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Experimental studies of the influence of social situations on the behavior of individual human adults.

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Abstract

The author presents a survey of the –iexperimental–n inquiries in the field indicated, regarding the general method of experiment in this field as involving "in essence a comparison between measured achievements of the individual person when under influences from other persons physically present with the measured achievements (in identical functions) of the same individual when working alone." The studies considered deal with the effect upon the individual's performance (work, judgment, opinion, report) of spectators or auditors, co-workers, competition, social encouragement and discouragement, group discussion, inclusion (of report) in a social chain or series of reporters, majority opinion, and expert opinion. Bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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... Secondly, it highlights further characteristics of the other persons (e.g., "size and status of the audience"), and thirdly, it describes specific behaviors (e.g., "giving ratings," "passing on information", "volume"). According to Dashiell's classification (Dashiell, 1935), a "passive audience" occurs when others are merely present, i.e., when others are only observing the actor and do not interact, support, or discourage them. In the context of sports, various types of influencers may be present: sport spectators, who may either be observing the sporting performance passively (mere presence) or engage in directly influencing behaviors like reinforcement, razzing, and encouragement (Landers & McCullagh, 1976). ...
... . Table 17.1 Types of influencers by Dashiell (1935), cf. Guerin (1993) (1) A passive audience ...
... (2) A co-worker not in competition with the performer (3) A contestant (4) An evaluator making comments on the work (5) A cooperator, dedicated to the same goal (6) An information controller (7) A prestigious or large audience bers to practice sessions, or in tens of thousands, e.g., to the Soccer World Cup final (large and prestigious audiences; Dashiell, 1935). In either situation, the spectators are commonly separated from the athletes, do not actively participate in the performance, and thus do not interact with the athlete. ...
Chapter
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In this chapter, we focus on the question of how (sports-relevant) behavior and athletic performances are influenced by others, especially passive observers and active sports spectators. How does this presence of others impact performances and behaviors in motor tasks and in the context of sports? This chapter gives a short overview about social facilitation research in motor tasks. In sports, social influence has already been investigated extensively. A particular interest within social influence research is the home advantage in team sports. Research in this field is concerned with understanding whether the performance of the home team is better due to more of their fans being in the stadium.KeywordsAudienceHome advantageSocial facilitationZajoncChoking under pressureSocial impactTriplettGames behind closed doorsBooingCheeringActivationEvaluationAnxiety
... Dashiell's list is useful to derive ideas for potential areas to study in this field. Dashiell (1935;cf. Guerin, 1993). ...
... In the context of sports, various types of influencers may be present: sport spectators, who may either be observing the sporting performance passively (mere presence) or engage in directly influencing behaviors like reinforcement, razzing, and encouragement (Landers & McCullagh, 1976). Spectators may come in small numbers to practice sessions, or in tens of thousands to e.g., the Soccer World Cup final (large and prestigious audiences; Dashiell, 1935). In either situation, the 6 particularly interesting in the context of the presence of others (for more information, see the section on home advantage research in this chapter). ...
... The direct or indirect social influence of active sports spectators has been studied in the context of home advantage, where the outcome of a competition on a group level but also individual level in so called home and away situations (e.g., winning and losing statistics at home, won yards in football etc.) is investigated. From here on, we will focus on large audiences as categorized by Dashiell (1935 , Table 1). ...
Preprint
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Social influence has been summarised as the change in one’s beliefs, behaviour, or attitudes due to external pressure that may be real or imagined (Cialdini, 2001). In this chapter, we focus on the question of how (sports-relevant) behaviour and athletic performances are influenced by others, especially active and passive (sports) spectators. You have probably already experienced giving a presentation in front of a group of people. Were you influenced by the presence of your audience? Was your performance better, worse, or unaffected compared to the rehearsal session, when you practised alone? Is your performance influenced differently when the audience listens attentively as opposed to when they are noisily not paying attention? How does this presence of others impact performances and behaviours in the context of sports? In sports, social influence has already been investigated extensively (cf. Epting, Riggs, Knowles, & Hanky, 2011; cf. Strauss, 2002b). A particular interest within social influence research is the home advantage in team sports (Allen & Jones, 2014; Carron, Loughhead, & Bray, 2005). Research in this field is concerned with understanding whether the performance of the home team is better due to more of their fans being in the stadium.
... Allport, 1920(cf. Allport, , 1924; for a historical classification, see Dashiell, 1935;Guerin, 1993) or wanting to make an impression (Burnham, 1910) into the experimental paradigm. Stronger effects can be expected in those studies that did not control for these influences. ...
... A major limitation in conducting the experiments is the experimenter's presence during the alone-condition (Dashiell, 1930(Dashiell, , 1935. Guerin (1993) had already systematically listed the articles that violated this principle of social facilitation research. ...
Social facilitation is an old research topic in psychology with diverse results: Performance in cognitive or motor tasks is either facilitated, inhibited or not affected, argued to be a function of task complexity. In his narrative review, Strauss, B. (2002. Social facilitation in motor tasks: A review of research and theory. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3(3), 237–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00019-X) found the presence of others to positively affect condition-based tasks (general drive hypothesis, Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149(3681), 142–146. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.149.3681.269), and to negatively affect coordination-based tasks (capacity hypothesis, Manstead, A. S. R., & Semin, G. R. (1980). Social facilitation effects: Mere enhancement of dominant responses? British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(2), 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1980.tb00937.x). This systematic review and meta-analysis focused exclusively on movement-based tasks, identifies the prevalence and magnitude of social facilitation, moderated by condition- and coordination-demands. Through forward searches (Scopus, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, ProQuest Dissertations, OvidSP) and backward searches, we identified N = 82 human studies (7008 participants) over 100 years. In the systematic review, condition-based tasks are generally facilitated, while results of coordination-based tasks performed under time and precision pressure differed (cf. Bond, C. F., & Titus, L. J. (1983). Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 94(2), 265–292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.94.2.265). The meta-analytic moderator analysis of coordination- and condition-based tasks aligned with the systematic review. The experimenter’s influential presence was emphasized. We support the capacity hypothesis and draw conclusions for the state of the theory and experimental limitations specific to social facilitation research.
