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Explaining the Gender Difference in Dream Recall Frequency

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Abstract

A recent meta-analysis showed a substantial and robust gender difference in dream recall frequency of medium effect size, that is, women tend to recall their dreams more often than men. The question arises as to what factors might explain this difference. Two previous studies indicate that interest in dreams plays an important role. The present study found a significant effect of frequency of nocturnal awakenings and interest in dreams on the gender difference in dream recall frequency. In addition, neuroticism and depressive mood were associated with the gender difference on the aspects of a dream recall scale and interest in dreams. Longitudinal studies are necessary to validate the present findings, especially regarding their causality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explaining the Gender Difference in Dream
Recall Frequency
Michael Schredl
Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany
A recent meta-analysis showed a substantial and robust gender difference in
dream recall frequency of medium effect size, that is, women tend to recall
their dreams more often than men. The question arises as to what factors
might explain this difference. Two previous studies indicate that interest in
dreams plays an important role. The present study found a significant effect
of frequency of nocturnal awakenings and interest in dreams on the gender
difference in dream recall frequency. In addition, neuroticism and depressive
mood were associated with the gender difference on the aspects of a dream
recall scale and interest in dreams. Longitudinal studies are necessary to
validate the present findings, especially regarding their causality.
Keywords: dream recall, attitudes toward dreams, gender difference, nocturnal
awakenings, neuroticism
A recent meta-analysis that included data from almost 45,000 participants
yielded a substantial and robust gender difference in dream recall frequency of
medium effect size, that is, women tend to recall their dreams more often than men
(Schredl & Reinhard, 2008). The question arises as to what factors might explain
this difference. This question is of theoretical interest because it would allow
differentiating between “genuine” dream-specific gender differences and factors for
which research had already come up with explanations, for example, higher inci-
dence of depression in women. Possible factors have to meet two criteria: First, they
should show a stable gender difference themselves and, second, they should cor-
relate substantially with dream recall frequency.
To date, only two studies (Schredl, 2000; Schredl, 2002–2003) have investigated
the direct effect of possible explanatory factors on the gender difference in dream
recall by applying statistical methods such as regression analyses and partial cor-
relations. Schredl (2000) was not able to find a significant reduction in the gender
difference in dream recall by introducing variables such as sleep quality, tiredness,
emotional balance in the evening, and frequency of nocturnal awakening (ques-
tionnaire measure) into the regression analysis. When engagement in dreams,
Michael Schredl, Sleep Laboratory, Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany.
This study was supported by Grant SCHR 637/2–1 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael Schredl, Sleep Laboratory,
Central Institute of Mental Health, PO Box 12 21 20, 68072 Mannheim, Germany. E-mail:
Michael.Schredl@zi-mannheim.de
96
Dreaming © 2010 American Psychological Association
2010, Vol. 20, No. 2, 96–106 1053-0797/10/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0019392
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
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... Dream features: the participant was asked to self-report several features of his/her dreaming activity for two time periods: a) during the last month (Lockdown) and b) during the month that preceded the beginning of the Italian lockdown (Pre-Lockdown). Specifically, we asked the participant to score dream frequency on a 7-points Likert scale (0-6) and several qualitative dream features (emotional load, vividness, bizarreness, length) on a 6-points Likert scale (1-6) (De Gennaro et al., 2003;2010;Scarpelli et al., 2017;. Moreover, for each time period, the participants were asked to report the most frequent emotion in their dream, choosing from the following list: Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Disgust, Pleasure, Guilt, Shame, Surprise. ...
... Compared to men, women showed a higher lockdown-related increase of dream frequency, emotional load and bizarreness. Consistently, findings with different instruments indicated more J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f frequent and intense dreams in women during the COVID-19 pandemic (Schredl & Bulkeley, 2020;Iorio et al., 2020;Barrett, 2020), confirming the well-known observation of an influence of gender on dreams (Nielsen et al., 2000;Schredl, 2010;Schredl & Reinhard, 2008b;Settineri et al., 2019). ...
... Taken together, these findings suggest that the intervention of several factors explains the peculiarity of the oneiric activity during the lockdown. First, as predictable, demographic features classically associated with dream recall: gender (Nielsen et al., 2000;Schredl, 2010;Schredl & Reinhard, 2008b;Settineri et al., 2019) and age (Mangiaruga et al., 2018;Scarpelli et al., 2019b). ...
