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A reaction profile for TV commercials
Abstract
"The purpose . . . was to determine what words consumers can use to give their opinions of television commercials." A long list was culled "in a systematic series of steps that determined which terms raters would use when given the chance, which terms could discriminate among commercials, and which terms grouped together to represent a more limited number of dimensions or ideas. The most stable dimensions turned out to be Humor, Vigor, Sensuousness, Uniqueness, Personal Relevance and Irritation, each defined by a small set of easy words and phrases." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Starting with Leavitt (1970), from the early 1970s until the late 1980s, there were a host of efforts to generate a set of parsimonious adjectives, dimensions or phrases that could be used to measure the perceptions of TV advertising by audience members (Wells et al., 1971;Schlinger, 1979;Aaker and Bruzzone, 1981;Mehrotra et al., 1981;Stayman et al., 1989). However, since that time have been few attempts to examine whether those scales are still applicable given today's much more complex media environment and the changes in society that have occurred. ...
... Indeed, while some studies report more than four dimensions and use somewhat differing terminology and naming, the four main dimensions found in Aaker and Bruzzone's 1981 study (Entertaining, Relevant, Irritating and Warm) are consistently to be found in some form in virtually all the other studies' results. For example, Moldovan's (1985) Clarity factor is conceptually similar to Aaker and Bruzzone's (1981) Personal Relevance factor (also found by Wells et al., 1971;Schlinger, 1979;Aaker and Stayman, 1990). ...
... As discussed earlier, the four-factor measure developed by Aaker and Bruzzone in 1981 is notable for the fact that each of its dimensions (Entertaining, Relevant, Irritating, Warm) are represented in some form in virtually all studies of TV commercial evaluation, even those that utilize more and/or different adjectives and dimensions (Wells et al., 1971;Schlinger, 1979;Moldovan, 1985;Aaker and Stayman, 1990). A comparison of the current model/dimensions with (Weinberger and Spotts 1989); Think products/high involvement: auto, house, home furnishings, appliances, camera, insurance; Feel products/high involvement: jewelry, fashion apparel, cosmetics, perfume, motorcycles, hair coloring, sunglasses, sports vehicles; Think products/low involvement: food, OTC drugs, household products, feminine hygiene products, coffee, tea; Feel products/low involvement: cigarettes, liquor, candy, fast food, desserts, beer, soft drinks theirs is instructive. ...
Purpose
The authors conceptually aim to replicate and update an early stream of research to find the key dimensions used by today’s audiences. They also show that the dimensions are directly related with attitude toward the ad, product attitude change and product recommendation and test the moderating impact of FCB Grid product type.
Design/methodology/approach
Across two studies, the authors survey a nationally representative sample of 1,223 US adults.
Findings
Consumers evaluate commercials using the dimensions: Dislikable, Meaningful, Ingenious and Warm. The latter three are positively related with ad attitude, attitude change and recommendation, whereas Dislikable is negatively related. Furthermore, results show that High and Low Involvement Think products moderate the relation between all four dimensions and all three outcomes. Only Meaningful affects the outcomes for High Involvement Feel products, whereas only Ingenious affects Low Involvement Feel product outcomes.
Research limitations/implications
The research is limited to TV commercials, limiting generalizability to other media. Furthermore, the sample is limited to the USA.
Practical implications
The paper provides a parsimonious four-dimension model for advertiser use. These dimensions also predict ad attitudes, product recommendation, and attitude change. The results further show that for emotionally driven products with high involvement, commercials should focus on meaningfulness. For emotionally driven products with little involvement, ads should emphasize creative elements.
Originality/value
Addressing the paucity of replications in marketing, this paper replicates and extends a stream of research to reveal dimensions consumers use to evaluate commercials and demonstrates their practical applications.
... The fourth driver of perceived advertising value is personal relevance. Personal relevance refers to the degree to which the contents of advertising are relevant to the current needs, activities, and interests of the viewers (Wells, Leavitt, and McConville 1971;Arora and Agarwal 2019). The perceived value of YouTube advertising is higher for consumers when they perceive it as relevant for them (Dehghani et al. 2016;Uparimart 2018). ...
... Credibility has been measured using three items from (Brackett and Carr 2001) and one from Tsang, Ho, and Liang (2004). Four items were adapted from Wells, Leavitt, and McConville (1971) to measure Personal Relevance. Attitude toward YTadv has been further accessed based on three items from Wang and Sun (2010) and two items from MacKenzie and Lutz (1989). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the role of attitude as a mediator in exploring the Halal cosmetics purchase intention of Indian Muslim women. Various drivers of electronic word of mouth (eWOM) (quality, quantity, consistency and quantity) have been tested as antecedents of purchase intention through the lenses of the elaboration likelihood model (ELM).
Design/methodology/approach
The positivist paradigm approach has been used to test the proposed mediation model using structural equation modelling. Responses of 313 Indian Muslim women who read reviews shared on various social media platforms before making any halal cosmetics purchase intention have been used for the final analysis. Mediation was tested using bootstrapping.
Findings
The findings of the study revealed that attitude towards halal cosmetics mediates the relationships of various drivers of eWOM with halal cosmetics purchase intention. However, it was observed that this mediation was partial in the context of eWOM quality, eWOM valence and eWOM consistency. Furthermore, for eWOM quantity, the mediation effect was full as the direct impact of eWOM quality on halal cosmetics purchase intention was not significant but its indirect impact on the latter via attitude was found to be significant.
Research limitations/implications
This study adds to the marketing communication literature, especially in the context of eWOM. The study also validates ELM theory in explaining the attitude that shapes the halal cosmetics purchase intention, thus the current study enriches the ELM literature.
Practical implications
The current study offers several implications for halal cosmetics marketers. It offers various suggestions to them on how to capitalize on eWOM as it influences Indian Muslim women’s purchasing intention for halal cosmetics by shaping their attitude towards such cosmetics favourably.
Originality/value
With reference to halal cosmetics, the current study offers a new perspective by examining the purchasing intention for such cosmetics based on various drivers of eWOM. The attitude towards halal cosmetics as a mediator has helped in better explaining the purchase intention for halal cosmetics.
