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Efficacy of External and Internal Visual Imagery Perspectives for the Enhancement of Performance on Tasks in Which Form Is Important
Abstract
Three experiments examined the relative efficacy of different imagery perspectives on the performance of tasks in which form was important. In Exp 1, 25 experienced karateists (mean age 24.95 yrs) learned a new kata using either external or internal visual imagery or stretching. Results indicate that external visual imagery was significantly more effective than internal visual imagery, which was significantly more effective than stretching. In Exp 2, 40 sport science students (aged 18–35 yrs) learned a simple gymnastics floor routine under one of four conditions: external or internal visual imagery with or without kinesthetic imagery. Results reveal a significant main effect for visual imagery perspective (external visual imagery was best) but no effect for kinesthetic imagery. Exp 3 employed the same paradigm as Exp 2 but with 20 high-ability rock climbers (mean age 23.35 yrs) performing difficult boulder problems. Results show significant main effects for both visual imagery perspective (external visual imagery was best) and kinesthetic imagery. The findings are discussed in terms of the cognitive processes that might underlie imagery effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... broadly defined as imagining 'feeling' the movement, which can include somatosensory components such as proprioception and tactile elements, and is sometimes referred to by synonyms such as Somatomotor Imagery), a combination of these modalities, or other possibilities (e.g. more complex multisensory imagery using auditory, gustatory, and/or olfactory components, or imagery relating to motivation and arousal, etc.). This detail is important as performing the same task while engaging in different sensory modalities of imagery can lead to significant differences in behavior and neurophysiological activity (Guillot et al., 2009;Hardy and Callow, 1999;Jiang et al., 2015;Kilintari et al., 2016;Lee et al., 2019;Seiler et al., 2015;Stinear et al., 2006). Similar issues to those described above also exist for action observation and AOMI, and are described in greater detail later in the manuscript. ...
... These details are not trivial because -as noted previously -prior research has shown significant differences between behavior and brain activity for action simulation using different modalities and perspectives (Fourkas et al., 2006;Guillot et al., 2009;Hardy and Callow, 1999;Jackson et al., 2006;Jiang et al., 2015;Kilintari et al., 2016;Lee et al., 2019;Seiler et al., 2015;Stinear et al., 2006). Underreporting of details also leads to difficulties when attempting to review the literature -an issue which has been specifically noted in recent systematic reviews related to motor imagery and related fields (Baniqued et al., 2021;Silva et al., 2020). ...
... "Internal" imagery often refers to a combination of first person visual and kinesthetic imagery, compared to "External" imagery which involves only third person visual components; Mahoney and Avener, 1977), other frameworks consider visual and kinesthetic modalities to be separable dimensions (e.g. motor imagery could be performed purely kinesthetically (Stinear et al., 2006), purely visually using either a first or third person perspective (Hall and Martin, 1997), or through combinations of first person visual and kinesthetic imagery, and even combined third person visual and kinesthetic imagery; Hardy and Callow, 1999). Clarifying the sensory modalities instructed during motor imagery is important as prior work indicates the differing modalities affect behavioral and neurophysiological responses (Guillot et al., 2009;Jiang et al., 2015;Kilintari et al., 2016;Lee et al., 2019;Seiler et al., 2015;Stinear et al., 2006). ...
Researchers from multiple disciplines have studied the simulation of actions through motor imagery, action observation, or their combination. Procedures used in these studies vary considerably between research groups, and no standardized approach to reporting experimental protocols has been proposed. This has led to under-reporting of critical details, impairing the assessment, replication, synthesis, and potential clinical translation of effects. We provide an overview of issues related to the reporting of information in action simulation studies, and discuss the benefits of standardized reporting. We propose a series of checklists that identify key details of research protocols to include when reporting action simulation studies. Each checklist comprises A) essential methodological details, B) essential details that are relevant to a specific mode of action simulation, and C) further points that may be useful on a case-by-case basis. We anticipate that the use of these guidelines will improve the understanding, reproduction, and synthesis of studies using action simulation, and enhance the translation of research using motor imagery and action observation to applied and clinical settings.