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Objective The lockdown due to COVID-19 pandemic had a strong impact on daily habits, emotional experience, mental health and sleep. A large body of evidence suggests that dreams are affected by both waking experiences and sleep pattern. In this view, the lockdown should have induced intense modifications in dreaming activity. The aim of the study was to assess dream features during the lockdown in Italy. Methods We used an online survey to collect self-reported demographic, clinical, sleep and dream data. Our sample included 1091 participants. Results Results point to an increased dream frequency, emotional load, vividness, bizarreness and length during the lockdown, compared to a pre-lockdown period. Higher dream frequency and specific qualitative features were found in females and subjects with poor sleep quality, nocturnal disruptive behaviours and depressive symptoms. Most of the dream features assessed during the lockdown were predicted by age, gender, depressive symptoms, presence/absence of other people at home, and territorial area. A specific focus on sleep features revealed that sleep duration and several sleep quality indexes were the best predictors of dream variables. During the lockdown, dreams were also characterized by increased negative emotions, which were particularly frequent in females, younger adults, and participants with poor sleep quality, nocturnal disruptive behaviours, anxiety and depressive symptoms. Conclusions Our results confirm the hypothesis of a strong influence of the pandemic on dreaming, supporting both the hypothesis of continuity between wake and sleep mental processes and the view of a crucial influence of sleep quality and duration on dreaming activity.
... It is made We found that morning dream reports were predicted by attitude towards dreaming, proneness to mind wandering, and long light sleep (q < 0.05, FDR correction; adjusted R 2 = 0.17; Fig. 3, also see Table S6). Contrary to previous research [19], [20], we did not find significant effects of age and sex on dream recall (i.e., higher recall in younger individuals and females). However, we noted a significant relationship between sex and attitude towards dreaming, with the latter being higher in females (N=113, 36.6 ± 13.4 y) compared to males (N=91, 33.3 ± 11.2 y; rank-sum test, p = 0.014; |g| = 0.34, CI = [0.06, ...
... Previous work suggested that dream recall may decrease with age [19], [39] and that women may recall more dreams than men [19], [20], [40]. Neither of these findings was confirmed here. ...
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Evidence suggests that (almost) everyone dreams during their sleep and may actually do so for a large part of the night. Yet, dream recall shows large interindividual variability. Understanding the factors that influence dream recall is crucial for advancing our knowledge regarding dreams' origin, significance, and functions. Here, we tackled this issue by prospectively collecting dream reports along with demographic information and psychometric, cognitive, actigraphic, and electroencephalographic measures in 204 healthy adults (18-70 y, 113 females). We found that attitude towards dreaming, proneness to mind wandering, and sleep patterns are associated with the probability of reporting a dream upon morning awakening. The likelihood of recalling dream content was predicted by age and vulnerability to interference. Moreover, dream recall appeared to be influenced by night-by-night changes in sleep patterns and showed seasonal fluctuations. Our results provide an account for previous observations regarding inter- and intra-individual variability in morning dream recall.
... In this view, it could be argued that the strong influence of gender on pandemic dreams and nightmares may represent a by-product of the large prevalence of females in the reviewed studies. Nevertheless, the existence of sex differences in dreaming activity has been widely observed also in prepandemic studies (Schredl and Reinhard, 2008b;Schredl, 2010). In particular, Schredl and Reinhard (2008b) found in their meta-analysis a robust gender difference in dream recall only when collected outside of the sleep laboratories (i.e., without any control of the preceding sleep stage). ...
... Finally, the present literature confirms during the pandemic the classical observation of a relationship between dream recall and demographic variables like gender and age. The existence of greater dream and nightmare frequency in females has been previously found (Nielsen et al., 2000;Nielsen, 2012;Schredl, 2010;Schredl and Reinhard, 2008b). The nature of this phenomenon is not clear, but the greater predisposition for depression, anxiety, insomnia, and larger emotional reaction to negative stimuli in women may play a role (Suh et al., 2018;Ö zdin and Bayrak Ö zdin, 2020;Bradley et al., 2001;Lithari et al., 2010;Stevens and Hamann, 2012). ...
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According to several influential models, dreams can be affected by state- and trait-like factors, sleep features, and diurnal experiences. The COVID-19 pandemic globally affected daily habits, emotional experiences, and sleep. Previous studies suggested an influence of collective traumatic events on dreaming. Starting from these premises, several studies assessed the effect of the pandemic on dreams. This paper aims to review findings concerning the oneiric activity during the COVID-19 pandemic. We report pandemic-related changes in dreams and nightmares, and we consider the possible factors associated with dreaming. Moreover, we provide results about changes in the oneiric activity in different phases of the pandemic. The reviewed findings suggest a pandemic-related enhancement of dream and nightmare frequency, emotional intensity, and distressing contents, modulated by modifications in restrictive measures and associated with diurnal experiences, emotional status, and sleep pattern. We highlight several methodological issues and a large heterogeneity in the present literature, limiting results’ generalizability. However, we provide possible interpretations of the most consistent findings in light of the main theoretical frameworks about dreaming.