... Zajonc (1965) (Guerin, 1993: 63). Kapsamlı incelemesinden bu yana Allport (1924) ve Dashiell (1935) listelerine yeni bir Ģey eklemeden daha fazla teori ve çalıĢma ile ortaya çıkmıĢtır. ...
... Ancak günümüzde tepkiyi artırmayı ya da azaltmayı ve aynı hareketi yapmayan bir kiĢiyi ifade etmektedir. BaĢka bir kiĢinin varlığında performansı etkileyen faktörlerAllport (1924) veDashiell (1935) tarafından rekabet, modelleme, teĢvik veya sosyal güçlendirme, uyarılma, izlenebilirlik, taklit, grup üyeliği, dikkat dağıtma, değerlendirme gibi durumların araĢtırmaları yapılmıĢtır ...
Thesis
ÖZET Bu çalışmanın amacı, Afyonkarahisar ilinde bulunan restoran işletmelerindeki müşterilerin fiziksel kanıt algılarının müşteri memnuniyetine etkisinin önem performans analizi ile belirlenmesidir. Çalışmada ilk olarak çalışmanın değişkenlerini oluşturan kavramlara dair yerli ve yabancı literatür taraması yapılıp kuramsal altyapıya yer verilmiştir. Araştırmanın amacının gerçekleştirilmesi için anket tekniği ile veriler toplanmıştır. Araştırma verileri, kolayda örnekleme yöntemi kullanılarak 01 Şubat-11 Nisan 2021 tarihleri arasında Afyonkarahisar ili restoran işletmelerini ziyaret eden 635 müşteriden toplanmıştır. Afyonkarahisar ili merkezinde bulunan restoran işletmeleri ile Afyonkarahisar ili merkezindeki termal otel işletmeleri bünyesindeki restoran işletmelerini ziyaret eden müşterilere anket uygulanmıştır. Toplam 450 adet müşteri anketi değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Verilerin analizinde yüzde, frekans, aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma, faktör analizi, güvenirlik analizi, önem-performans analizi (ÖPA), korelasyon analizi ve regresyon analizi yöntemleri kullanılmış, elde edilen veriler araştırmanın amacı doğrultusunda yorumlanmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre müşteriler fiziksel kanıt iç ve dış değişkenlerini değerlendirerek üzerinde önemle durması gerektiğini göstermektedir. Ayrıca anket uygulanan restoran işletmeleri müşterilerinin fiziksel kanıtlara ilişkin algıları ile müşteri memnuniyeti arasında yüksek seviyede bir ilişki olduğu sonucuna varılmış olup gerçekleştirilen regresyon analizi ile müşterilerin fiziksel kanıt algılarının müşteri memnuniyetini etkilediği belirlenmiştir. ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to determine the effect of physical evidence perceptions of customers in restaurant businesses in Afyonkarahisar province on customer satisfaction by importance performance analysis. In the study, first of all, domestic and foreign literature review about the concepts that constitute the variables of the study was made and the theoretical infrastructure was included. In order to realize the aim of the research, data were collected by questionnaire technique. The research data were collected from 635 customers who visited the restaurant establishments of Afyonkarahisar province between 01 February and 11 April 2021 using the convenience sampling method. A questionnaire was applied to the customers who visited the restaurant businesses located in the city center of Afyonkarahisar and the restaurant businesses within the thermal hotel businesses in the city center of Afyonkarahisar. A total of 450 customer surveys were evaluated. Percentage, frequency, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, factor analysis, reliability analysis, importance-performance analysis (IPA), correlation analysis and regression analysis methods were used in the analysis of the data, and the obtained data were interpreted in line with the purpose of the research. According to the findings, customers show that they should pay attention to the internal and external variables of physical evidence by evaluating them. In addition, it was concluded that there is a high level of relationship between the perceptions of the customers of the restaurant businesses regarding the physical evidence and customer satisfaction, and it was determined that the physical evidence perceptions of the customers affected the customer satisfaction with the regression analysis performed.
... Zajonc (1965) (Guerin, 1993: 63). Kapsamlı incelemesinden bu yana Allport (1924) ve Dashiell (1935) listelerine yeni bir Ģey eklemeden daha fazla teori ve çalıĢma ile ortaya çıkmıĢtır. ...
... Ancak günümüzde tepkiyi artırmayı ya da azaltmayı ve aynı hareketi yapmayan bir kiĢiyi ifade etmektedir. BaĢka bir kiĢinin varlığında performansı etkileyen faktörlerAllport (1924) veDashiell (1935) tarafından rekabet, modelleme, teĢvik veya sosyal güçlendirme, uyarılma, izlenebilirlik, taklit, grup üyeliği, dikkat dağıtma, değerlendirme gibi durumların araĢtırmaları yapılmıĢtır ...