... The comparison between different groups within the sample revealed that professional athletes had significantly higher use of IVI than amateur athletes. These findings are in agreement with previous research where Hardy and Callow [39], investigated external and internal visual imagery on performance in professional athletes. They found that IVI was more effective when the athlete was more experienced thus enhancing sports performance [39]. ...
... These findings are in agreement with previous research where Hardy and Callow [39], investigated external and internal visual imagery on performance in professional athletes. They found that IVI was more effective when the athlete was more experienced thus enhancing sports performance [39]. Also, Olsson et al. [23], in their study investigated the effects of IVI on professional high jumper's performance and the results of the intervention procedure revealed that the application of IVI increased sports performance compared to a regular physical training program. ...
The VMIQ-2 has been proven a valid and useful psychometric tool to measure the ability of vividness of movement imagery in sports. However, no validity study has been reported in Greek. The purpose of the present study was to examine the validity and reliability of the VMIQ-2 into Greek in adult athletes derived from various sports activities and different athletic levels. The VMIQ-2-GR (n = 160) was examined for translation, construct and discriminant validity, and also for internal consistency and test–retest reliability. CFA did not show acceptable global fit indices and only the index of (x2/df ) showed an acceptable fit. The resulting factors of the EFA highlighted the discrepancy between the Greek version and the original version of the VMIQ-2. The results of the discriminant validity confirmed that the VMIQ-2-GR was well discriminated between subgroups of athletes and, therefore, showed a good discriminant validity. The Cronbach a coefficient was excellent at both measurements (> 0.92 in all cases for all factors). The Spearman rho correlation coefficients were statistically significant (< 0.001) with values > 0.47. The findings of the VMIQ-2–GR suggest that it is a valid and reliable tool and it can be used by sports psychologists, sports physiotherapists, coaches and researchers who aim to apply MI in the Greek athletic population.
... MI can be engaged in via visual (with internal, or first person, and external, or third person, perspectives), kinaesthetic (based on somatosensory information), and tactile modalities (Hardy and Callow, 1999;Roberts et al., 2008;Kim et al., 2011;Ruffino et al., 2017). Previous studies investigating the effect of MI interventions on muscle strength have adopted the sole use of MI without any physical execution and typically without any consideration of imagery modalities or perspectives (Ranganathan et al., 2004;Reiser, 2011;Reiman et al., 2012); for exception see (Herbert et al., 1998). ...
... KIN + VI participants were not instructed regarding which visual perspective, internal or external, to use. While there is evidence that imagery from an internal, or firstperson, visual perspective tends to be more effective for open skill tasks requiring responses to objects (Reiser, 2005), and external (third-person) perspective is more effective for tasks such as gymnastics that require specific form (Hardy and Callow, 1999), it is not clear whether open skill or form best describes the muscle contraction task. Therefore, participants were free to use either perspective. ...
Motor imagery training could be an important treatment of reduced muscle
function in patients and injured athletes. In this study, we investigated the
efficacy of imagery training on maximal force production in a larger muscle
group (hip abductors) and potential bilateral transfer effects. Healthy
participants (n = 77) took part in two experimental studies using two imagery
protocols (~30 min/day, 5 days/week for 2 weeks) compared either with no
practice (study 1), or with isometric exercise training (study 2). Maximal hip
abduction isometric torque, electromyography amplitudes (trained and
untrained limbs), handgrip strength, right shoulder abduction (strength and
electromyography), and imagery capability were measured before and after the
intervention. Post intervention, motor imagery groups of both studies exhibited
significant increase in hip abductors strength (~8%, trained side) and improved
imagery capability. Further results showed that imagery training induced bilateral
transfer effects on muscle strength and electromyography amplitude of hip
abductors. Motor imagery training was effective in creating functional
improvements in limb muscles of trained and untrained sides
... Исследования показывают, что использование внутренней или внешней перспективы образов зависит от различных факторов, включая опытность спортсмена, сложность задачи и индивидуальные особенности (Glisky, Williams, & Kihlstrom, 1996;Hardy & Callow, 1999). Дополнительные исследования необходимы для более точного определения связи между использованием разных типов образов и спортивной эффективностью. ...
