Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment
Abstract
Argues that evolutionary heritage underlies humans' consistent preference for stimuli from the natural environment and that research on affective and aesthetic responses is needed to understand human interaction with the environment. It is noted that the rapidly expanding empirical record concerning aesthetic and affective responses to natural environments is in need of a well-developed theoretical foundation. An integrated conceptual framework to address this theoretical lack, drawing on recent theory and research on emotion, is proposed. This framework explains how affects arise in the natural environment; postulates their functions; and links them to cognition, activity in physiological systems, and behavior. The present author, in developing the framework, questions the view that feelings result from cognitive processes, asserting that feelings (not thoughts) are the initial response in environmental encounters. The observer's initial feeling reaction shapes subsequent cognitive events. The relative sequence of feeling and thinking in environmental encounters represents a fundamental issue in understanding human interaction with the environment. (98 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Informed by green space research, two restorative pathways have been proposed to be involved in underpinning the relationship between exposure to the sea and well-being. Within their Stress Recovery Theory (SRT), Ulrich et al. (1983Ulrich et al. ( , 1991 viewed the sea as a calming backdrop that reduces psychological distress by offering less sensory stimuli than a built-up urban environment. In their Attention Restoration Theory (ART), Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) posited that cognitive overload resulting from periods of sustained 'directed attention' could be mitigated by engaging with the natural environment. ...
... Participants described how the vast, empty sea provided visual respite from their busy, urban lives and allowed them to block out all other distractions. In this way, looking at the sea facilitated restoration from stress and anxiety, as proposed in the Stress Reduction Theory (SRT; Ulrich, 1983;Ulrich et al., 1991). Findings from the present study also supported Kaplan and Kaplan's (1989) ART, as participants recalled how the sights, sounds, smells and rhythmic movement of the water provided just enough stimulation to captivate and hold their attention in the present moment. ...
i>Against the backdrop of increasing urbanization and subsequent disconnection from nature, there has been growing interest in the role that spending time in natural environments can play in promoting well-being. However, most research to date has focused on the health potential of green spaces and neglected the relationship between blue spaces (bodies of inland and coastal water) and well-being outcomes. Studies have shown that spending more time by the sea, or living in close proximity to the coast, is linked with better mental and general health, but have typically neglected to consider how individuals may uniquely experience different types of urban nature. Hence, this study aimed to explore, in-depth, the lived experience of looking out to sea and how it may play a role in well-being. Four self-selected females, living and working in a coastal city, were interviewed using semi-structured techniques. Interviews were recorded and transcribed; and data was analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Results revealed each had a strong and enduring bond with the sea as ‘part of self’, and as transcending the self. Looking out to sea was a multisensory, embodied experience that captivated them in the present, and was perceived to play an important role in the restoration and enhancement of their hedonic and eudemonic well-being. As researchers and policy makers begin to understand potential links between loss of contact with nature and deteriorating public health, better understanding the relationship between the sea and well-being could have significant global value.</i
... Current theory does not adequately acknowledge the significant role of sleep on children's mental health, nor has there been extensive research examining the impact of green space on children's sleep. Here, we expand upon Attention Restoration Theory [51] and Psycho-physiological Stress Reduction Theory [52,53] which propose that exposure to green space fosters psychological restoration and enhances feelings of relaxation and well-being through exposure to rich, natural stimuli [35]. We theorize that green space influences mental health by reducing stress, increasing exposure to light during the day, and increasing physical activity ultimately leading to better sleep quality, longer sleep duration, and better mental health outcomes (Fig. 1). ...
Background
The prevention of pediatric mental health disorders is a growing health priority in the United States. While exposure to green space, such as outdoor vegetation, has been linked with improved mental health outcomes in children, little is known about the impact of green space on children’s sleep. Sleep has many benefits, but the factors affecting both sleep and mental health as they relate to green space exposure are not well understood in children. This study aims to investigate how green space can affect sleep in children and contribute to the promotion of mental health and wellbeing.
