect of drinking, however, is more complex. ...
We use a time-based system to help organize, summarize, and analyze research on employee absenteeism published in the last 20 years (1977–1996). Although what is known about some mid-term (4–12 month) origins of absence-taking has been greatly clarified and expanded, less is known about long-term (> 12 months) and short-term (1 day-3 months) origins, or about how causes in different time frames relate to each other. Poor performance and “neglectful” behaviors serve as reliable offshoots of absenteeism. The long- and short-term etiology of the latter behaviors is unclear, but their shared variance in the mid-term reflects negative job attitudes. Outcomes of absenteeism have received much less research attention. Although mid-term consequences such as reduced performance, turnover, and organizational expense are well-established, little is known about short- and long-term effects of absence-taking on individuals and their social environments. We conclude with suggestions for more explicit consideration of time frames, causal lags, and aggregation periods in the next decades of absenteeism research.
... However, these conclusions were based on a small set of studies. In contrast, a closer examination of more recent research does show inconsistency, with some studies supporting a positive relation of employee alcohol and drug use to poor attendance outcomes (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Department of Health and Human Services, 1999b;Fisher et al., 2000;Jones, Casswell, & Zhang, 1995;McFarlin & Fals-Stewart, 2002) and some studies failing to support this relation (e.g., French, Zarkin, & Dunlap, 1998;S. Moore et al., 2000;Peter & Siegrist, 1997;Vasse, Nijhus, & Kok, 1998). ...
Although past research provides some support for the claim that employee alcohol and other drug use is related to poor employee productivity, including workplace injuries and accidents, several conceptual and methodological issues limit our ability to draw specific conclusions that are useful to managers, treatment providers, and policymakers. I address 4 primary goals in this chapter. First, I provide a brief overview of the literature on employee substance use and productivity to provide an overall understanding of this relation through exploring these outcomes within the broader context of employee productivity. Second, I present a general model of employee substance use and productivity that illuminates and eliminates past conceptual and measurement problems that have undermined past research. The model will help explain prior inconsistent findings and provide a framework to guide future field research on employee substance use and productivity. Third, I outline several directions for future research on employee substance use and workplace injuries and accidents. Finally, I discuss the implications of past research and the proposed model for managers and workplace policy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Illicit drug use is reliably connected to absence-taking, generating > 50% more absenteeism among users (e.g., Bass et al., 1996;Normand, Salyards & Mahoney, 1990). The effect of drinking, however, is more complex. ...
We use a time-based system to help organize, summarize, and analyze research on employee absenteeism published in the last 20 years (1977-1996). Although what is known about some mid-term (4-12 month) origins of absence-taking has been greatly clarified and expanded, less is known about long-term (> 12 months) and short-term (I day-3 months) origins, or about how causes in different time frames relate to each other. Poor performance and “neglectful” behaviors serve as reliable offshoots of absenteeism. The long- and short-term etiology of the latter behaviors is unclear, but their shared variance in the mid-term reflects negative job attitudes. Outcomes of absenteeism have received much less research attention. Although mid-term consequences such as reduced performance, turnover, and organizational expense are well-established, little is known about short- and long-term effects of absence-taking on individuals and their social environments. We conclude with suggestions for more explicit consideration of time frames, causal lags, and aggregation periods in the next decades of absenteeism research.
Self-stigma in addiction occurs when individuals with substance use disorders (SUDs) experience shame based on mythological stereotypes in public stigma, as well as from their own sense of what they take to be shameful about addiction. This process leads to changes in identity in line with negative stigmatising stereotypes. The main source of the shaming process comes from public stigma where powerful others impose upon the individual with SUDs a social world (an ambience) containing false and distorting attitudes and beliefs that are internalised and lead to harmful effects, including further substance use and self-sabotage. A second source of self-stigma is the private shame that individuals feel based on accurate recognition of their situation. This may generate the motivation to heal but typically only when it occurs in a supportive context where public stigma is absent and acceptance by others is present. With the barrier of public stigma removed, or at least lowered, the individual with SUDs will stop self-stigmatising based on the damaging mythology around addiction and so may be given the support he or she needs for self-compassion, and in particular self-trust, in order to recover.