Thesis
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Afyonkarahisar ilinde bulunan restoran işletmelerindeki müşterilerin fiziksel kanıt algılarının müşteri memnuniyetine etkisinin önem performans analizi ile belirlenmesidir. Çalışmada ilk olarak çalışmanın değişkenlerini oluşturan kavramlara dair yerli ve yabancı literatür taraması yapılıp kuramsal altyapıya yer verilmiştir. Araştırmanın amacının gerçekleştirilmesi için anket tekniği ile veriler toplanmıştır. Araştırma verileri, kolayda örnekleme yöntemi kullanılarak 01 Şubat-11 Nisan 2021 tarihleri arasında Afyonkarahisar ili restoran işletmelerini ziyaret eden 635 müşteriden toplanmıştır. Afyonkarahisar ili merkezinde bulunan restoran işletmeleri ile Afyonkarahisar ili merkezindeki termal otel işletmeleri bünyesindeki restoran işletmelerini ziyaret eden müşterilere anket uygulanmıştır. Toplam 450 adet müşteri anketi değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Verilerin analizinde yüzde, frekans, aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma, faktör analizi, güvenirlik analizi, önem-performans analizi (ÖPA), korelasyon analizi ve regresyon analizi yöntemleri kullanılmış, elde edilen veriler araştırmanın amacı doğrultusunda yorumlanmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre müşteriler fiziksel kanıt iç ve dış değişkenlerini değerlendirerek üzerinde önemle durması gerektiğini göstermektedir. Ayrıca anket uygulanan restoran işletmeleri müşterilerinin fiziksel kanıtlara ilişkin algıları ile müşteri memnuniyeti arasında yüksek seviyede bir ilişki olduğu sonucuna varılmış olup gerçekleştirilen regresyon analizi ile müşterilerin fiziksel kanıt algılarının müşteri memnuniyetini etkilediği belirlenmiştir. The aim of this study is to determine the effect of physical evidence perceptions of customers in restaurant businesses in Afyonkarahisar province on customer satisfaction by importance performance analysis. In the study, first of all, domestic and foreign literature review about the concepts that constitute the variables of the study was made and the theoretical infrastructure was included. In order to realize the aim of the research, data were collected by questionnaire technique. The research data were collected from 635 customers who visited the restaurant establishments of Afyonkarahisar province between 01 February and 11 April 2021 using the convenience sampling method. A questionnaire was applied to the customers who visited the restaurant businesses located in the city center of Afyonkarahisar and the restaurant businesses within the thermal hotel businesses in the city center of Afyonkarahisar. A total of 450 customer surveys were evaluated. Percentage, frequency, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, factor analysis, reliability analysis, importance-performance analysis (IPA), correlation analysis and regression analysis methods were used in the analysis of the data, and the obtained data were interpreted in line with the purpose of the research. According to the findings, customers show that they should pay attention to the internal and external variables of physical evidence by evaluating them. In addition, it was concluded that there is a high level of relationship between the perceptions of the customers of the restaurant businesses regarding the physical evidence and customer satisfaction, and it was determined that the physical evidence perceptions of the customers affected the customer satisfaction with the regression analysis performed.
... The factors affecting performance in the presence of another person were comprehensively delineated by Allport (1924) and Dashiell (1935), and they include competition (rivalry), modeling, encouragement or social reinforcement, arousal, monitorability, imitation, group membership, distraction, and evaluation (Guerin, 1993). There is evidence for each of these, and they have separate research literatures. ...
... At least 15 theories for this were proposed between 1965 and 1993, and at least 100 tests were based on this simple design (Guerin, 1993). Since Zajonc's thorough review, more theories and studies have appeared without adding anything new to the lists of Allport (1924) and Dashiell (1935). ...
Chapter
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The question at the heart of social facilitation research is how the presence of another person affects performance. If you play a musical instrument alone versus in front of an audience, is your performance typically better or worse? If you type on a computer with no one around, compared with when someone else is merely working in the background or observing you, how do these conditions affect both the speed and the accuracy of your typing?
... Pessin (1933) supported this result when he found an opposite audience effect, namely that subjects needed fewer trials at learning a list of nonsense words when on their own than when in front of an audience It seems, then, that the extent of social facilitation or inhibition depends upon the nature of the interaction between the task and the performer. In some cases the presence of co-actors/audience improved the quality of performance (Dashiell 1935) but in others it impaired the quality. ...
Thesis
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This study examined the influence of social facilitation, self-concept and gender on recall memory. Eighty participants (students) drawn from the science and art class of SS2 of University of Nigeria Secondary School participated in the study with the age range of 14-16 years with a mean age of 15years. Participants indicated their gender, completed measures of self-concept and read a prose passage used to measure recall. Social facilitation was manipulated by division of the participants into two groups of forty (40) each, with group one having six spectators and group two having no spectator. A 2 (social facilitation: facilitation vs. no facilitation) x 2 (self-concept: high self-concept vs. low self-concept,)x 2 (gender: male vs. female) factorial design was employed and analysis of variance was used to test the hypotheses. Result showed that neither social facilitation, self-concept or gender influenced recall significantly however, an interaction effect between self-concept and gender was significant F(1, 72)=13.79, p<.001. Simply, those with high self-concept that are females, performed better. The findings and implications were discussed. Limitations and suggestions for future studies were highlighted.
... One of the first steps toward a more detailed analysis is to consider what different potential spectator influences could exist. Going back to the seminal work of Dashiell (1935), we can differentiate and summarize four possible ways in which spectators can exert an influence on performance (a) through their mere presence; (b) through their public expectancies; (c) through properties of the crowd such as its size, composition, or expertise; and (d) through concrete behavior such as noise, as well as feedback through praise, cheering, or booing. Such a differentiated perspective reveals that a host of empirical findings and theories could be taken into consideration when investigating this issue. ...
... Dashiell's list is useful to derive ideas for potential areas to study in this field. Influence of other persons on performers according to Dashiell (1935). ...
... Although co-action was the first operationalization of social presence, various alternatives have been subsequently proposed, including the presence of an audience (Cottrell et al., 1968), an evaluator (Cottrell et al., 1968), a passive observer (e.g., Dashiell, 1935), a mannequin (Rajecki et al., 1977), a robot (Riether et al., 2012), or an avatar (Hoyt et al., 2003). Nonetheless, since Zajonc's (1965) work, data has suggested that the mere presence of another person may be sufficient for social presence effects to occur (for a review, see Figueira & Garcia-Marques, 2019). ...
Article
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Previous research has suggested that it is good to have other people around us. Indeed, there seems to be a generally positive impact of the presence of others on individuals' physical and psychological well-being. In the current work, we examine if these positive experiences may be promoted by the mere presence of nonsignificant others in our environment, during a brief period. Specifically, in two experiments, we compared how being in the presence of others (co-action) versus being alone impacts how participants feel at the moment (mood, Experiment 1) and how satisfied they feel about their lives (general well-being, Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, we also manipulated the nature of the task (i.e., demanding/ threatening vs. nondemanding). Both experiments revealed that participants feel more positive when in the presence of others. However, important gender differences occurred: mood enhancement for women (vs. men) only occurred when the task was nondemanding. In the case of life satisfaction, only women were sensitive to the presence of others. We discuss how these effects inform the social facilitation literature.