Methods
Project Green Space, Sleep, and Mental Health (G-SPACE) aims to recruit 250 elementary school-children from first, second, and third grade in Rhode Island to examine the influence of green space exposure on sleep, physical activity, and mental health over a five-year period. Objective measures of sleep, physical activity, and daily activity space will be assessed using an actigraph and a GPS (Global Positioning System) unit. Subjective measures of sleep duration, sleep quality, and mental health will be assessed using daily sleep diaries from parents, in addition to a range of survey items, including PROMIS® (Patient Reported Outcome Measurement Information System) pediatric scales, and the Children’s Sleep Habits questionnaire, among others. Green space exposure will be based on measures of green space from the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) aligned with the daily activity trajectory of children. Additionally, saliva and DNA samples will be collected to examine epigenetic mechanisms linking green space to sleep and mental health. A subset of participants (n = 50) will be followed longitudinally to evaluate the long-term impact of green space on sleep and mental health among children. Multi-level models will be used to assess the association between green space exposure, sleep behaviors, and mental health.
Discussion
Project G-SPACE will evaluate whether green space utilization influences sleep and mental health in early elementary school children, and the possible mechanistic pathways through which these associations emerge.
... In turn, VR's strengthening influence on emotions groups both positive and negative emotions (Lavoie et al. 2021), universally categorized into 5 basic emotions: anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and happiness (Ekman & Friesen 1971 Regarding relaxation therapy, it resorts to certain stress management techniques such as biofeedback training with the user's information to increase heart rate variability, accelerated breathing, muscle relaxation or mental imagery and music (Liza 2011). This type of therapy can be enhanced by immersing users in an environment suitable for relaxation (Trappey et al. 2020), even providing the possibility of being able to create customizable experiences for the user (Pizzoli et al. 2019), which makes VR very attractive 6 Li et al. (2021) The state of stress leads to anxiety and depression, the theory of attention restoration (ART) states that an activity which requires psychological resources arouses directional attention and depending on its duration and intensity can cause mental fatigue (Kaplan 1995), and the theory of stress reduction (SRT), focused on the emotional response to nature, exposes the positive effect of diverting one's gaze to an environment containing plants and water on one's emotions and physiology after being exposed to a calm and complex environment that requires attention (Ulrich 1983). At the same time, presence plays an important role in this area, as it responds to the psychological experience perceived by the individual in the virtual environment, it is categorized into 3 types: personal, being the extension of sensory emotions to the virtual environment resulting in an immersive experience and a sense of psychological participation; social, which is the degree to which experimenters respond to the environment, coexistence and interaction with other creatures in the virtual environment, and environment (Heeter 1992) 7 Lin et al. (2020) Focused on a museum-like experience, it focuses on the characteristics of the environment: immersion, enabling the user to integrate into the context of the environment; interactivity, the reaction of the environment to the user's actions; and imaginative, the imaginary world simulates the real one (Burdea and Coiffet 2003). ...
Emotions influence the way people react in different contexts. Virtual reality (VR) makes it possible to generate environments that can resemble a real experience. These concepts were taken as the basis of the review, focusing on the use of VR on emotions. The search for information was carried out in the Scopus database (179) and other sources of information (17), and the selection criteria were applied to 196 results, such as the user’s interaction with the environment and the application of a software development of VR applications, resulting in the analysis of 16 studies. Unity was found to be used in 81.25% of the articles, HTC Vive appears in 37.5% of the research. The minimum time of application of the experience is 1-min contrasting with the maximum time of 30 min. Only theories of emotions were mentioned in 18.75% of the articles, most of the research uses VR to influence users (56.25%) and with the indicators only 1 article coincides with ISO 25000.
... Environmental factors offer specific "affordances" through various sensory inputs, which are processed through sensation and perception to influence individuals' restorative experiences [44,45]. A large number of studies of restorative urban environments have stated that contact with certain spatial features may effectively facilitate people's attention, stress, and emotional recovery, while this psychological response is immediate, spontaneous, and accompanied by a series of positive emotions [31,43,[46][47][48][49][50]. Therefore, in order to grasp the nature of how public urban spaces influence people's restoration benefits, it is useful to start extracting spatial clues in terms of the composition and organization of urban elements and multisensory experiences incorporated [51,52]. ...