O consolidado de informações apresentadas pelos estudos triados indica não haver evidência suficiente para
a recomendação de rastreamento de uso de álcool e drogas entre trabalhadores como medida isolada para a redução de acidente de trabalho nas empresas. Não há evidências atuais na literatura cientifica suficientes
para avaliar o equilíbrio entre benefícios e malefícios em relação à realização do rastreamento para o uso de
álcool e drogas entre trabalhadores como medida isolada para redução de acidentes de trabalho.
Não recomendamos a aplicação do rastreamento por exame toxicológico, em janela curta ou larga, na prática da Medicina do Trabalho.
Objectives: The aim of this study is to explore the influence of determinants of duration of sick leave on in age and profession homogeneous groups in two different regions in the Netherlands. Apart from a statistical comparison of duration of sick leave in these regions, a literature search on determinants of duration of sick leave, spread over the last decades, was performed to get an impression of the topicality of the study. Methods: 184 participants in the regions Utrecht and South-Limburg were interviewed about work, personal and health characteristics. Data of duration of sick leave were obtained from a Dutch social fund. Later, a literature search on determinants of duration of sick leave was performed. Results: The statistical comparison of duration of sick leave in the two different regions showed that in South-Limburg determinants of 'state of health', 'motivation', 'work conditions' and 'work relations' were associated with duration of sick leave, whereas in Utrecht less predicting determinants were found, namely for 'work contents'. The literature search gives a quite consistent picture of determinants of duration of sick leave over the last decades. Conclusions: In either of the investigated regions different determinants were associated with duration of sick leave. Thus, nationwide interventions to reduce duration of sick leave are useless without taking into account the existence of regional differences in determinants that predict duration of sick leave. Determinants of duration of sick leave did not change in the last decades, therefore the results of the study are, although performed in the nineties, still relevant.
Drug testing has emerged as many employers' answer to the problem of employee substance use. Drug-testing programs seek to provide an objective basis for mandatory employee referral to treatment programs, prevent the onset of drug use among abstaining workers, diminish productivity losses and workplace accidents ascribable to substance use, minimize cost increases for employer-paid health care expenses, and decrease drug-related work turnover. In short, drug testing endeavors to identify or prevent the development of problems in order to maintain a healthy and safe workforce. Despite these admirable goals, drug testing programs do not appear to accomplish these aims, and require considerable expense. In order to understand how drug testing promotes worker health and safety, this chapter examines the literature on the effectiveness of drug testing in the identification of workers whose substance-use impairs job performance.
A study of records for 1 large U.S. company revealed that employees with positive drug screens were fired, whereas workers who self-disclosed drug/alcohol problems remained employed. Both groups were offered substance abuse intervention, and some previously fired workers were rehired after they received treatment. Accident results showed that drug-test positive employees, as compared with self-referred workers, had a significantly higher accident rate in all categories. Treatment data revealed that drug-test positive workers had significantly higher accident rates before and after treatment than self-referred employees. Posttreatment results showed that drug-test positive employees had a significant decrease in accidents after services, whereas the self-referred group showed no change.
Objectives: A literature review on relevant sick leave frequency determinants during the past decades was performed. Methods: The literature review referred to national and international studies on sick leave fre-quency determinants. Results: During the past decades, in research literature, a broad range of sick leave frequency determinants was mentioned in a highly consistent pattern. Conclusion: Over the past decades sick leave frequency was influenced by a broad range of similar determinants. Samenvatting Doelstelling. Een literatuuronderzoek werd uitgevoerd naar determinanten van verzuim-frequentie die de afgelopen decennia van belang waren. Methode. Het literatuuronderzoek betrof nationale en internationale studies over determinanten van verzuimfrequentie. Resultaten. In de afgelopen decennia liet de onderzoeksliteratuur voor een breed spectrum van verzuimfrequentie determinanten een stabiel beeld zien. Conclusie. In de afgelopen decennia werd verzuimfrequentie beïnvloed door een breed spectrum gelijkaardige determinanten.