The study investigated the specificity of mental images of martial artists when presenting certain actions (hip throw, miller, dive, transfer, leg pass) using a modified questionnaire to identify the features of mental images. 19 subjects (age 22 ± 3.6 years, male) participated in the study, nine of whom were wrestlers The subjects presented the above techniques in their performance several times. The following were analyzed: foreshortening, type of landmarks in the control of the presented movement, and chronometric characteristics of mental images. The results showed that experienced athletes were characterized, as a rule, by a stable foreshortening — predominantly from the 1st person. Fewer experienced athletes had a dominant 3rd-person perspective. There were pauses in the chronometric indices of experienced athletes in order to work through certain moments. In novice athletes, the rate of presentation of skills almost always corresponded to the real one. Muscle sensations dominated when describing skills in experienced martial artists. The beginners were dominated by visual characteristics, external forms.
... The ability to reassure one's confidence via self-talk and visualize the successful execution of future tricks or maneuvers is essential in action sports. Although research on the use of imagery within action sports (e.g., rock climbing and skydiving) does exist (Barton, 1996;Boyd & Munroe, 2003;Fournier et al., 2008;Hardy & Callow, 1999;Jones et al., 2002), no studies have investigated the degree to which self-talk is utilized by action sports athletes. In fact, researchers have called for an investigation into the use of self-talk within risk-inherent sports, such as action sports (Zervas et al., 2007), suggesting that this is an area of interest. ...
The present study aimed to expand the current knowledge of psychological skills usage within athletes of action sports by exploring the use of imagery and self-talk within skateboarders and snowboarders. Skateboarders and snowboarders (N 5 74) completed the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28; Smith et al., 1995), the Self-Talk Questionnaire (S-TQ) for sports (Zervas et al., 2007), and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall et al., 1998). Results indicated that participants scored significantly higher than reported norms of traditional athletes (Smith et al., 1995) on the coping with adversity and goal-setting/mental preparation subscales of the ACSI-28, and to a similar degree to traditional athletes on the remaining subscales. However, participants scored significantly lower on the total score of
the ACSI-28 than previously reported action sports athletes (Young & Knight, 2014). Participants scored significantly higher than reported norms of traditional athletes on the cognitive functional and motivational functional subscales of the S-TQ. On the SIQ, participants scored significantly lower than reported norms for traditional athletes (Hall et al., 2005) on the MG-M subscale, while scoring similarly to reported norms on the CG, CS, MS, and MG-A subscales. Results of the present study confirm that action sports athletes utilize psychological skills to a degree similar to that of traditional athletes, and that skateboarders and snowboarders specifically include the use of imagery and self-talk within their psychological skills arsenal.
... And imageries can also refer to other model athletes. Imageries exist only in an internal or external perspective [9]. On the other hand, in visualization there are additionally three forms: kinesthetic,, internal kinesthetic and external kinesthetic [10]. ...
This article first introduces the trend of cognitive psychology and its influence on the discipline of physical culture sciences, resulting in the emergence of the field of mental preparation. Then the difference between the most popular mental exercises of visualization and imagery has been outlined. In applied sports psychology, visualization and imagery refer to different goals of mental training and these terms cannot be used interchangeably. The final section mentions the support of visualization by augmented reality (AR). This trend is particularly evident among the younger generation of athletes.
... The development of KI ability is a gradual process that can take many years to reach completion. This is because the creation of a complete kinaesthetic image for a movement requires genuine sensory information that may not be fully achieved in the early stages of development (18). Parker and Lovell (19) have shown that children have more difficulties with KI than with VMI, which presents a challenge when considering the use of kinaesthetic practice techniques with children. ...
Purpose
The ability to perform motor imagery has been shown to influence individual athletic performance and rehabilitation. Recent evidence supports its potential as a training tool to improve motor skills in children. Although there is a standardized assessment of the imagery abilities in Slovenian-speaking adults, there is currently no validated instrument for use with Slovenian children. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to conduct a linguistic validation study of the movement imagery questionnaire for children (MIQ-C).