... The fourth driver of perceived advertising value is personal relevance. Personal relevance refers to the degree to which the contents of advertising are relevant to the current needs, activities, and interests of the viewers (Wells, Leavitt, and McConville 1971;Arora and Agarwal 2019). The perceived value of YouTube advertising is higher for consumers when they perceive it as relevant for them (Dehghani et al. 2016;Uparimart 2018). ...
... Credibility has been measured using three items from (Brackett and Carr 2001) and one from Tsang, Ho, and Liang (2004). Four items were adapted from Wells, Leavitt, and McConville (1971) to measure Personal Relevance. Attitude toward YTadv has been further accessed based on three items from Wang and Sun (2010) and two items from MacKenzie and Lutz (1989). ...
Marketing communications are witnessing a historic change in current times with online digital video advertising becoming a trend. Marketers are spending a significant pie of advertising budget on such video advertising on YouTube as it is a prevalent digital video channel among Generation Y. Purchasing decisions of this generation are influenced by YouTube advertising. Thus, understanding the perceived value of YouTube advertising becomes imperative for global marketers, especially in India which consists of 440 million millennials to target them. In this backdrop, the current study supplements to the extant literature by adding new linkages in the field of advertising by investigating attitude toward advertising as a mediator, mediating the relationship of perceived advertising value with purchase intentions. The study applies moderated mediation to examine the role of customer engagement. The mediation and moderated mediation were tested using PROCESS macro v3.5 by Andrew F. Hayes after collecting responses from 374 millennials. Implications for marketers are discussed in the end.
... There has been a great deal of effort to generate a set of adjectives, scales or phrases that are uniform across both respondents and commercials to measure how viewers react to television commercials. Wells, Leavitt and McConville (1971) and Leavitt (1970) reduced an initial list of 600 words to 71 that were capable of discriminating among commercials. Factor analysis generated six factors: humorous, personal relevance, irritating, vigorous and unique. ...
... Using factor analysis based on a new set of forced exposure data, seven factors were identified: entertainment, relevant news, alienation, empathy, confusion, brand reinforcement, and familiarity. The first four factors were quite comparable to those obtained in the Wells, Leavitt and McConville (1971) and Leavitt (1970) studies. ...
A systematic analysis of Chinese viewers' perception of television advertising was conducted using a sample of sixty commercials which were viewed by 160 respondents per commercial, who selected from a list of twenty adjectives adopted from the Aaker and Bruzzone (1981) study. Results indicated great differences in viewers' perceptions: informative commercials were most frequently considered to be ‘dull’, ‘uninteresting’ and ‘informative’, while emotional commercials were described as ‘appealing’, ‘interesting’ and ‘original’. Emotional advertising scored higher on ‘liking’ and perceived brand image than informative advertising. Factor analysis was carried out across commercials and individuals.
... In fact, the study of emotions forms an important field in the area of marketing research. Wells et al. (1971) suggested six basic dimensions of emotions, including irritation, for analysing consumers' reactions to advertising. Aaker and Bruzzone (1985) explained irritating advertising as that which causes displeasure among viewers. ...
The article aims to explore factors that influence respondents’ intentions to accept and use mobile advertising by proposing an extension of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) with perceived enjoyment, perceived irritation, and personalisation. To identify the factors affecting the acceptability of mobile advertising, the intentions and behaviours of respondents regarding mobile advertising are reviewed. The study was conducted in Pakistan by using online survey. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was applied to examine the sample size of 446 respondents. The findings revealed certain crucial factors (such as effort expectancy, performance expectancy, perceived enjoyment, perceived irritation, and personalisation) that can affect respondents’ intentions to accept mobile advertising. Also revealed was the relationship between respondents’ intentions to accept and use behaviour regarding mobile advertising. It is established that respondents expect more personalised promotional messages to be shown to them in line with their needs and preferences. Here, advertisers must pay attention to the contextual relevance of the ads while noting the element of irritation that can be felt among consumers, as such ads create negative attitudes and intentions towards mobile advertising. Keywords: mobile advertising, consumer intentions, use behaviour, unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM), Pakistan.
... 17 Neurosis . 18 Schneider . ...
The present study aims to construct and validate the existential guilt scale. This scale was implemented on 372 students of Bu-Ali Sina University (N=12000) who were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling method and according to Morgan"s table. The results indicated that there is a positive and significant relationship between the existential guilt scale and the existential anxiety scale. On the other hand, the results showed that there is a negative and significant relationship between the existential guilt scale and the social justice and mental health questionnaires. In general, it can be concluded that this scale has a favorable validity and reliability.
... Therefore, it is important to understand how irritation influences customer behavior in reaction to advertising (Wells et al., 1971). During advertising, the first words in an irritated customer's mind can be annoying, tiresome, irritating, and bothersome (Aramendia-Muneta and Olarte-Pascual, 2019). ...
Mobile advertising accounted for 137 billion dollars or 55% of 2021 U.S. total digital advertising expenditures. Delivery time and tone of language in advertisements (ads) are two little explored characteristics in mobile advertising. This paper examines how morning delivery and the use of a friendly language tone in ads are related to customer purchase intention. Based on survey data from the U.S. population, morning ads with a friendly tone are less irritating and positively influence customer attitude toward mobile learning from the ads, which result in increasing consumer purchase intention. In other words, morning and friendly-toned ads have a positive indirect impact on purchase intention. This research contributes to the body of literature on mobile marketing by providing empirical evidence on the value of delivery time and language tone of mobile communication because such delivery avoids irritating users and increases purchase intention. The developed research model is supported by the appraisal theory of emotions.
... Exploring crossdiscipline studies was particularly important in the current context where there is very limited research exploring genuinuity within the marketing literature. Based on the items derived from the literature review, a thesaurus search was then conducted to generate further items which reflected genuinuity and related concepts (Wells, Leavitt, and McConville 1971). This is particularly important to ensure that all possible items relating to the construct are included (Soh et al. 2009). ...