... Consistent with previous research on dreams (e.g., Nielsen et al., 2000;Schredl, 2002Schredl, , 2010bSchredl & Reinhard, 2008;Settineri et al., 2019), as well as with recent studies on dreaming in the time of COVID-19 (e.g., Barrett, 2020;Iorio et al., 2020;Parrello et al., 2020;McKay & DeCicco, 2020;Pesonen et al., 2020;Scarpelli et al., 2021;Schredl & Bulkeley, 2020), women reported the longest dreams. According to literature findings (e.g., Georgi, Schredl, Henley-Einion, & Blagrove, 2012;Maggiolini, Morelli, Falotico, & Montali, 2016;Riva Crugnola et al., 2008;Schredl, 2010b;Schredl & Lahl, 2010;Schredl & Reinhard, 2008;Settineri et al., 2019), they also recalled dreams more often than men. ...
... Consistent with previous research on dreams (e.g., Nielsen et al., 2000;Schredl, 2002Schredl, , 2010bSchredl & Reinhard, 2008;Settineri et al., 2019), as well as with recent studies on dreaming in the time of COVID-19 (e.g., Barrett, 2020;Iorio et al., 2020;Parrello et al., 2020;McKay & DeCicco, 2020;Pesonen et al., 2020;Scarpelli et al., 2021;Schredl & Bulkeley, 2020), women reported the longest dreams. According to literature findings (e.g., Georgi, Schredl, Henley-Einion, & Blagrove, 2012;Maggiolini, Morelli, Falotico, & Montali, 2016;Riva Crugnola et al., 2008;Schredl, 2010b;Schredl & Lahl, 2010;Schredl & Reinhard, 2008;Settineri et al., 2019), they also recalled dreams more often than men. Furthermore, women reported a significantly higher emotional intensity of their dreams, as well as higher negative emotions and a higher presence of sensory impressions in their MRDs. ...
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Based on the continuity hypothesis of dreaming, we have studied the effects of lockdown measures on Italian adolescents’ and adults’ dreams during the first wave of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. A sample of 475 subjects (73.9% women; 48.4% adolescents; ages 12-70 years, M=25.10, SD=12.2) was recruited via the Internet between April 17, 2020 and May 18, 2020. Participants were asked to provide socio-demographic data, as well as to report their Most Recent Dream. Results indicated that adults’ dreams were the longest, as well as characterized by higher emotional intensity, predominantly negative emotions, and a higher presence of sensory impressions. Furthermore, results indicated that the participants, especially adolescents, who were most directly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic reported the strongest effects on their dreams. Results also indicated that women recall dreams more often than men, in addition to reporting higher emotional intensity, predominantly negative emotions, and a higher presence of sensory impressions. Finally, results of the Thematic Analysis of Elementary Contexts showed that adults’ dreams seem to be centered, above all, on both pleasant memories linked to experiences that are now forbidden (i.e., traveling, meeting friends) as well as on nightmares, while adolescents’ dreams focused on relationships with others. Finally, both adults and adolescents reported dreams related to the experience of home confinement, which they described in terms of the negative emotions they experienced. In sum, the findings of this study indicate that the COVID-19 lockdown measures, understood as a contextual and traumatic event, significantly affect people’s oneiric lives, regardless of age.
... DRF shows a stable gender difference: women remember their dreams more often than men (Schredl, 2008(Schredl, , 2010Schredl & Reinhard, 2008b). The number of dream reports seems to show a descending trend during the life span with two peeks on the curve at young adulthood, and at around age 60 (Nielsen, 2012;Schredl, 2008). ...
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The goal of this paper is to shed new light on the relation between dream recall and dream experiences by providing a thorough analysis of the process that leads to dream reports. Three crucial steps of this process will be distinguished: dream production (the generation of a conscious experience during sleep), dream encoding (storing a trace of this experience in memory) and dream retrieval (accessing the memory trace upon awakening). The first part of the paper will assess how major theories think about the relationship between dream reports and these distinct steps. The second part will systematise how trait and state factors affecting dream recall—given different theoretical assumptions—might interact with dream production, encoding and retrieval. Understanding how the distinct steps of dream recall can be modulated by different factors is crucial for getting a better grip on how to acquire information about these steps empirically and for drawing methodological conclusions with regard to the tools dream research relies on to collect subjective data about dream experiences. The third part of the paper will analyse how laboratory reports, logs and retrospective scales interact with the different factors that affect the distinct steps leading to dream reports and will argue that prospective methods provide more direct access to data regarding dream production and encoding than retrospective methods, which—due to their inability to provide systematic control over the factors affecting the retrieval stage—screen-off the variability in the production and the encoding of dreams.