Methods
A total of 100 healthy children (mean age 10.3±1.3 years; 50 female) were assessed with a Slovenian version of the MIQ-C at Day 1 and Day 8. Inter-day agreement was examined using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Construct validity and internal consistency were assessed using a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and exploratory – confirmatory factor analysis, respectively.
Results
The test-retest ICC were very high for all three scales examined (ICCKI=0.90; ICCIVI=0.92; ICCEVI=0.90). Excellent internal consistency (up to 0.90) was found for kinaesthetic and both visual imageries. Confirmatory analysis confirmed a three-factorial structure of the MIQ-C.
Conclusions
The Slovenian version of the MIQ-C proved to be highly reliable and valid in assessing children’s motor imagery abilities, and as such for use with Slovene-speaking children. Moreover, this standardized instrument can be a helpful tool in training and rehabilitation practice with children aged 7–12 years.
... The ability to reassure one's confidence via self-talk and visualize the successful execution of future tricks or maneuvers is essential in action sports. Although research on the use of imagery within action sports (e.g., rock climbing and skydiving) does exist (Barton, 1996;Boyd & Munroe, 2003;Fournier et al., 2008;Hardy & Callow, 1999;Jones et al., 2002), no studies have investigated the degree to which self-talk is utilized by action sports athletes. In fact, researchers have called for an investigation into the use of self-talk within risk-inherent sports, such as action sports (Zervas et al., 2007), suggesting that this is an area of interest. ...
... De plus, les résultats de cette expérience confirment aussi les résultats de travaux de recherche précédents ayant montré un effet positif de l'IM sur les performances chez des joueurs de tennis novices (e.g., Atienza et al., 1998 ;Dana & Gozalzadeh, 2017), expérimentés (Cherappurath et al., 2020 ;Daw & Burton, 1994 ;Mamassis, 2005) et experts Robin et al., 2007). Comme évoqué par Hardy et Callow (1999), il est possible que la pratique en IM a permis aux joueurs, qui bénéficiaient de cette technique mentale (i.e., les groupes bons imageurs et mauvais imageurs) avant de servir, de visualiser plus facilement le mouvement global du service ainsi que les différentes positions et étapes nécessaires à la réalisation de cette habileté motrice. De plus, il est également possible que les joueurs des groupes bons imageurs et mauvais imageurs ont bénéficié de la fonction motivationnelle de l'IM (Robin & Dominique, 2022) : la combinaison de cette pratique mentale et de la pratique physique des services étant plus motivante à réaliser que les simples exécutions réelles faites par les joueurs du groupe contrôle. ...
L’objectif de cette étude était de tester si la capacité d’imagerie (i.e., facilité ou difficulté à créer, dans sa tête, des images mentales claires et vives) pouvait influencer la vitesse d’apprentissage du service chez des joueurs de tennis débutants lorsque ces derniers bénéficiaient d’une pratique en imagerie motrice (IM) combinée à la pratique réelle pendant leurs séances d’entrainements. Les résultats de cette expérience mettent en évidence une amélioration de la vitesse et du pourcentage de réussite (mesurés avec une tablette équipée du logiciel Swingvision) et de la qualité des services (évaluée par des entraineurs de tennis experts) des participants qui réalisaient une pratique en IM avant de servir. De plus, les résultats montrent que bien que les joueurs qui avaient des difficultés à s’imaginer servir ont obtenu des performances inférieures à celles des joueurs qui réalisaient facilement l’IM, au bout de 10 séances, leurs performances étaient similaires après 20 séances de pratique. Servir étant une habileté motrice complexe, nous recommandons aux coaches et entraineurs d’avoir recours à l’IM, en complément de la pratique réelle, même en cas de difficulté des joueurs à générer et à utiliser des images mentales : il s’agira alors d’augmenter leur quantité de pratique.