This paper aims to conceptualise attitudes towards brand genuinuity by developing and validating a psychometric scale through four studies. Study 1 generates a pool of potential scale items through a review of the literature, thesaurus search, focus groups, and expert surveys. Study 2 confirms the unidimensionality of the scale items using confirmatory factor analysis. Study 3 establishes convergent, discriminant, predictive, and nomological validity. Finally, Study 4 confirms the generalisability of the scale by applying it in a different context. The process resulted in a 5-item unidimensional scale measuring attitudes towards the brand’s genuinuity. The results demonstrated that brand genuinuity is a unique construct, and distinct from related concepts, brand sincerity, and brand heritage. The development and validation of the current scale fill an important gap in the advertising literature. It provides a better understanding of and mechanism to measure attitudes towards brand genuinuity, which could not be measured with previous scales. Likewise, the scale provides important insights for brand managers and will be an important tool for managers to test and confirm the degree to which new advertising material exhibits brand genuinuity.
... Kristal Elma Yaratıcılık Festivali'nde çikolata, şekerleme ve çerez alt kategorisinde Kristal Elma ödülü alması, -Bu çalışma; kadın ve erkek katılımcılara yönelik yürütüldüğünden, reklam fil- minde cinsiyet farkı gözetmeyen ve bütün kesimler tarafından kolay ulaşılabilir ve satın alınabilir hızlı tüketim ürünleri kategorisinde yer alan bir marka olması, -Reklam filminde teknolojinin gelişimi ile iletişim kanallarında yaşanan değişim eğlenceli bir şekilde sunulurken, markanın aynı kalması ve geçmişten Akdeniz İletişim Dergisi627Reklam Beğenilirliğine Yönelik Bir Model Önerisi günümüze vurgusu ile farklı yaş gruplarını hedeflemesi, -Bilgisel (iddiasının olması) ve dönüşümsel mesaj stratejilerinin (marka imajı, ve psikolojik çekicilikle güdüleme, sıradan kişilerin kullanılması ile yaşamdan bir kesit sunması) etkili sahne, ışık ve renk gibi uygulama biçimleri ile desteklen- mesi gibi etkenler göz önünde bulundurulmuştur.Reklam beğenilirliği değişkeninin ölçümünde çeşitli sıfatlar kullanılmıştır. Soru for- munda yer alan reklam beğenilirliğini tanımlayıcı sıfatların kullanıldığı çalışmalar(Leavitt 1970;Wells, Leavitt ve McConville 1971;Schlinger 1979; Aaker ve Bruzzone 1985;Moldovan 1985; Aaker ve Stayman 1990;Biel ve Bridgewater 1990;Haley ve Baldinger 1991;Greene 1992; Du Plessis 1994;Dubitsky ve Walker 1994; Leather, McKechnie ve Amirkhanian 1994; DeCock ve DePelsmacker 2000) incelenmiş aynı anlama gelenler birleştirilmiş ayrıca odak grup görüşmesinden elde edilen verilerin de ilave edilmesi ile beğeniye yönelik sıfat ifadeleri zenginleştirilmiştir. Beğeni değişkeni, semantik farklılık ölçeği ile ölçülmüştür. Reklam beğenisinin ölçümüne yönelik sıfatların oluşturulmasında ayrıca araştırmacının konuya ilişkin yaptığı odak grup görüşme verileri de belirleyici olmuştur. ...
Bu çalışmada; bir televizyon reklamına yönelik beğeniyi oluşturan değişkenlerin belirlenmesi ve her bir değişkenin reklam beğenilirliği üzerine etkisini bir model aracılığı ile göstermek amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma, Tadım Markasının ‘Türkiye’nin En Büyük Sosyal Ağı’ reklamını izleyen farklı yaş gruplarına sahip 300 denekle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında geliştirilen modelde yer alan; demografik veriler, kişilik özellikleri, reklama yönelik tutum, markaya yönelik tutum ve yaratıcı strateji değişkenlerinin beğeni üzerine etkisi, hiyerarşik regresyon analizi ile test edilmiştir. Bu değişkenlerden sadece reklama yönelik tutum ile yaratıcı strateji değişkenlerinin beğeniyi açıklamada istatistiki olarak anlamlı olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Reklam beğenilirliğini belirleyen değişkenlerin bir model aracılığı ile incelendiği bu çalışmanın, alanda araştırma yapan akademisyenlere ve pazarlama uygulayıcılarına önemli bir katkı sağlamada öncü rol üstleneceği düşünülmektedir.
... Main measurement. Viewers' ad irritation was measured by a 5-item scale of perceived irritation Wells, Leavitt, and McConville 1971). Participants were asked to what extent they agreed that the ad that they watched was: (1) irritating, (2) phony, (3) ridiculous, (4), stupid, and (5) terrible on a 7-point scale anchored by "Strongly disagree" (= 1) and "Strongly agree" (= 7) (M = 3.09, SD = 1.62, ...
Does a timer—displayed during an in-stream commercial to show viewers how long they need to wait—help relieve the ad irritation that viewers experience when they have to wait for a video to play? Likewise, does the skip-ad button that allows viewers to skip an ad after several seconds help lessen their irritation with the commercial? This research theoretically and empirically examined whether reducing temporal uncertainty (i.e., using a timer to let viewers know the ad length) in skippable advertising actually helped relieve viewers' ad irritation and reduce their likelihood of ad-skipping. Across two experimental studies, temporal certainty (e.g., the presence of the timer) during short commercials generally decreased ad irritation. In contrast, when a skip-ad button is displayed, temporal certainty during both short and long commercials increased ad irritation, which subsequently decreased advertising effectiveness. Also, the higher the ad irritation, the higher the ad-skipping rate. Theoretical and managerial implications of these results are discussed, and alternative solutions for reducing ad irritation are provided.
... For receptivity toward the celebrity's message, four items were adapted (Wells, Leavitt, & McConville, 1971). A sample item for receptivity toward message was "if my favorite celebrity endorsed a product in an ad, the message would seem relevant to me." ...
Consumers enjoy following famous media personalities, discovering details about their habits, food preferences, or designer brands that they wear. Consumers model their consumption behaviors based on their favorite celebrities’ preferences. Marketers are aware of such celebrity admiration and frequently use celebrities as part of marketing communication strategies. Grounded in parasocial relationship and social connectedness theories, this study tests a model of connectedness to the celebrity, attitude toward the celebrity, receptivity toward the celebrity‐endorsed message, and purchase intentions of the celebrity‐endorsed market offering. These relationships were investigated using structural equation modeling. The findings indicate an individual's level of connectedness to their favorite celebrity is positively linked with both their receptivity toward the celebrity‐endorsed message and purchase intentions of the celebrity‐endorsed market offering. On the theoretical side, the integration of parasocial relationship and social connectedness theories explain the processes through which celebrity endorsements impact consumers’ attitudes and behaviors. On the practical side, the findings suggest marketers should carefully choose the best celebrity endorsers for advertisements after considering how constituents from within their key target markets are likely to connect with the chosen celebrity. However, beyond consumers’ connectedness to the celebrity, the findings also suggest that receptivity toward the celebrity‐endorsed message is an essential link to purchase intentions of the endorsed offering.