... Social facilitation also occurs in the presence of a passive spectator, not necessarily co-actors. Known as the audience effect, Dashiell (1935) found that participants' performance improved in the presence of an audience, who were merely watching the performance from afar. The underlying psychological drives behind social facilitation have been identified as evaluation apprehension, concepts of personal space, defensive reactions to threat, and social desirability (Guerin, 1993;Rafaeli & Noy, 2002). ...
Article
While existing clothing consumption practices are contributing to increasing environmental degradation, circular fashion promises to be a more sustainable approach to keep used clothes in circulation instead of being sent to landfills. However, it is necessary to use more than just environmental benefits to motivate consumers to shop for secondhand clothing online through a circular fashion service. Therefore, through two experiments, this study tests the role of brand and social facilitation due to perceived economic and social benefits and the attitude and intention to use a circular fashion service among U.S. and Korean consumers. By applying commodity theory and social facilitation theory, this study found that brand status and a socially facilitating message can enhance perceived benefits, attitude, and intention toward using a circular fashion service, while specific effects are found differently between U.S. and Korean consumers. Implications of these findings and limitations of the study are discussed.
... Humans are remarkably sensitive to the presence of other people. This sensitivity has been shown to lead to 'social facilitation' effects, whereby individuals show improvements in task performance when in the real or perceived presence of others (Dashiell 1935). However, autistic individuals have been shown to be less sensitive to behaviours derived from social partners, and typically show difficulties in identifying patterns of biological motion (Abell et al. 2000;Kaiser and Shiffrar 2009). ...
Article
Full-text available
The presence of other people, whether real or implied, can have a profound impact on our behaviour. However, it is argued that autistic individuals show decreased interest in social phenomena, which leads to an absence of these effects. In this study, the agency of a cue was manipulated such that the cue was either described as representing a computer program or the eye movements of another participant. Both neurotypical and autistic participants demonstrated a social facilitation effect and were significantly more accurate on a prediction task when they believed the cue represented another participant. This demonstrates that whilst autistic adults may show difficulties in interpreting social behaviour this does not necessarily arise from a lack of sensitivity to social agency.
... Humans are remarkably sensitive to the presence of other people. This sensitivity has been shown to lead to 'social facilitation' effects, whereby individuals show improvements in task performance when in the real or perceived presence of others (Dashiell 1935). However, autistic individuals have been shown to be less sensitive to behaviours derived from social partners, and typically show difficulties in identifying patterns of biological motion (Abell et al. 2000;Kaiser and Shiffrar 2009). ...
Article
Product inhibition and the cost of downstream separations are two main barriers in using lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production. If bioethanol can be continuously removed from fermentation broth without affecting the fermentation process, significant gains can be achieved with bioethanol yields and process efficiency. Hot microbubble clouds generated by energy efficient means have been used to remove ethanol from dilute ethanol-water mixtures (~4% [v/v]) maintained at 60oC, and the effect of key operating parameters on the stripping rate has been studied. Numerical simulations of a hot microbubble rising in a dilute ethanol-water mixture was also performed to understand the instantaneous concentrations within the gas phase. Increasing the inlet gas temperature from 90oC to 150oC and decreasing the liquid height in the unit from 50 mm to 5 mm both increased the ethanol stripping rate. However, the benefit of increasing the gas temperature for maximum ethanol removal depended on the liquid height in the unit. Under all operating conditions, ethanol concentration was reduced below ~2% [v/v] within ~25 minutes of operation, demonstrating the potential of hot microbubble stripping for product removal from lignocellulosic fermenters. Implemented effectively in a fermenter, this technology could intensify the bioethanol production process and improve process economics.
... p. 3) Guided, Cooperative Learning 18 Not only can the role of argument construction be jointly managed, but group settings commonly allow -ndividuals to share out potential argument roles and strategies. For example, social psychological studies of group dynamics identified a variety of spontaneous roles adopted by group members (Bales, 1950;Dashiell, 1935;Kelly & Thibaut, 1954;Shaw, 1932 planner, while the other acts as critic or evaluator (Bloom & Broder, 1950;Frase & Swartz, 1975;Whimbey & Lochhead, 1978). ...
... Research examining social facilitation during the first half of the 20 th century attempted to theorise the topic (Allport, 1924), but studies generally reported mixed findings (Dashiell, 1935). It was not until 1965 that Zajonc succinctly put forward a theory of social facilitation. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10021751/ Other people greatly influence behaviour – a phenomenon known as social influence. One reason people change their behaviour when others are present is to manage their reputation. Individuals with autism have social and communicative difficulties, which may result in difficulties in reputation management. This thesis aimed to examine reputation management in autistic individuals, the development of reputation management, and the cognitive mechanisms underpinning reputation management. In Chapter Two, autistic adults managed their reputation in a donation task when it was explicitly clear that they should manage it. Despite this ability, the autistic adults demonstrated a reduced propensity for reputation management, which results suggested was due to low expectations of reciprocity. In Chapters Three and Four, reputation management and potential mechanisms – theory of mind, social motivation, reciprocity, and inhibitory control – were examined in typical children aged 6 to 14. Two forms of reputation management were tested: an automatic or implicit form and a deliberate or explicit form. Implicit reputation management appeared in adolescence, while explicit reputation management occurred at 8-years-old. Theory of mind and social motivation underpinned explicit reputation management. In Chapters Five and Six, autistic children did not implicitly manage their reputation, although some were able to do so explicitly. Autistic children who were fairer and more sensitive to reciprocity were more likely to explicitly manage reputation. None of the suggested mechanisms underpinned implicit reputation management in either typical or autistic children. Finally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with autistic adolescents and school staff (Chapter Seven). Thematic analysis showed that autistic adolescents were concerned about their reputation; however, many preferred to stay true to themselves rather than appear “cool”. Overall, this thesis noted autistic individuals do have the ability to manage reputation, yet there was variation in this ability, due to a number of factors. These results suggest autistic individuals are not completely immune to social influence.