Backed by academic research and scientific studies, this resource is a collection of eye-opening but gentle exercises that will help you get clear about who you are and what you want. This friendly guide will also help you develop solutions to specific issues in any area of life, whether related to your work, hobbies, relationships, or physical or mental well-being. You will learn to imagine your best possible future self and experience what it feels like to live your full potential so you can flourish and live out your destiny. Available now at: https://a.co/d/eDyxB9u
Ss were administered a spatial test and a new measure of "kinesthetic sensitivity," and then received extended practice on a Two-Hand Coordination (THC) task. The results confirm the hypothesis that sensitivity to proprioceptive cues are more important later in perceptual-motor learning while sensitivity to exteroceptive (spatial-visual) are more critical earlier in learning. The study extends previous work which showed that abilities which contribute to learning early in practice may be different from those which facilitate later learning. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three recommendations that are commonly made in the applied sport psychology literature are discussed. These three recommendations are : 1) cognitive anxiety is always detrimental to performance and should therefore be reduced whenever possible; 2) outcome goals and ego orientations have a detrimental effect on a number performance-related variables. so that performers should be encouraged to set performance rather than outcome goals; 3) internal visual imagery is more beneficial to performance than external visual imagery. so performers should always be encouraged to use visual imagery from an internal perspective. For each of these recommendations. empirical and experiential evidence is presented which challenges the recommendation. Alternative refinements to the recommendations are discussed.
Imagery has been proposed to be an effective strategy for controlling levels of competitive anxiety, but little b known about how imagery functions to achieve this. This study explored the relationship between imagery use. imagery ability. competitive anxiety and performance. Fifty-seven Junior North American Roller Skating Championship competitors completed the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 (CSAI-2). Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery to be predictors of cognitive state anxiety. Visual imagery ability also predicted somatic state anxiety. while motivational mastery imagery was a predictor of self-confidence. With respect to the relationship between imagery use and imagery ability, high imagery ability was associated with higher imagery use. Finally, self-confidence and kinesthetic imagery ability scores correctly classified a majority of the subjects as medalists versus non-medalists. These results suggest that imagery can be used to help control competitive anxiety levels and enhance self-confidence.
Analyzed 2 waves of survey data from 373 elite track and field athletes before the 1988 US Olympic trials and after the Olympic Games in Seoul, Korea. Focus was on measures of mental practice and visualization, including internal and external perspectives and association with sociodemographic data, prior collegiate experience, coaching influences, and Olympic team selection. 84.7% of the Ss practiced some form of visualization or mental practice. Education was significantly associated with mental practice. Also, field athletes used significantly more imagery than other athletes. Analyses suggest that mental practice may be associated with more successful track and field performance for selected groups of athletes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on the article by F. C. Bakker et al (see record
1997-06760-001) on changes in muscular activity while imagining weight lifting using stimulus or response propositions. Conceptual misunderstandings, methodological flaws, and analytical weaknesses are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thirteen male gymnasts were given a standard questionnaire and interviewed during the final trials for the U.S. Olympic team. Particular attention was given to psychological factors and cognitive strategies in their training and competition. Using their final competitive grouping as the primary dependent variable, correlations were performed to assess the relationship between these factors and superior athletic performance. Data from this exploratory study suggested that varying patterns of cognition may be strongly correlated with successful and superior gymnastic performance. Specifically, dream frequency, self-verbalizations, and certain forms of mental imagery seemed to differentiate the best gymnasts from those who failed to make the Olympic team. These two groups also appeared to show different anxiety patterns and different methods of coping with competitive stress. The implications of these results for sport psychology are briefly discussed.
When variations in imagery ability are used to predict task performance, distinct and consistent relationships do not tend to emerge. A selective review of studies is undertaken to outline some basic reasons why individual difference measures of imagery are often so unsuccessful. Relevant studies concerning the learning and performance of motor skills are examined in some detail. It is concluded that the major problem in these studies is the types of imagery tests that have been employed; these tests have not adequately measured imagery ability. A recently developed instrument, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire, which has been designed to assess individual differences in visual and kinesthetic imagery of movement is discussed.