This study looks at the effects of education level on job performance in 2 ways. First, it provides a meta-analysis on the relationships between education level and 9 dimensions of job behaviors representing task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance. Results here show that, in addition to positively influencing core task performance, education level is also positively related to creativity and citizenship behaviors and negatively related to on-the-job substance use and absenteeism. Second, we investigate the moderating effects of sample and research design characteristics on the relationships between education and job performance. Significant results were found for gender, race, job level, and job complexity. The article concludes with implications for future research and the management of an increasingly educated workforce.
Ireland has become one of the first European countries to legislate for workplace drug testing. However, little is known about the attitudes of Irish workers towards various aspects of workplace drug testing programmes. This paper aims to address this matter by presenting the findings of a survey of construction apprentices and their attitudes to workplace drug testing. The results indicate that under some circumstances there is approval for tests; testing with advance warning is preferred to random testing. In addition, the practice of workplace drug testing in a company would not deter most respondents from applying for a position there. However, attitudes towards most aspects of drug testing – such as the need for random testing, the right of employers to test for drugs, and infringement of personal rights – are characterised by extreme variability. Higher self-reported frequency of alcohol and drug use, particularly of cannabis, was associated with more negative reactions towards workplace drug testing. The implications of implementing workplace drug testing programmes are discussed.
Nonmedical use of prescription drugs is increasingly prevalent in the United States, but limited research is available on prescription drugs misuse in the workforce. We investigated whether absenteeism and turnover are associated with having problems linked to prescription drug misuse among employees. We also further explored the moderating effects of employee drug policy and testing on the relation between having problems linked to misuse of prescription pain relievers (PPRs) and absenteeism and turnover. This is a cross-sectional study (n = 2,249) using the 2007 U.S. national survey data ("National Survey on Drug Use and Health"). The multivariate logistic analysis results illustrate, after controlling confounding factors (gender, age, tobacco use, and heroin use), absenteeism and turnover linked to having problems of PPRs misuse. Our findings suggest the moderating effects of employee drug policy on the association between absenteeism and turnover and having problems linked to misuse of PPRs. Also, drug testing was found to moderate the link between having negative outcomes of misuse of PPRs and absenteeism. Having problems associated with misuse of PPRs is linked to absenteeism and turnover. A drug policy program including drug testing may play a significant role in reducing absenteeism and turnover in relation to having problems linked to misuse of PPRs.
There is limited scientific evidence that women have a higher frequency and incidence of sickness absence due to psychiatric diagnoses. Because of conflicting findings, there is insufficient evidence on gender differences in the duration of sickness absence. Because of conflicting findings, there is also insufficient evidence on the association between age and sickness absence with psychiatric diagnoses. There is insufficient evidence on the association of sickness absence due to psychiatric diagnoses with work-related factors, factors related to family and social networks outside of the job, and psychosocial factors in childhood and adolescence since none of the individual factors were investigated in more than a single study. The results were conflicting (insufficient evidence) in five studies that investigated whether individuals with psychiatric disorders were at greater risk for sickness absence and disability pension, irrespective of the diagnosis on the sickness certificate. The four studies that used alcohol diagnoses to identify alcohol problems found increased sickness absence irrespective of the diagnosis on the certificate (expressed as more sick-leave days or an increased risk for prolonged sickness absence in individuals with alcohol problems). Furthermore, two of the studies found an increased risk for disability pension in women diagnosed with alcohol problems. There is insufficient evidence because of too few studies. The results are conflicting with regard to the association between high alcohol consumption and sickness absence, irrespective of the diagnosis on the certificate (insufficient evidence).
The aims of this study were to establish the prevalence of psychotropic drug use, measure the association between job strain, extrinsic efforts–rewards ratio, interpersonal violence and psychotropic drug use among officers working in correctional facilities in the province of Quebec in Canada. This study also examined if interpersonal violence at work is an intermediate factor in the causal chain between psychosocial risk factors at work and psychotropic drug use. A cross-sectional study was performed which included 1288 Quebec correctional officers. The participants answered a self-administered questionnaire in 2007 assessing psychological demands, decision latitude, extrinsic efforts, rewards, overcommitment, intimidation, psychological harassment, social support in the actual job, psychotropic drug use during the month preceding the questionnaire and sociodemographic variables. Binomial regressions were performed for the principal associations and a bootstrap analysis was performed in order to evaluate interpersonal violence as an intermediate factor between psychosocial risk factors at work and psychotropic drug use.