Rapid urbanization has heightened attention fatigue and physiological stress among urban residents. However, high-density urban construction, mainly covered by streets, squares/plazas, and buildings, in particular, poses a challenge to traditional restoration dominated by green infrasturcture. This research aims to conduct a systematic review of the available body of knowledge regarding the relationship between public urban spaces and restorativeness based on combined multisensory effects. First, a conceptual framework was proposed to connect spatial properties of public realms, sensorial mechanisms, and restoration benefits. As a result, detailed spatial elements and organization affecting multiple sensory modalities combined via additive, antagonistic, and synergistic effects were extracted, which essentially act on urban restoration, including attention, stress, and emotional recovery. Last, but not least, compared with previous research, restoration design strategies of public urban spaces accelerating multisensory integration were drawn to contribute new insights for future high-density urban development.
... Kaplan and Kaplan's attention restoration theory (ART) suggests that the natural environment is a place to escape from the complexity and busyness of modern life and represents a space for attention restoration [1]. Ulrich's psycho-evolution theory (PET) suggests that humans have long evolved in natural environments and have adapted to respond positively physiologically and psychologically to natural environments rather than urban environments [2]. In a cohort study of patients who underwent gallbladder removal surgery at a Pan-Sylvania hospital between 1972 and 1981, those who had a window view of the forest recovered much faster than those who did not, suggesting that the natural environment itself plays an important role in reducing human stress [3]. ...
Background/Objectives: This study investigated the effects of barefoot walking on an urban forest path on participants’ C-reactive protein (CRP), interferon gamma (IFNγ), and serotonin levels, which are associated with feelings of well-being. Methods: Participants in the walking program included 62 consenting adults, divided into a sneaker-wearing and barefoot group (each N = 31). The program comprised 20 sessions, each consisting of a 90 min 4.4 km walk at a 50–70% target heart rate, held four times per week for 5 weeks. Physiological measurements were taken from pre-program saliva samples and after 10 and 20 sessions, respectively. Results: The sneaker-wearing group showed a consistent CRP increase, with levels reaching statistical significance after 20 sessions. In the barefoot group, CRP increased up to Session 10 but was lower than at the end of Session 20. The analysis of those with an initial CRP above 100 pg/mL showed that CRP was statistically significantly lower in the barefoot (N = 14) than in the sneaker-wearing (t = −0.048, p = 0.963) group after 20 sessions compared to before the program (t = 3.027, p = 0.010). IFNγ increased in both groups up to Session 10 but showed minimal change between Sessions 10 and 20. Serotonin was statistically significantly higher after 20 sessions than before the program in the barefoot group (t = −2.081, p = 0.046). Conclusions: Barefoot walking on forest trails is effective for people with above-normal inflammation, increasing serotonin levels.
... While assessing the nature-wellbeing link is beyond the scope of this chapter, we note the rich literature proposing varied mechanisms for the link between nature and wellbeing. Theoretical explanations include "biophilia" -the idea that individuals are born with an innate attraction to nature (Wilson, 1984); attention-restoration theory, which holds that nature provides complex yet appealing shapes and patterns that have a restorative effect upon mental capacity (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989); and stress-reduction theory, which proposes that nature has a calming effect upon the body's physiological systems (Ulrich, 1983). The link between nature and enhanced health and wellbeing has thus been demonstrated. ...
Urban forests, comprising the collective green spaces and trees in cities, are recognized for their multifaceted benefits. They contribute significantly to environmental health by mitigating air pollution, regulating temperatures, and enhancing biodiversity. Furthermore, urban forests play an important role in promoting mental well-being and providing recreational spaces for residents. However, the burgeoning urbanization presents a series of challenges to the sustainability of urban forests. The limited available space in urban areas, coupled with issues like soil compaction and competition for resources, poses threats to the health and longevity of urban trees. Additionally, the unequal distribution of urban forests can exacerbate environmental injustices, impacting communities disparately. Despite the challenges, the chapter highlights opportunities for enhancing urban forest sustainability. Integrating green infrastructure into urban planning, implementing effective tree care practices, and fostering community engagement are identified as key strategies. The chapter explores innovative approaches, such as vertical forests and urban agroforestry, that offer potential solutions to maximize the benefits of urban forests in constrained spaces. It provides a nuanced understanding of the socio-ecological dynamics within urban environments and offers insights for policymakers, urban planners, and researchers. The comprehensive exploration of urban forest dynamics, from the ecological to the social dimensions, ensures a holistic perspective for addressing the challenges and harnessing the opportunities presented by urban forests. This chapter is a valuable resource for those interested in understanding and advancing the role of urban forests. It navigates the complex interplay of ecological, social, and economic factors, providing a foundation for informed urban planning and environmental management decision-making. The chapter ultimately advocates integrating urban forests as integral components of sustainable and resilient cities.