... This positive effect of the presence of others on physical performance was interpreted as social facilitation (Triplett, 1898). Dashiell (1935) expanded on this original finding by demonstrating that similar facilitation effects can also be observed, when others do not actively participate in the task as co-actors, but just passively observe an action being performed by others. At around the same time, Pessin (1933) showed that the presence of others does not universally induce social facilitation, but that the type of task people are performing critically determines whether performance is positively or negatively impacted. ...
Article
As interactions with non-human agents increase, it is important to understand and predict the consequences of human interactions with them. Social facilitation has a longstanding history within the realm of social psychology and is characterized by the presence of other humans having a beneficial effect on performance on easy tasks and inhibiting performance on difficult tasks. While social facilitation has been shown across task types and experimental conditions with human agents, very little research has examined whether this effect can also be induced by non-human agents and, if so, to what degree the level of humanness and embodiment of those agents influences that effect. In the current experiment, we apply a common social facilitation task (i.e., numerical distance judgments) to investigate to what extent the presence of agents of varying degrees of humanness benefits task performance. Results show a significant difference in performance between easy and difficult task conditions, but show no significant improvement in task performance in the social presence conditions compared to performing the task alone. This suggests that the presence of others did not have a positive effect on performance, at least not when social presence was manipulated via still images. Implications of this finding for future studies, as well as for human-robot interaction are discussed.
... Zajonc (1966) stated that the simple presence of other people facilitates human performance, presumably due to the increased arousal that results from being observed by an audience. Dashiell (1935) suggested that the effects of the presence of other people on S's performance may be the result of two independent factors. First, the mere presence of an audience has the effect of increasing arousal, which in turn facilitates performance. ...
Article
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Sixty male 5"s were involved in SO short races against a programmed opponent (0). The S won either 10% (W»), 50% (W«), or 90% (W») of the races under high challenge (all races close) or low challenge. Although the immediate effect of winning was a reduction in response speed on the following trial, average total speed increased directly with the frequency of winning. Challenge had no effect on Ww 5"s, The Ww Ss responded faster under high challenge, while W« 5s responded faster under low-challenge conditions. High-challenge, evenly matched Os (Woo) tend to be most attractive as future competitors, whereas highly victorious Os (W») are less desirable as future competitors than highly defeated Os (W«o). There is a fair amount of evidence indicating that competition against other persons results in enhanced performance relative to an individual's performance in non-competitive situations (Allport, 1924; Church, 1962; Church, Millward, & Miller, 1963). Zajonc (1966) stated that the simple presence of other people facilitates human performance, presumably due to the increased arousal that results from being observed by an audience. Dashiell (1935) suggested that the effects of the presence of other people on S's performance may be the result of two independent factors. First, the mere presence of an audience has the effect of increasing arousal, which in turn facilitates performance. Second, if the other persons in the situation are performing the same task, competition is encouraged, and this increases 5"s rate. Although a group of observers, coacters, or direct competitors tends to facilitate performance , the increase in arousal may have a disruptive effect upon learning (Zajonc, 1966) since the relationship between arousal and learning is curvilinear. There is some evidence to suggest that the relationship between arousal and performance is also non
... This positive effect of the presence of others on physical performance was interpreted as social facilitation (Triplett, 1898). Dashiell (1935) expanded on this original finding by demonstrating that similar facilitation effects can also be observed, when others do not actively participate in the task as co-actors, but just passively observe an action being performed by others. At around the same time, Pessin (1933) showed that the presence of others does not universally induce social facilitation, but that the type of task people are performing critically determines whether performance is positively or negatively impacted. ...
... The experimenter stated that previous research has shown that sometimes people are more efficient in groups and sometimes they are less efficient in groups. The experimenter explained that unlike previous group research, which used physical tasks such as tug-of-war (e.g., Dashiell, 1935), we were interested in group performance on a math-related task and how group members worked together to solve the problems. Participants were asked to work through each problem as a group, record the steps that they used to solve each problem in the packet, then select the correct answer from a set of four multiple-choice options. ...
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The present studies tested a model outlining the effects of group gender composition on self- and others' perceptions of women's math ability in a truly interactive setting with groups composed entirely of naïve participants (N = 158 4-person groups across 3 studies). One woman in each group was designated to be the "expert" by having her complete a tutorial that gave her task-relevant knowledge for a subsequent group task. Group gender composition was hypothesized to influence perceptions of women's math ability through intrapersonal processes (stereotype threat effects on performance) and interpersonal processes (social cohesion between the expert and other group members). Group composition affected the experts' performance in the group math task, but importantly, it also affected their social cohesion with group members. Moreover, both of these effects-lowered performance and poorer social cohesion in male-dominated groups-made independent contributions in accounting for group gender composition effects on perceptions of women's math ability (Studies 1 and 2). Boundary conditions were examined in a 3rd study. Women who had a history of excelling in math and had chosen a math-intensive STEM major were selected to be the designated experts. We predicted and found this would be sufficient to eliminate the effect of group gender composition on interpersonal processes, and correspondingly the effect on women's perceived math ability. Interestingly (and consistent with past work on stereotype threat effects among highly domain-identified individuals), there were continued performance differences indicative of effects on intrapersonal processes. (PsycINFO Database Record
... With respect to the question of group productivity, some studies of group versus individual recall have been reported in the literature. For example, it is commonly believed that "two heads are better than one," and research indicates that when people collaborate to recall an event the group does remember more than individuals working alone (e.g., Clark, Stephenson, & Kniveton, 1990;Dashiell, 1935;Hoppe, 1962;Lorge & Solomon, 1961;Stephenson, Brandstatter, & Wagner, 1983;Yuker, 1955). However, the question arises as to whether group recall is better than, equal to, or worse than the sum of the individual recalls. ...