... A person's dream recall frequency (DRF) usually rises from adolescence to early adulthood before decreasing by the age of 50-60 years 1 . DRF depends not only on age 2-6 but on gender 1,7,8 , pathologies 6,9 , individual brain structure 10,11 , stress 12 , sleep quality 13 , ultradian NREM-REM sleep cycle and the circadian modulation of REM sleep 14 , cultural differences 15 , and other factors. For a long time, it was believed that dreams happen only during REM sleep. ...
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Objective. Many people have dreams nightly, and some maintain consciousness during dreams. Such dreams are referred to as lucid dreams (LD). During dreams, our speech correlates with facial muscle activity, which is hard to decode, but LD could solve this problem. The primary hypothesis of this study was that the facial muscles’ electric activity during LD corresponds to specific sounds. Understanding this connection could help decode dream speech in the future. Method. Under laboratory conditions, four LD practitioners were asked to say ‘I love you,’ a phrase with a distinctive electromyographic (EMG) signature. They did this before falling asleep and then again after becoming conscious during a dream. Their facial and neck EMG was recorded in four areas. Results. All four volunteers accomplished the goal at least once. The patterns associated with the ‘I love you’ phrase were observed in most cases, both during wakefulness and LD. Specifically, ‘I’ triggered distinctive phasic activity in the submentalis area most of the time, while ‘you’ did the same in the orbicularis oris. Discussion. This study highlights the possibility of detecting only specific and highly EMG distinctive phrases from dreams because vocalization also involves a tong and vocal apparatus. The most interesting consequence of the present results is that they indicate the possibility of creating an artificial EMG language that could be instantly decoded in reality and used during LD.
... The imbalance concerning these variables may have had an impact on the present findings. In particular the existence of sex differences in dream features [77,78], insomnia [79], and emotional reaction to negative stimuli [80][81][82] should be considered. Furthermore, concerning education, Schredl and Bulkeley [18] found pronounced negative effects of the pandemic on dreaming in individuals with higher education levels. ...
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A growing body of evidence highlights that the COVID-19 pandemic affected oneiric activity. However, only a few studies have assessed the longitudinal changes in dream phenomenology during different phases of the pandemic, often focused on a limited number of dream variables. The aim of the present study was to provide an exhaustive assessment of dream features during total lockdown (TL) and a post-lockdown (PL) period characterized by eased restrictive measures in Italy. We performed a longitudinal study using a web-based survey to collect demographic, COVID-19 related, clinical, sleep, and dream data at TL and PL. Our final sample included 108 participants. The high frequency of poor sleep quality, anxiety, and depressive symptoms observed during TL remained stable at PL, while sleep latency (t = −4.09; p < 0.001) and PTSD-related disruptive nocturnal behaviors (t = −5.68; p < 0.001) exhibited a reduction at PL. A PL decrease in time spent with digital media was observed (t = −2.77; p = 0.007). We found a strong PL reduction in dream frequency (t = −5.49; p < 0.001), emotional load (t = −2.71; p = 0.008), vividness (t = −4.90; p < 0.001), bizarreness (t = −4.05; p < 0.001), length (t = −4.67; p < 0.001), and lucid dream frequency (t = −2.40; p = 0.018). Fear was the most frequently reported emotion in dreams at TL (26.9%) and PL (22.2%). Only the frequency of specific lockdown-related dream contents exhibited a reduction at PL. These findings highlight that the end of the home confinement had a strong impact on the oneiric activity, in the direction of reduced dream frequency, intensity, and lockdown-related contents. The co-occurrence of such changes with a decline in nocturnal PTSD-related symptoms, sleep latency, and time with digital media suggests an influence of post-traumatic stress levels, lifestyle modifications, and sleep pattern on dream changes during different phases of the pandemic. The stable prevalence of fear in dreams and the large frequency of poor sleep quality, depressive symptoms, and anxiety are probably related to the persistence of many negative consequences of the pandemic. Overall, these results are consistent with the continuity hypothesis of dreams.
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