Following upon the first two volumes in this series, which dealt with a broad spectrum of topics in the environment and behavior field, ranging from theoretical to applied, and including disciplinary, interdisciplinary, and professionally oriented approaches, we have chosen to devote sub sequent volumes to more specifically defined topics. Thus, Volume Three dealt with Children and the Environment, seen from the combined perspective of researchers in environmental and developmental psy chology. The present volume has a similarly topical coverage, dealing with the complex set of relationships between culture and the physical environment. It is broad and necessarily eclectic with respect to content, theory, methodology, and epistemological stance, and the contributors to it represent a wide variety of fields and disciplines, including psy chology, geography, anthropology, economics, and environmental de sign. We were fortunate to enlist the collaboration of Amos Rapoport in the organization and editing of this volume, as he brings to this task a particularly pertinent perspective that combines anthropology and ar chitecture. Volume Five of the series, presently in preparation, will cover the subject of behavioral science aspects of transportation. Irwin Altman Joachim F. Wohlwill ix Contents Introduction 1 CHAPTER 1 CROSS-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AMOS RAPOPORT Introduction 7 Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Environmental Design 10 The Relationship of Culture and Environmental Design . . . . . . . . . 15 The Variability of Culture-Environment Relations 19 Culture-Specific Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Designing for Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Implications for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 CHAPTER 2 CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH METHODS: STRATEGIES, PROBLEMS, ApPLICATIONS RICHARD W.
Widespread concern has been expressed over the inadequacy of purely objective, physical measures of environmental quality. To enhance the habitability of our planet we need to consider cultural as well as physical and biological components of the complex environment that influence the lives of individuals and communities (Thomas, 1972). In man’s relation to the biosphere, we must deal with a “real” world that does not have the same objective reality for all observers; we must deal with a subjectively perceived environment (UNESCO, 1973). An individual’s view of the world, influenced as it is by his own perception and learning, differs from the view held by scientific experts, yet the concept of the world-as-perceived has considerable value in humanizing the quantitative, objective approach to managing our environment (Lowenthal, 1961). Those responsible for formulating policies, and any expert group, should become aware of their own perceptual and conceptual bias by comparing it with the views of those whose lives are affected by the policies (UNESCO, 1973). Moreover, observer-based evaluations of environmental quality should be considered at the outset along with physical measures so that we do not develop imperfect standards that abstract only the physical, purely objective components of environmental quality (Craik & McKechnie, 1974).
This paper discusses a series of presuppositions that have traditionally directed research in environment and experience. It describes, alternatively, a methodology based on different assumptions that will enable the researcher to avoid the biases and conclusions these presuppositions necessitate, and relates a series of studies that display the salient elements of environmental experience. The results of these studies have suggested a number of characteristics of environmental experience and specific modes of experiencing the environment. The fundamental tenet is that environmental experience is that continuing product of an active endeavor by an individual to create for himself a situation within which he can optimally function and achieve his own particular pattern of satisfaction. Finally, it is concluded that no single mode or combination of modes of environmental experience represent a “true” view of the environment, and that as scientists we should emulate the individual and develop a view of the environment that will optimally enable us to carry out our goals both as students and as concerned human beings.
A landscape preference study, originally conducted in the United States, was replicated in Scotland. Ranked preference values for black and white photographs of natural landscapes were very similar for the two studies. Therefore the landscape preference equation, developed from data in the initial study, would have predicted quite accurately the landscape preferences of people in Scotland. Study results strengthen the predictability and versatility of the initial equation.