... Advertisement however may also create negative feelings and attitudes to consumers such as irritation caused by insulting messages, scenes, graphics or content. According to Wells et al. (1971), irritation is one amongst six dimensions of personal reactions towards advertising. Saxena and Khanna (2013) state that irritation from advertisements arises when we feel discomfort in watching advertisement due to personal or social reasons. ...
Social media and social networking sites (SNSs) are now considered to be an integral part of the marketing mix of firms and organisations across the world. Advertisement in SNSs takes a growing part of the advertising budget, replacing traditional media, due to its characteristics in terms of ROI and interactivity. However, the attitudes of consumers towards advertisement affect the efficiency of advertisements in SNSs as well. In this paper, we are examining the attitudes of 512 college students in the region of Western Macedonia towards advertisement in the SNSs. In accordance with relevant literature, five main categories of attitudes towards SNSs advertisement are identified, namely information, entertainment, credibility, irritation, value corruption through confirmatory factor analysis, and the effect they have on the attitudes towards advertisement and advertisement value is assessed with the use of a structural equation model. Our results validate the positive effect that entertainment, information and credibility have in advertisement value.
... This was done through an extensive Brand satisfaction positively influences luxury brand attachment and brand loyalty. Luxury brand attachment positively influences brand loyalty literature reviews (Churchill 1979), thesaurus searches (Wells et al. 1971), and expert surveys (Chen and Wells 1999;Churchill 1979). First, the extant psychology literature on 'human attachment' was studied to understand the basic conceptualisation of attachment. ...
This paper aims to conceptualise consumer's luxury brand attachment by developing and validating a psychometric scale through five studies. Study 1 generates and selects potential scale items through literature review, thesaurus search, and expert surveys. Study 2 reduces the items and assesses the dimensionality of the scale. Study 3 validates the dimensionality of the scale. Next, study 4 assesses the four types of validities (convergent, discriminate, predictive, and nomological) for the scale. Finally, study 5 examines two behavioural indicators of luxury brand attachment. The results show a parsimonious seven-item luxury brand attachment scale. The studies confirm that there are major differences among luxury brand attachment , emotional attachments to brands, and the brand attitude scales. Besides, this research demonstrates that the luxury brand attachment is a unique construct that captures the essence of consumers' emotional connection with luxury brands. The development and validation of luxury brand attachment scale fulfill an important gap in the luxury branding literature. The scale will provide meaningful insights for the luxury practitioners. The luxury brand attachment scale provides an improved measure and better understanding of consumer's attachment to the luxury brands which was not accurately measured by using general attachment scales in past studies.
... Several groups have studied the effect of advertising in terms of • irritation (Aaker and Bruzzone, 1985;Fennis and Bakker, 2001;Gallagher, Foster, and Parsons, 2001;Wells, Leavitt, and McConville, 1971), ...
Marketers can choose among various media to convey advertising, ranging from printed advertising on paper to websites through the Internet and mobile through smartphones and tablets. Which medium is the most effective in terms of information memory or reading behavior is not clear, however. In this study, advertisements from an Italian newspaper were presented in three media formats: website (through the Internet with a desktop PC), paper, and a PDF version displayed on a tablet device. Responses to the same news and advertising were measured with eye tracker, electroencephalography brain scanner, and memory test.
... Respondents were also asked to rate, using a 7-point Likert scale, how Disturbing, Forced, Intrusive, Irritating, Stupid, or Terrible the information was. The questions were based on two existing scales: Perceived Intrusiveness of the Ad (Li, Edwards, & Lee, 2002) and a survey of how irritating an advertisement is perceived (Wells, Leavitt, & McConville, 1971). For the Intrusiveness scale, 3 out of 7 original items were chosen (Disturbing, Forced, and Intrusive), as they correlated least with the entire original scale and were therefore considered to give an amplitude for the measured intrusiveness. ...
Introduction:
Responsible gambling (RG) tools, aiming at helping gamblers to avoid gambling-related harms, are common in online gambling platforms. Gambling industry, policy makers, and researchers have warned that RG tools can potentially disturb recreational gamblers, channeling them to less protective operators. No evidence exists to support these concerns, and they can hinder the development of effective RG tools. The current study aimed to investigate the recreational gamblers' experiences of RG tools.
Methods:
A total of 10,200 active customers of an online gambling service were invited to complete an online survey and rate their overall reactions, attitudes, disturbance and irritation towards RG tools, as well as their inclination to abandon a gambling service due to overexposure to RG tools. N = 1223 surveys were completed.
Results:
Non-problem gamblers had positive experiences of RG tools. Moderate-risk gamblers had more positive overall reaction and less irritation to previous experiences of RG tools compared to non-problem gamblers. Problem gamblers had least positive attitudes, most disturbance and most irritation towards RG pictures. Non-problem gamblers had lowest rates of having abandoned a service because of perceived overexposure to RG tools (5.2% compared to 25.9% of problem gamblers), with a significant between-group difference (OR [95% CI] = 7.17 [3.61-14.23], p < .001).
Conclusions:
Non-problem gamblers were not particularly disturbed by RG tools and were not at risk of abandoning online gambling services because of overexposure to RG tools. The study found no grounds for limiting the design and implementation of RG tools due to fears of disturbing recreational gamblers.
... The 7-point, Likert-type items in these ratings were JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, FEBRUARY 1987 based primarily on the information response model (Smith and Swinyard 1982), which suggests that a viewer can have a cognitive response (e.g., captures attention, easy to understand), an affective response (e.g., believable, not irritating, entertaining, presents the product in an interesting way, amuses me, makes me feel emotional, soothing, meaningful to me, convincing), or a conative response (e.g., intend to buy). The items used in the questionnaire also took into account the results of research on television commercials (Aaker and Bruzzone 1981;Schlinger 1979;Wells, Leavitt, and Mcconville 1971). ...