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Two experiments compared collaborative and individual recall. In Experiment 1, participants encoded pictures and words with a deep or shallow processing task, then recalled them twice either individually or collaboratively. Collaborative groups recalled more than individuals, but less than nominal groups (pooled individuals), thus exhibiting collaborative inhibition. However, group recall appeared to be more stable over time than individual recall. Groups and individuals both showed a picture-superiority effect, a level-of-processing effect, and hypermnesia. In Experiment 2, participants recalled the story ''War of the Ghosts'' (from F. C. Bartlett, 1932), and again collaborative groups recalled more than individuals, but less than nominal groups. Both the individual and collaborative recalls were highly organized. There was evidence that the collaborative groups tended to rely on the best individual to a greater extent in story than in list recall. Possible social and cognitive mechanisms are considered.
... The influence of the presence of others on individual behavior, a classic topic in social psychology, was studied extensively in the early 1900s (Dashiell, 1935). Contemporary interest in the topic derives from Zajonc's proposal (1965) that the presence of others acts as a source of generalized drive (Spence, 1956), and energizes the dominant response tendency to the exclusion of competing responses. ...
... Contrary to this interpretation, one might argue that chimpanzees were in fact not competing with each other as they were manipulating distinct food sources. However, many studies with human and non-human subjects have demonstrated that actual competition, for example for a single food source, is not a necessary prerequisite for competitive arousal to occurthe presence of a co-actor is sufficient (Allport 1920;Dashiell 1935). ...
Article
Animals react in many different ways to being watched by others. In the context of cooperation, many theories emphasize reputational effects: Individuals should cooperate more if other potential cooperators are watching. In the context of competition, individuals might want to show off their strength and prowess if other potential competitors are watching. In the current study, we observed chimpanzees and human children in three experimental conditions involving resource acquisition: Participants were either in the presence of a passive observer (observed condition), an active observer who engaged in the same task as the participant (competition condition), or in the presence of but not directly observed by a conspecific (mere presence condition). While both species worked to acquire more resources in the competition condition, children but not chimpanzees also worked to acquire more resources in the observer condition (compared to the mere presence condition). These results suggest evolutionary continuity with regard to competition-based observer effects, but an additional observer effect in young children, potentially arising from an evolutionary-based concern for cooperative reputation.
... 262). Although, early research tended to focus on a co-action paradigm (e.g., physical presence of both individuals and observers), later research has found that the effect of social facilitation could also affect individuals who are passively observed (Dashiell, 1935). This is important when you consider that many virtual team members are being passively observed by other group members. ...
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As distance education becomes increasingly popular, instructors and administrators are working hard to improve students' online learning experience. Although, the dynamics of online learning experiences in an educational setting have been well studied, the use of virtual teams presents a set of problems in relation to how physical, temporal and social separation of learners affect learners' learning processes. This paper is a case study reporting an action research project investigating the experiences of using virtual teams in a new Organisational Psychology unit at a regional Australian university. Online group challenges were identified with potential solutions to these challenges trialed during the action research cycle.
... (1) motivation by some felt difficulty, (2) analysis and diagnosis, (3) suggestion of possible solution or hypothesis, (4) the critical tracing out of their implications and consequences, and perhaps (5) an experimental trying out, before (6) accepting or rejecting the suggestion. (Dashiell, 1935, p. 1131) Shaw (1932 also noted that one major function of the group was that it acts as a form of executive to its individual members. For example, the initiator of a suggestion will reject his own plan only one-third as often as will other members of the group. ...
... The better results are explained by an increased arousal of the individual through the presence of others [228]. Later experiments could demonstrate these effects also for participants located in different rooms (see, e.g., [43] or [220]). ...
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This paper illustrates the importance of awareness and informal communication in work environments and outlines the resulting implications for the design of future information and communication technologies. The paper starts by providing an introduction into intellectual teamwork, showing its benefits and explaining, why informal communication and awareness are decisive factors for successful teamwork. After a brief characterization of virtual teams, it is shown, how the lack of physical proximity effects distributed teamwork. The paper closes with an assessment of state-of-the-art communication media and illustrating why existing communication technologies are not adequate for supporting awareness and informal communication in future work environments.
... Later studies moved away from the coaction principle and showed that social facilitation could also be achieved by means of a passive observer (e.g. Dashiell 1935). In his milestone article on drive theory, Zajonc (1965) suggested, that the mere presence of others increases arousal which in turn leads to a higher level of individual drive towards the investigated task. ...
Conference Paper
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Both the IT artifact and design theory are fundamental elements of a design science project. While literature provides an extensive discussion on why IT artifacts and design theory can be regarded as two sides of the same coin, an operational detailed model on how to actually decode and translate the one into the other is not yet to be found. In this paper, we address this important issue taking the example of social facilitation, a theory perspective that informs us about how the integration of social media features in IT-based routine work can increase task performance. With the help of this example we are able to demonstrate how a lack of discussion regarding the relationship between the actual implementation (IT artifact perspective) and corresponding variables (design theory perspective) can create significant issues of scientific rigor. In order to overcome this gap, we develop a design theorizing framework that differentiates between the structural model (inner model), the measurement model, and the design model (both outer model components). Based on our findings, the paper concludes with discussing potentially fruitful avenues for future research and theory development in design science.
... This facilitation, via working together, can be explained in a variety of ways: (1) the direct energization of a well-practiced (dominant) activity (Hull, 1943;Zajonc,1965Zajonc, ,1980; for a review see Guerin, 1993), (2) an ideal level of motivation (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908), (3) mutual evaluation (e. g., Harkins, White, & Utman, 2000), (4) com-ZFSP 3l (4), 2000, @ Verlag Hans Huber, Bern petition (e.g., Dashiell, 1935;Sherif & Sherif, 1956), (5) increases in efficiency aspirations owing to the other's presence, (6) fears or anxieties of various sorts -including fear of being labeled as "slow," "inefficient," or "uncooperative" (cf. Hertel, Kerr, & Messé, in press), (7) fear of losing self-esteem in the context of within-group competition (Tesser, 1980;1986), or (8) the attention-focusing properties of the group, in the sense that, when working together, members' attention is more unequivocally focused on the pertinent goal. ...
