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Efficacy of External and Internal Visual Imagery Perspectives for the Enhancement of Performance on Tasks in Which Form Is Important
Abstract
Three experiments examined the relative efficacy of different imagery perspectives on the performance of tasks in which form was important. In Exp 1, 25 experienced karateists (mean age 24.95 yrs) learned a new kata using either external or internal visual imagery or stretching. Results indicate that external visual imagery was significantly more effective than internal visual imagery, which was significantly more effective than stretching. In Exp 2, 40 sport science students (aged 18–35 yrs) learned a simple gymnastics floor routine under one of four conditions: external or internal visual imagery with or without kinesthetic imagery. Results reveal a significant main effect for visual imagery perspective (external visual imagery was best) but no effect for kinesthetic imagery. Exp 3 employed the same paradigm as Exp 2 but with 20 high-ability rock climbers (mean age 23.35 yrs) performing difficult boulder problems. Results show significant main effects for both visual imagery perspective (external visual imagery was best) and kinesthetic imagery. The findings are discussed in terms of the cognitive processes that might underlie imagery effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... En effet, chaque modalité d'IM peut avoir des effets différenciés sur la performance motrice en fonction des contraintes des mouvements ou des enchaînements d'actions (Callow & Roberts, 2012 ;Dominique et al., 2021 ;Robin & Dominique, 2022). Par exemple, des études ont montré que l'IM kinesthésique (évoquer mentalement les sensations de contraction, de relâchement et/ou d'étirement liées à la réalisation d'un mouvement) était bénéfique dans des actions impliquant des coordinations inter-segmentaires comme le service au tennis (Féry, 2003 ;Robin & Dominique, 2022), mais après avoir atteint un certain degré d'expertise dans la tâche (Hardy & Callow, 1999 ;Robin et al., 2020b). De même, d'autres études ont démontré la supériorité de l'IM visuelle externe (s'imaginer se voir à la 3 è personne, du point de vue du « spectateur » ou des « yeux d'autrui », réaliser un mouvement donné comme si on regardait un film) dans des actions qui nécessitaient la reproduction de formes motrices spécifiques comme les enchaînements en danse, en gymnastique ou les katas au karaté (Callow & Hardy, 2004 ;Hardy & Callow, 1999 ;White & Hardy, 1995). ...
... Par exemple, des études ont montré que l'IM kinesthésique (évoquer mentalement les sensations de contraction, de relâchement et/ou d'étirement liées à la réalisation d'un mouvement) était bénéfique dans des actions impliquant des coordinations inter-segmentaires comme le service au tennis (Féry, 2003 ;Robin & Dominique, 2022), mais après avoir atteint un certain degré d'expertise dans la tâche (Hardy & Callow, 1999 ;Robin et al., 2020b). De même, d'autres études ont démontré la supériorité de l'IM visuelle externe (s'imaginer se voir à la 3 è personne, du point de vue du « spectateur » ou des « yeux d'autrui », réaliser un mouvement donné comme si on regardait un film) dans des actions qui nécessitaient la reproduction de formes motrices spécifiques comme les enchaînements en danse, en gymnastique ou les katas au karaté (Callow & Hardy, 2004 ;Hardy & Callow, 1999 ;White & Hardy, 1995). Enfin, des études ont mis en évidence une efficacité supérieure de l'IM visuelle interne (s'imaginer voir les changements découlant d'une action du point de vue de l'« exécutant » comme si l'on voyait de ses propres yeux) dans des habiletés fermées comme le service au tennis (Dominique et al., 2024) ou des tâches de déplacement comme le slalom en kayak (Callow et al., 2013 ;White & Hardy, 1998). ...