Hedonic price theory is adapted to advertising. A quality-adjusted advertising spending function is embedded in a sales response model and the parameters of both equations are estimated in one step. The procedure provides an alternative to the judgmental aggregation of attributes of advertising quality into a single value. The results permit comparison of the sales effects of variations in advertising spending with the effects of variations in copy quality, and permit computation of an advertising figure that accounts for both copy quality and actual spending. A pilot study illustrates the procedure.
... Several ories-response competition, optimal arousal, and t Similarly, message length has been shown to affect receivers' processing of a persuasive message (Calder, Insko, and Yandell 1974). In an advertising context Wells, Leavitt, and McConville (1971) and Wheatley (1968) found that the longer commercial resulted in different viewer responses. In the Wells et al. study the longer commercial, though similar in format and theme to the shorter version, presented more product usage vignettes which increased the opportunity for the respondents to elaborate on the message. ...
The authors review the two-factor elaboration model of message repetition effects and report a study of the model's applicability to new product advertising. The study findings do not support the hypothesized inverted-U relationship between repetition and attitude toward a novel commercial and product. However, the underlying processes of learning, tedium arousal, and elaboration were observed. Viewer knowledge and commercial length did not moderate these processes.
... This belief in the mediating role of Ad has guided at least one ongoing stream of research into the affective properties of commercials known as the "reaction profile" or "viewer response profile" (e.g., Burke and Edell 1984;Schlinger 1979;Wells, Leavitt, and McConville 1971). For example, the viewer response profile (VRP), which purportedly "gauges affective reactions to advertisements" (Schlinger 1979, p. 37), assesses reactions to commercials on a multidimensional set of 30 descriptive rating scales.1 Though research on the VRP has yielded a reasonably stable set of factor analytically derived dimensions, little work in this stream has addressed systematically the relationship of the VRP to other measures of advertising effectiveness. ...
Attitude toward the ad (Aad) has been postulated to be a causal mediating variable in the process through which advertising influences brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Previous conceptual and empirical research on this topic has suggested four alternative models of the relationships between brand-related cognitive, affective, and conative responses and ad-related cognitive and affective responses. The authors describe a structural equations analysis of these four models, utilizing two data sets generated within a commercial pretest setting. The results suggest that a dual mediation hypothesis, which postulates that Aad influences brand attitude both directly and indirectly through its effect on brand cognitions, is superior to the other three models under the particular set of conditions in the pretest setting.
... Our study indicates that A ad is a fairly robust mediator of brand attitude. This finding suggests that conclusions based on studies involving nonbrand sets (e.g., Lutz, MacKenzie, and Belch 1983;MacKenzie and Lutz 1983;Mitchell and Olson 1981;Moore and Hutchinson 1983) may be generalizable to brand set conditions and that the induction of brand sets need not be a top priority in future studies investigating A ad • In terms of advertising, the findings reported for the use of A ad under a brand set lend support to the common practice of assessing consumer reactions to advertisements (Schlinger 1979;Wells, Leavitt, and McConville 1971). They suggest that insights gleaned from such reactions may hold across set conditions and that well-liked advertisements may lead to the formation of more favorable brand attitudes than unliked ads, even if exposure under brand sets is anticipated. ...
The results of an experiment examining the use of attitude toward the ad and brand-related beliefs in brand attitude formation under two different processing “sets”—brand evaluation and nonbrand evaluation—are reported. Findings suggest that attitude toward the advertisement affects attitude toward the advertised brand as much under a brand evaluation set as under a nonbrand evaluation set.
... In fact, designing an empirical test of these causal explanations will be difficult. Researchers might begin by reviewing past research on how consumers' reactions to the advertisement per se are related to other responses (e.g., March and Swinbourne 1974;Schlinger 1979;Silk and Vavra 1974;Wells, Leavitt, and Mcconville 1971). As our results and those of Holbrook (1978) indicate, such evaluations of the advertisement seem to have an independent impact on brand-related responses. ...
Fishbein's attitude theory posits that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change. The validity of this proposition for consumers’ beliefs about product attributes and brand attitudes was exmained in the context of an advertising effects study. To manipulate product attribute beliefs and to create settings in which other mediation processes might occur, the authors exposed subjects to simple advertisements that contained either a verbal claim or visual information. Level of repetition also was varied. As expected, product attribute beliefs mediated attitude formation. However, another variable, termed attitude toward the advertisement, also mediated brand attitudes and purchase intentions. The authors discuss alternative explanations for the results and offer suggestions for future research.
... It represents the creative work of advertising agencies and enables consumers to perceive the creativity of advertisement (Stathopoulou et al., 2017). Consumers recognize this unordinary quality of an advertisement, and therefore, feel differently about it (Lee and Hong, 2016;Wells et al., 1971). ...
In the era of Web 2.0, social media advertising can simultaneously stimulate consumers' brand purchase intention and brand information sharing intention. Product sales and brand information diffusion are equally important for a company that conducts advertising. This study investigates how features of brand content influence social media advertising effectiveness by integrating the stimulus-organism-response model and classic advertising effectiveness models. An analysis of 267 survey questionnaires shows that brand content-related cues, including perceived uniqueness, perceived vividness, and perceived interactivity have significant effects on consumers' affective and cognitive involvement, which then affect their attitude toward brand content. As a result, the consumers' attitude toward the brand and their brand purchase intention, as well as their brand content sharing intention, are positively affected by attitude toward brand content. This study contributes to a better understanding of how social advertising works, which suggests that managers should effectively use social media to conduct advertising.
... This was done through an extensive Brand satisfaction positively influences luxury brand attachment and brand loyalty. Luxury brand attachment positively influences brand loyalty literature reviews (Churchill 1979), thesaurus searches (Wells et al. 1971), and expert surveys (Chen and Wells 1999;Churchill 1979). First, the extant psychology literature on 'human attachment' was studied to understand the basic conceptualisation of attachment. ...
... Perceived Irritation was measured by scales adapted from Wells, Leavitt, and McConville (1971) using a 7-point scale for each item: ridiculous, irritating, and stupid. The index (M = 2.21, SD = 1.14) produced an acceptable reliability (α = .89). ...