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This article introduces the idea of performance gains in groups in the sense of each group member's readiness to perceive, tolerate, and represent more than one point of view within the group or societal context. For this purpose we refer to enhanced performance as the furthering of "multiple perspectives." Active participation enables perspective-taking, role-playing, flexibility in one's persuasions, and ultimately increments in one's internalization of diverse aspects of society. We discuss the social conditions that maximize such active participation -thus performance for the other's perspective -as well as individually-based psychological forces that shut down the individual's openness to diverse perspectives. Performance for the other as defined in terms of multiple perspectives is contrasted with group productivity as measured by a single performance criterion on which group members agree a priori.
... 1 For example, researchers measured the effort exerted by 8 people, first independently and then together, when pulling a rope in a simulated tug-of-war. 5 The group effort only measured half of the sum of the 8 individual efforts. The 8 individuals worked harder alone than as a team, so group synergy was not achieved. ...
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These medication errors have occurred in health care facilities at least once. They will happen again—perhaps where you work. Through education and alertness of personnel and procedural safeguards, they can be avoided. You should consider publishing accounts of errors in your newsletters and/or presenting them at your inservice training programs. Your assistance is required to continue this feature. The reports described here were received through the Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) Medication Errors Reporting Program. Any reports published by ISMP will be anonymous. Comments are also invited; the writers' names will be published if desired. ISMP may be contacted at the address shown below. Errors, close calls, or hazardous conditions may be reported directly to ISMP through the ISMP Web site (www.ismp.org), by calling 800-FAIL-SAFE, or via e-mail at ismpinfo@ismp.org. ISMP guarantees the confidentiality and security of the information received and respects reporters' wishes as to the level of detail included in publications.
... p. 3) Guided, Cooperative Learning 18 Not only can the role of argument construction be jointly managed, but group settings commonly allow -ndividuals to share out potential argument roles and strategies. For example, social psychological studies of group dynamics identified a variety of spontaneous roles adopted by group members (Bales, 1950;Dashiell, 1935;Kelly & Thibaut, 1954;Shaw, 1932 planner, while the other acts as critic or evaluator (Bloom & Broder, 1950;Frase & Swartz, 1975;Whimbey & Lochhead, 1978). ...
Chapter
Wir wollen besonders weit springen. So weit, dass wir die nächsten Wachstumskurve erreichen. Wir wollen von der S-Kurve mit auslaufendem Wachstum auf eine neue S-Kurve mit Wachstumspotenzial wechseln. Wir wollen auf der neuen Wachstumskurve Wurzeln schlagen. IBM war eines der wenigen Unternehmen, das den Wechsel von der mechanischen Schreibmaschine auf Rechner geschafft hat [1]. IBM hat für sich einen emergenten Entwicklungsansatz mit dem Namen Systemfokus genutzt. In diesem Kapitel sehen wir uns den Sprung unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Emergenz einmal genauer an (Abb. 10.1).
Chapter
Wie Menschen durch die Anwesenheit anderer in Verhalten und Leistung beeinflusst werden, wird bereits mehr als 100 Jahre lang erforscht und gehört zu den wichtigsten sozialpsychologischen Fragestellungen im Sport. Dieses Kapitel stellt die Forschung zu sozialen Einflüssen durch Zuschauende dar. Es werden unterschiedliche Arten sozialer Einflussnahme beschrieben und Modelle zur Erklärung sozialer Einflüsse dargestellt. Neben Forschung zur bloßen Anwesenheit von Zuschauenden stellt das Kapitel auch Forschung zu aktiven Verhaltensweisen von Zuschauenden dar. Dies wird insbesondere im Zusammenhang mit dem Heimvorteil im Sport erforscht, da die höhere Siegeswahrscheinlichkeit von Heimmannschaften häufig den zahlenmäßig überlegenen Fans im eigenen Stadion zugeschrieben wird. Forschungsergebnisse stellen dies jedoch infrage.
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Forty male Ss were involved in 40 short races against a programmed opponent (0). The S won 50% of the races under high challenge (all races close) conditions for an offered stake of 0¢, 3¢, 6¢ or 12¢ per race. Ss performed fastest when no prize was at stake or when each race was worth 12¢. When monetary payoffs were at stake, Ss final performance speed was directly related to the magnitude of the payoff with the 12¢ per race group not performing significantly slower than the 0¢ group. Ss start times slowed down after win trials and increased after loss trials.
Chapter
The influence of group discussion on individual judgments and group decisions is one of the oldest problems in the experimental study of small groups (Bechterev & DeLange, 1924; Burtt, 1920; Marston, 1924). Early interest was focused primarily on the quality of group versus individual products, that is, on the question are groups better than individuals? Attention has turned more recently to examining judgmental shifts per se, without regard to improvement or decline in quality. We will be concerned primarily with changes induced by discussion, and will not deal at length with the perplexing question of whether the changes are for the better. The judgments and decisions with which we will deal are those where alternatives are along a bipolar, unidimensional scale of some sort, for example, “How large should the damage award be in a civil trial?”
Chapter
The aim of this chapter is to use the knowledge gained from research on value to further our understanding of performance in a group setting. In doing so, we hope to suggest processes that underlie both the assignment of value and performance in groups. Toward this goal, we will first describe a theory which was proposed to account for the assignment of value (i.e., personal equity theory, Seta & Seta, 1982), and then we will try to apply this knowledge to performance in a group situation. We will discuss how this process may affect individuals’ willingness to engage in performance and will highlight factors which may influence individuals’ inability to perform well even though they may be willing to do so.