A literature review for the years 1984-2004 was performed to identify the determinants of the sick leave frequency and duration over that period and to establish the continuity in the character of those determinants.
The review referred to national and international studies on the determinants of the frequency and duration of sick leave.
The review presented a highly consistent picture of the factors determining sick leave frequency and duration.
Over the study period, the frequency and duration of sick leave were determined by a broad range of factors, a substantial number of which had a similar influence on both the study parameters.
The aim of this study was to explore the influence of sick leave frequency determinants on in terms of age and profession homogeneous groups in two socio-economically comparable, but socio-culturally different regions in The Netherlands, i.e., Utrecht (mean frequency 1.10 spells) and South Limburg (mean frequency 1.92 spells). In addition, to get an idea of the study's topical interest, a literature review on sick leave frequency determinants covering the past few decades was performed.
184 participants in the Utrecht and South Limburg regions were interviewed on work, individual and health characteristics. Sick leave frequency data were obtained from a social fund. For the literature review (inter)national scientific journals, academic theses and Medline were consulted.
A comparison of sick leave frequency in the two regions showed that, in South Limburg, the determinants called 'opinion on social-medical support during sick leave', 'type of appointment' and 'annual number of visits (family doctor)' were associated with sick leave frequency whereas this was not the case in Utrecht. The literature review presented a highly consistent picture of determinants of sick leave frequency over the last few decades.
In the two regions studied, different determinants appeared to be associated with sick leave frequency. This phenomenon is attributed to the different socio-cultural characters of the regions. As per region different determinants appeared to be associated with sick leave frequency, nationwide interventions to reduce sick leave frequency should take into account the potential influence of regional differences in determinants that predict sick leave frequency. Sick leave frequency determinants have not changed in the past few decades. Although the study was performed in the nineties, its results are still relevant.
Regional differences in sick leave frequency and duration determinants were studied between different professions (sale and cleaning) in different regions in the Netherlands (Utrecht and South Limburg) and the influence of socio-cultural factors on those determinants was explored.
Employees in Utrecht and South Limburg were interviewed on work, individual and health characteristics. Sick leave data were obtained from the social fund.
A statistic comparison of sick leave frequency and duration figures between the two professions in the two regions showed that for a part similar, and for another part different determinants were associated with sick leave.
In Utrecht, socio-cultural influence was assumed for the perception of autonomy and in South Limburg for health complaints. As a consequence, nationwide interventions to reduce sick leave should take into account the potential effects of sociocultural factors on the type of sick leave determinants that predict sick leave per region.
Work strain has been argued to be a significant cause of absenteeism in the popular and academic press. However, definitive evidence for associations between absenteeism and strain is currently lacking. A theory focused meta-analysis of 275 effects from 153 studies revealed positive but small associations between absenteeism and work strain, psychological illness, and physical illness. Structural equation modeling results suggested that the strain-absence connection may be mediated by psychological and physical symptoms. Little support was received for the purported volitional distinction between absence frequency and time lost absence measures on the basis of illness. Among the moderators examined, common measurement, midterm and stable sources of variance, and publication year received support.
The authors conducted a random statewide telephone survey of 1,484 individuals to study the relationship between marijuana use (in terms of participants' history of marijuana use) and reactions to drug testing and to study 2 hypothetical drug-treatment policies. Job safety sensitivity was related to perceived fairness of drug testing for the participant's job, and more recent marijuana use was associated with more negative reactions. Safety sensitivity was related to perceived fairness of drug treatment. Organizations with voluntary treatment were more attractive than ones with monitored treatment. Marijuana use interacted with drug treatment policy type in predicting reactions to drug treatment. Results suggest that organizations should consider job and employee characteristics when developing a drug treatment policy.
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