This study examines the psychological processes that determine how fear appeal and sponsor type impact young adults’ responses to public campaigns against Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) in Singapore. The results showed that fear appeal in the STD messages increased the level of anger arousal, while the STD messages sponsored by a commercial company versus a government agency increased the level of negative cognitions among participants. The interaction between fear appeal and sponsor type was found in both affective and cognitive responses of psychological reactance against the STD messages.
... The persuasive effects of message length in an advertising context have shown mixed results. For example, Wells, Leavitt, and McConville (1971) showed that longer commercials presented more product usage illustrations, which increased viewers' opportunity to elaborate on the message. More elaboration leads to more counter-arguing, which ultimately resulted in more negative attitudes toward the advertisement. ...
The role of electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) has been recognized by marketers and academics, but little research has examined the impact of eWOM on purchase behavior. Building on dual-process models of persuasion, this study aims to disentangle the effect of different online review features (i.e. argument quality, review valence, review helpfulness, message sidedness, source credibility and reviewer recommendation). Using product reviews and purchase data from an online retailer website, we investigate the financial impact of online product reviews on purchase decisions. The results demonstrate the persuasive power of different review features that are derived from dual-process models of information processing. Managerial implications on how advertisers and companies should design and manage online product reviews are offered.
... This was done through an extensive Brand satisfaction positively influences luxury brand attachment and brand loyalty. Luxury brand attachment positively influences brand loyalty literature reviews (Churchill 1979), thesaurus searches (Wells et al. 1971), and expert surveys (Chen and Wells 1999;Churchill 1979). First, the extant psychology literature on 'human attachment' was studied to understand the basic conceptualisation of attachment. ...
In recent years, researchers have conceptualised luxury brand by using brand perception (e.g. Hennigs et al. 2016; Truong et al. 2009), exclusivity (Phau and Prendergast 2000), purchase intention (Schade 2016), brand equity (Kim and Kim 2005), self-congruity (Liu et al. 2012), retailing strategy (Moore et al. 2010) and such other consumer–brand relationship constructs (e.g. Sung et al. 2015; Vigneron and Johnson 2004). However, limited empirical studies have explained the antecedents and outcomes of the emotional bond between consumers and luxury brands (Choo et al. 2012). Considering the significance of status and uniqueness that luxury consumers seek and the emotional bond they develop with the luxury brands, it would be imperative for luxury marketers and researchers to study the antecedents and outcomes of brand attachment from luxury market perspective.
... Personal relevance of clinical research was assessed using two items (36). Participants were asked how much attention they paid to clinical research and how relevant it was to them (eg, "Information about cancer clinical studies is personally relevant"). ...
Background: Improving informed consent to participate in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) is a key challenge in cancer communication. The current study examines strategies for enhancing randomization comprehension among patients with diverse levels of health literacy and identifies cognitive and affective predictors of intentions to participate in cancer RCTs.
Methods: Using a post-test-only experimental design, cancer patients (n = 500) were randomly assigned to receive one of three message conditions for explaining randomization (ie, plain language condition, gambling metaphor, benign metaphor) or a control message. All statistical tests were two-sided.
Results: Health literacy was a statistically significant moderator of randomization comprehension (P = .03). Among participants with the lowest levels of health literacy, the benign metaphor resulted in greater comprehension of randomization as compared with plain language (P = .04) and control (P = .004) messages. Among participants with the highest levels of health literacy, the gambling metaphor resulted in greater randomization comprehension as compared with the benign metaphor (P = .04). A serial mediation model showed a statistically significant negative indirect effect of comprehension on behavioral intention through personal relevance of RCTs and anxiety associated with participation in RCTs (P < .001).
Conclusions: The effectiveness of metaphors for explaining randomization depends on health literacy, with a benign metaphor being particularly effective for patients at the lower end of the health literacy spectrum. The theoretical model demonstrates the cognitive and affective predictors of behavioral intention to participate in cancer RCTs and offers guidance on how future research should employ communication strategies to improve the informed consent processes.
The current study has effectively studied the factors that impact purchase intention using food delivery apps. The factors included informativeness, entertainment, credibility, irritation, personalization, incentives and advertising value. The study used quantitative approach for collecting data and used correlational design for identifying the relationships. A sample size of 203 respondents was collected from the target population using survey method. The study adopted the convenience sampling as the sampling technique. The data was analyzed using PLS-SEM analysis technique using SmartPLS software version 3.2.8. The study concluded that advertising value had a positive and significant effect on the purchase intention. Credibility had a positive and significant effect on the advertising value. Similarly, entertainment had a positive and significant effect on the advertising value. Incentives had a positive and significant effect on the advertising value. Moreover, informativeness had a significant effect on the advertising value. Also personalization had a positive and significant effect on the advertising value. However, the irritation had a negative and significant effect on the advertising value. Advertising agencies should allow users to exchange advertisement content and comments with friends through their pre-existing social networks, thus executing an efficient viral promotional strategy to increase the perceived advertising value and, in turn, increase the advertised product/brand's purchase intention.
Adaptasyon reklam, uluslararası bir reklamın ya da reklam stratejinin ülkelere göre uyarlanması sonucunda ortaya çıkan reklamdır. Reklam; kültür, ekonomik durum, yasal koşullar ve medyadaki farklılıklar göz önünde bulundurularak adapte edilmektedir.
Reklam literatüründe yapılan çalışmalar çoğunlukla reklamın adaptasyonu ile standardizasyonun karşılaştırıldığı ve son yıllarda da glokalizasyon stratejilerinin ele alındığı çalışmalar olmuştur. Bunun yanında, literatürde, adaptasyon reklam sınıflandırmalarına ya da türlerine dair herhangi bir çalışma yapılmamış, herhangi bir adaptasyon reklam tipolojisi oluşturulmamış; dolayısıyla adaptasyon reklam türlerinin tüketicilerde farklı etkilere sahip olabileceğine dair herhangi bir çalışma gerçekleştirilmemiştir.