Article
Wir beginnen dieses Kapitel mit einer Darstellung, wie die Sozialpsychologie in der „realen Welt“ Anwendung finden kann, welche methodischen Probleme dies beinhaltet und wie die Anwendung wiederum die Entwicklung sozialpsychologischer Theorien fördert. Anschließend beschreiben wir drei wichtige Anwendungsfelder der Sozialpsychologie: die Werbung, den Arbeitsplatz und die Gesundheit. Zuerst beschäftigen wir uns mit den sozialpsychologischen Grundlagen der Werbung. Wir schauen uns einige der einflussreichsten theoretischen Modelle an, die von Werbeforschern entwickelt wurden, und zeigen anschließend, dass diese Modelle mit großem Gewinn im allgemeineren Ansatz der Zwei-Prozess-Modelle der Einstellungsänderung (➧ Abschn. 7.2.2) zusammengefasst werden können. Wir besprechen dann verschiedene Werbetechniken aus der Perspektive der Zwei-Prozess-Modelle der Einstellungsänderung und zeigen, dass der Zwei-Prozess-Ansatz hier nützlich ist. Als Nächstes geht es darum, wie Individuen Einstellungen gegenüber ihrer Arbeit, dem Unternehmen, in dem sie arbeiten, und der Fairness des täglichen Arbeitslebens entwickeln. Wir beschäftigen uns dann damit, wie man die Arbeitszufriedenheit und das Commitment von Mitarbeitern erhöhen und wie man Mitarbeiter motivieren kann, sich gegenseitig zu unterstützen. Schließlich wenden wir uns der Frage zu, welche wichtigen Beiträge die Sozialpsychologie dazu leistet, Gesundheitsverhalten vorherzusagen, schädliches Verhalten zu_ändern und erfolgreich mit Stress umzugehen.
Chapter
This chapter focuses on the problem of imitation. It begins by threading apart the various kinds of control that social observation may exercise over a child's behavior. The aim is to distinguish imitation as one form of true observational learning. Children are the main focus of the evidence that is analyzed closely, because the primary concern is the role of imitation and observational learning in the socialization of the child. But it is not possible to arrive at an integrative theoretical view of the entire range of relevant phenomena without examining the analogous evidence from the behavior of animals. The capacities of animals are less awesome than those of children and, therefore, permit a longer look at simpler versions of the complexity of observational learning in the human case. The evidences are used to make some inferences about constraints on a theoretical conception of observational learning and imitation. The chapter also considers how a tentative outline of such a conception might be phrased in terms of cognitive and affective mechanisms of learning. Finally, the results of some experimental paradigms of socialization are presented as initial tests of the formulation of these mechanisms.
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This article presents the findings from a case study of teacher leadership in an elementary school as a form of group leadership. Using the functional theory of work groups, this study describes the functional roles that teacher leaders assume in meeting the task achievement and social‐emotional needs of work groups, as well as the school‐related and group‐related factors that influence their performances as group leaders. The findings raise important issues concerning the teacher leader's role in the performance and development of a work group and the role of the physical, social, and normative contexts of groups in mediating group leadership performances. Implications of study findings for further research and teacher education programs are discussed.
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Despite the large number of laboratory studies of group performance, we still know remarkably little about "team-added" effects on human error. The paper is in three sections. The first summarises the principal findings of laboratory group performance studies (Reason). The second section reviews a number of well-documented accidents with a view to identifying some of the reccurrent patterns of team errors (Reason). The third section presents a principled basis for categorising "team-added" errors (Bernsen).
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A new expert opinion technique is developed and applied to estimate the impact of information technologies on clerical work. EFTE stands for estimate, feedback, talk, estimate—the sequence of steps involved in this variant on the Delphi approach. EFTE offers advantages in obtaining expert opinions on complex tasks where social interaction poses little problem.
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On the basis of an interdependent task, contradictory predictions on group achievement were tested by comparing group performance with a single person condition. The distractor hypothesis claims that group members distract each other from solving a task and that this distraction causes process losses if cognitive load is high (worse performance in the group condition). According to the compensation hypothesis, however, assembly bonus effects may be expected because group members may better compensate for errors than individuals (better performance in the group condition). Finally, the accentuation hypothesis predicts a group advantage if single group members favour adequate problem solving strategies (assembly bonus effect); however, if subjects tend to use wrong strategies, process losses may be expected by accentuating the usage of wrong strategies. Participants, who were first individually taught a correct strategy (goal-recursion procedure) or a wrong strategy (move-pattern procedure), were asked to solve several Tower of Hanoi problems either individually or in pairs. Results confirmed the accentuation hypothesis: If participants had access to a correct strategy, the pairs outperformed the individuals (bonus effect); however, if participants had learned a wrong strategy which could not be directly applied to the tasks at hand, the single individuals outperformed the pairs (process losses).
Article
In 1887, Ferdinand Tönnies (1887/1957) published Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. This work, one of the earliest and simplest typologies of social organization, set forth a dichotomy that, if not archetypal to Western postindustrial society, certainly has become an underlying dialectic for modern social science. Tönnies conceptualized Gemeinschaft (translated as “Community”) as a form of social organization that assumed unity; it exists when people act because they are members of a social entity, a group, a community. Gesellschaft (translated as “Society”), on the other hand, assumed separateness; it exists when people act because they see themselves as separate and individual actors in society. The theory of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft was, essentially, a description of how the assumptions of unity or individuality influence social thought, will, and action.
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This paper examines the effect of intergroup competition on intragroup cooperation. Three experiments are reviewed. The first experiment establishes that intergroup competition can effectively increase intragroup cooperation in a laboratory setting where symmetric players make binary decisions in one-shot dilemma games. The second experiment shows that this constructive effect of intergroup competition is generalizable to a real-life setting in which asymmetric players make continuous decisions in an ongoing interaction. The third experiment demonstrates that the increase in intragroup cooperation can be accounted for at least in part by motivational, rather than structural, effects of the intergroup competition. Theoretical and practical issues concerning the applications of these findings are discussed.
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