Bu çalışma ile adaptasyon reklamın farklı türlere sahip olduğunu ortaya çıkarmak, bir adaptasyon reklam tipolojisi oluşturmak ve oluşturulan adaptasyon reklam türlerinin tüketicinin tutumu üzerindeki etkilerini ortaya koymak amaçlanmaktadır.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the influence of advertising
appeal on future intention and consumer’s attitude toward advertisement in
sport service. Research method was the 3×2 between subjects quasi�experiment factorial design. The statistical population consisted of physical
education and Non-physical education students at Tehran of university
which statistical sample 440 subjects were selected. The results indicated
that a main effect of the advertising appeal on future intention in subjects
who have observed an affective appeal is more than subjects who have
observed a cognitive appeal. Moreover, the results indicated that a main
effect of the advertising appeal on attitude toward advertisement in subjects
who have observed an affective appeal is no difference than subjects
who have observed a cognitive appeal.
هدف از این پژوهش،بررسیتأثیر جاذبۀتبلیغیبرقصد آیندهونگرش به تبلیغمصرفکننده
در خدمات ورزشیبود. روشپژوهش،نیمهتجربیواز نوع طرح فاکتوریل بین آزمودنی1×0
بود. جامعۀآماری،دانشجویان تربیتبدنی و غیرتربیتبدنی دانشگاه تهران بودند که نمونۀ
آماریتعداد113نفر انتخاب شد.نتایج نشانداد کهاثراصلینوع جاذبۀتبلیغیبر قصد
آینده،در آزمودنیهایی که تبلیغ عاطفی مشاهده کردهاند از افرادی که تبلیغ شناختی
مشاهده کردهاند،بیشتر است.علاوهبراین،اثراصلینوع جاذبۀتبلیغیبر نگرش به تبلیغ در
آزمودنیهایی که تبلیغ عاطفی مشاهده کردهاند،نسبت به آزمودنیهایی که تبلیغ شناختی
مشاهده کردهاند تفاوتی ندارد.
The research has been conducted to find out the factors affecting the advertising creativity in the context of Bangladesh. The research is a Conclusive Causal Research, where we tried to find factors influencing advertising creativity in the Bangladeshi market. The study was conducted through an online questionnaire survey as well as face to face interview with the hardcopy of the questionnaire, both of which involved 210 participants. An in-depth analysis was run through SPSS V25.0 to analyze the acquired data. It was found that Motivation and Divergence greatly influences Innovation in Advertisement, however, the Bangladeshi market does not intend to follow the global Trend. In addition to this, we proposed what the customer base of the market demands when it comes to brand promotions, and how they perceive the recent changes as well as what makes the promotional campaigns innovative. It was found that the younger customers tend to be more inclined towards the uniqueness, novelty, and originality of today’s advertisements, while they do not indulge in being included in the campaigns. Moreover, with the industry being more competitive and diverse, the work environment is expected to be more challenging as well as rewarding that will bring out the creativity out of the marketers.
Prior literature in advertising tends to view warmth as an emotion arises from relationships between two or more characters in a commercial (e.g. lovers or family members), while little attention has been paid to endorsers as a potential source of warmth. In this article, we propose that the warmth of endorsers can serve as a way to elicit feelings of warmth in consumers and affect the effectiveness of the advertisement. Across three studies, we reveal a warmth effect in brand endorsement such that consumers perceive a greater psychological connection between the brand and the self when the brand is endorsed by a male endorser with high warmth, which, in turn, leads to a more favourable brand attitude. This warmth effect occurs only for male endorsers, but not for female endorsers. We further identify two boundary conditions and show that the effect is more prominent when consumers are of interdependent self-construal (vs. independent self-construal) and when the endorsed brand is a functional brand (vs. a prestigious brand). The findings contribute to the literature of brand endorsement, warmth and gender stereotype in advertising, and provide managerial insights for selecting brand endorsers.
This is a research paper conducted solely for the academic purpose. The research is about what influences creativity in the advertisement sector in Bangladesh. The survey was done to 210 respondents to verify the thesis.
Many advertisers have argued that 15-second television commercials (:15s) should be used only to reinforce effects created by longer commercials. However, this recommendation is based on studies that have several weaknesses, including use of single exposure levels, established commercials, and learning as the primary dependent variable. The authors report the findings of a laboratory experiment in which they compared the effectiveness of :15s and :30s by using novel commercials with different message appeals (informational vs. emotional), exposing subjects multiple times, and employing multiple dependent variables. They find that informational :15s are as effective as informational :30s in several situations and can be used as stand-alone units. They also show that emotional :30s are superior to emotional :15s in influencing a viewer's learning of brand name and attitude. The reasons for and the implications of these findings are considered.
In the past, advertising researchers have built up, in an exploratory fashion, multi-item profiles for measuring consumer response to advertising. Two of the most commonly used profiles, Wells’ reaction profile and Leavitt's commercial profile, were developed this way. However, very little is known about the reliability, validity, or predictive powers of the underlying structures postulated by these two profiles. The authors examine the hypothesized factor structure of the profiles, as well as their predictive validity with respect to attitude and purchase intention. The reaction profile is found to be consistent with its postulated structure whereas the commercial profile is not. The two profiles predict attitude toward the brand equally well, but the reaction profile is superior with respect to purchase intention.
The effect of varying fear levels was tested in a field experiment on a random resident sample and on separate demographic and psychographic subsegments. Certain attitudinal and behavioral effects were observed for the entire sample whereas others were segment specific.
Sixteen copy characteristics or advertising approaches that appear to either increase or decrease irritation emerge from a study of 524 television commercials. The results also show how irritation levels vary by product class and by socioeconomic level.
Varoldukları yapıların sosyal, politik, ekonomik, dini vb. yansımalarını farklı anlatımlarla sunan mizah ürünleri, ülkemiz itibarıyla deerlendirildiinde örneklerinin reklâm sektöründe younlatıı görülür. Evrensel balamda mizah, mesajların hedef kitlelere daha etkili bir ekilde gönderilerek hedef kitlenin tutum ve davranılarında deiiklik yaratmak için kullanılan en önemli uygulama alanlarından birini ifade eder. Mizahın rolü ve önemi, Türk reklâm tarihi itibarıyla dikkate alındıında ise yeterli veri ve deerlendirmenin mevcut olmadıı görülür. Oysa bilindii üzere geçmiini bilmeyen ne bugünü etkili yönetebilir ne de gelecee güvenli adımlar atabilir. te bu çalımanın amacı, tam bu noktada belirginlemekte ve 1928-1950 dönemindeki Türk reklâm sektöründe mizah kullanımlarının tarihsel analizi ile geçmie ıık tutulması hedeflenmektedir. Analiz neticesinde ise varoldukları toplumların birer yansıtma aracı olarak reklâm ve mizahın bütünsel etkililikleri balamında deerlendirilerek dün ile bugünün karılatırılmasına olanak tanıyacak veriler derlenmesi amaçlanmaktadır.
In our country, when we evaluated products of humour which offers social, political, economic, relgious, etc. Structures with different expressions that seen humour samples are concentrated in advertising industry. Universal sense of humour, the message is sent in the target audience more effectively in the target group's attitudes and behavior used to alter one of the most important areas of application refers. When the role and importance of humour's assessed as at Turkish advertising sector that seen there's not enough data and available valuing. However as all of us are known, if we don't know our past, we can't manage our future effectively. Anahtar Kelimeler: Mizah, Reklâm, Türkiye'de Mizahi Reklâmlar. Abstract In our country, when we evaluated products of humour which offers social, political, economic, relgious, etc. Structures with different expressions that seen humour samples are concentrated in advertising industry. Universal sense of humour, the message is sent in the target audience more effectively in the target group's attitudes and behavior used to alter one of the most important areas of application refers. When the role and importance of humour's assessed as at Turkish advertising sector that seen there's not enough data and available valuing. However as all of us are known, if we don't know our past, we can't manage our future effectively.
Aim of this study, outstanding at this point and at the 1928-1950 period, the advertising sector in Turkey with historical analysis is aimed to shed light to the past. At the end of analysis's intended that evaluating holistic effectiveness of advertising and humor which one each reflects their society and thus compile datas which will allow us to compare today and yesterday.
This study develops a conceptual framework of advertising intrusiveness that extends previous research on the topic by examining both drivers and consequences. To achieve this, the work draws on in-depth interviews with 29 adult consumers who report experiencing intrusive advertising in their daily lives. Three drivers of advertising intrusiveness are identified – temporal disruption, visual disruption and flow disruption – along with three consequences – emotional response, behavioural response and cognitive response. From these drivers and consequences, a conceptual framework of advertising intrusiveness is developed based on ideas about psychological reactance. Based on this framework it is proposed that, while all advertisements might ultimately be perceived as intrusive, an advertisement’s characteristics, which are the identified subcomponents of the drivers of intrusiveness, exacerbate the resultant consequences.
What can make multiple forced online advertising exposures be perceived as more acceptable than they presently are to most viewers? This study investigates whether advertising customization and advertising variation influence Internet users' perceptions of multiple ad exposures and affect their attitudes toward the ads and the website in the context of in-stream video ad exposure. Using a 2 (ad customization: ad customization option versus no option) × 2 (ad variation: ad variation versus no ad variation) factorial experiment, the researcher noted that advertising content control through a customization feature was an influential factor that led to positive attitudes toward multiple exposures to the ads. In addition, the results showed the possibility that offering ad variation tended to induce users' positive attitudes with regard to multiple ad exposures. Furthermore, users' perceived intrusiveness of the advertisements and feelings of irritation seemed to play an underlying mechanism in this relationship with regard to the impact of ad variation and ad customization on advertising effectiveness. This study finding has theoretical and practical implications on advertising repetition in the forced online advertising interface.
The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that affect advertising effectiveness and to investigate the effects of these factors on advertising success. Using a sample of 252 customers the study identified seven factors that affect brand advertising success and effectiveness, namely, advertising message and creativity, advertising media selection, market research, competitiveness, market share, uniqueness, and customer relationship. Path analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM) were used in order to test the proposed conceptual model of the study. The results revealed that advertising media selection has the strongest relationship with brand advertising success and effectiveness and can be considered as the most important factor affecting advertising effectiveness. The second and the third most important factors affecting advertising success were found to be advertising message/creativity and customer relationship. The results also indicated that although competitiveness impacts brand advertising success and effectiveness it is the least important factor among the seven factors identified in this study. Establishing appropriate relationships with customers and other stakeholders in order to understand their needs and demands is an important step toward improving the chances of brand advertising success and effectiveness. These relationships will also help the organizations to design their promotional campaigns according to the characteristics of their target customers which will contribute to the cumulative effectiveness of their brand advertisements.
Concepts from country-of-origin, the authenticity concept, and ingredient branding make up the essential literature for this scale development. This study intends to develop a scale specifically to measure consumers' motivation to seek for ingredient authenticity. While studies on authenticity have heavily looked into brands, this study aims to uncover consumers' motivations of ingredient authenticity of the raw materials and artisan skills of the products. Four studies were undertaken to develop and validate this scale. The research adopted the Churchill's (1979) method of scale development. The methods for scale development and its implications are also highlighted.
Die grundlegenden, in allen experimentellen Studien erfaßten Werbewirkungsindikatoren, sind der affektive Markeneindruck, die Werbemitteleinstellung und -wahrnehmung, die Markeneinstellung und Markenwahrnehmung sowie die Kaufintention, deren Operationalisierungen nachfolgend dargestellt werden. Daneben wurden zur Kontrolle anderer Einflußfaktoren u. a. die Produktvertrautheit, die Produktverwendung, das Produktinteresse, die Musikpräferenzen und die Musikwichtigkeit erhoben. Da diese Variablen keinen Einfluß auf die später beschriebenen Ergebnisse erkennen ließen, wird hier auf die Darstellung ihrer Operationalisierungen verzichtet. Untersuchungsspezifische Messungen von Werbewirkungsindikatoren werden in den Beschreibungen der entsprechenden Studien dargestellt.
One of the most controversial issues in international advertising is the applicability of international advertising standardization. The issue has created a lively debate over the past fifteen years because of the lack of sound empirical evidence. The purpose of this study was to examine the applicability of this advertising approach by investigating the homogeneity assumption made by those encouraging the use of standardization. American and foreign consumers were shown identical ads, and comparison of their responses to these ads were made. The findings indicated that the responses to these ads varied from group to group. Therefore, a standardized ad may be an effective way of providing necessary information internationally, and the conclusion of the present acceptance of standardization seems to be unsupported and premature.
Some advertising studies have used various conceptualizations of relevance, but no study has yet comprehensively investigated and applied a theoretical aspect of relevance to visuals in advertising. This research addresses a need for the ability to measure relevance when it occurs through pairing of visuals and products in advertising.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.