Pour favoriser l'apprentissage d'habiletés motrices, il est recommandé en plus de la pratique réelle d'avoir recours à des stratégies comme le discours interne (DI) et l'ima-gerie motrice (IM) qui consiste à simuler mentalement une action. Cette étude avait pour but de tester les effets d'une combinaison de DI et d'IM sur la performance d'un parcours de type slalom réalisé en fauteuil roulant parasport par des novices. Quarante-quatre étudiants volontaires (M age =20,6), aléatoirement répartis en 3 groupes : Contrôle, IM et IM+DI, ont réa-lisé 3 phases expérimentales réparties sur 6 séances. Séance 1 (pré-test), tous les groupes réa-lisaient 2 fois un parcours chronométré. Les séances 2 à 5 (acquisition) comprenaient cha-cune la réalisation de 3 fois le parcours : physiquement après une tâche neutre pour le groupe Contrôle, mentalement puis physiquement pour le groupe IM et mentalement avec discours interne puis physiquement pour le groupe IM+DI. La séance 6 (post-test) était similaire à la séance 1. Les résultats montrent des améliorations supérieures de la vitesse de réalisation du parcours pour le groupe IM+DI et moins d'erreurs de touches de plots pour les groupes IM et IM+DI. L'intérêt de combiner les modalités de pratique, pour améliorer l'apprentissage de l'uti-lisation du fauteuil roulant, est discuté. mots clés : simulation mentale, fauteuil roulant, apprentissage, handisport, dialogue interne. AbstRAct: To promote motor skill learning, it is recommended, in addition to real practice, to use strategies such as internal discourse (ID) and motor imagery (MI) consisting of internally simulating performing an action. The aim of this study was to test the effects of a combination of ID and MI on the performance of a slalom-type course performed in a sport wheelchair by Article en prépublication-Staps 2024 novices. Fourty-four volunteer students (M age =20.6), randomly divided into 3 groups: Control, MI and IM+DI, carried out 3 experimental phases spread over 6 sessions. Session 1 (pre-test), all the groups completed the timed course twice. The following 4 sessions (acquisition) included completing the course 3 times: Physically after a neutral counting back task for the Control group, mentally then physically for the MI group, and mentally with internal discourse then physically for the MI+ID group. Session 6 (post-test): similar to session 1. The results show greater improvements in slalom speed for the MI+ID group and less cone hit errors for both the MI and MI+ID groups. The interest of combining the modalities of practice, to improve the learning of the wheelchair use, is discussed.
... MI paradigms primarily encompass visual imagery (VI) and kinesthetic imagery (KI). VI involves the visualization of limb movement from either a first-person or third-person perspective [16][17][18] , while KI entails the mental simulation of the somatosensory experience associated with performing the movement 19 . Both modalities facilitate information processing and cortical activation, though distinct neural mechanisms 20 . ...
This study investigates whether the combined effect of kinesthetic motor imagery-based brain computer interface (KI-BCI) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on upper limb function in subacute stroke patients is more effective than using KI-BCI or tDCS alone. Forty-eight subacute stroke survivors were randomized to the KI-BCI, tDCS, or BCI-tDCS group. The KI-BCI group performed 30 min of KI-BCI training. Patients in tDCS group received 30 min of tDCS. Patients in BCI-tDCS group received 15 min of tDCS and 15 min of KI-BCI. The treatment cycle was five times a week, for four weeks. After all intervention, the Fugl-Meyer Assessment-Upper Extremity, Motor Status Scale, and the Modified Barthel Index scores of the KI-BCI group were superior to those of the tDCS group. The BCI-tDCS group was superior to the tDCS group in terms of the Motor Status Scale. Although quantitative EEG showed no significant group differences, the quantitative EEG indices in the tDCS group were significantly lower than before treatment. In conclusion, after treatment, although all intervention strategies improved upper limb motor function and daily living abilities in subacute stroke patients, KI-BCI demonstrated significantly better efficacy than tDCS. Under the same total treatment duration, the combined use of tDCS and KI-BCI did not achieve the hypothesized optimal outcome. Notably, tDCS reduced QEEG indices, possibly indicating favorable future outcomes in future.
Trial registry number: ChiCTR2000034730.
... Statistically significant differences were observed between the two groups (MI intervention and placebo) before and after the 4-week intervention period. MI has been proven to be an effective complementary therapeutic modality, in addition to a conventional physical therapy, in sports injury management and rehabilitation [13,27,30,[45][46][47], and also in sports performance optimization [25,48]. However, most of the studies evaluate the effects of MI with respect to sports performance in healthy athletes and not during the return-to-play period after a sports injury, such as a Grade II ankle sprain. ...
Ankle sprains are considered to be the most common musculoskeletal lower limb injury, accounting for a high percentage of all sport injuries in football. Motor imagery (MI) has been widely used for sports performance optimization purposes, suggesting that athletes’ ability to reenact a motor action can improve sports performance and rehabilitation. The aim of the present study was to explore the role of MI as an adjunct intervention in VO2max and lactate in football players with Grade II ankle sprains during the return-to-play period. Fifty-eight professional football players were randomly divided into two groups: first, the MI (n = 29) and second, the placebo (n = 29). The MI group received recorded MI instructions, whereas the placebo group received only relaxation instructions. A one-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant results within the first 4 weeks following the interventions in both groups. Additionally, a t-test showed statistically significant differences between the two groups in VO2max (t = −6.04, p = 0.000, two-tailed, p < 0.05) and lactate (t = 4.33, p = 0.000, two-tailed, p < 0.05). Further research across various sports is needed to better understand the role of MI in the return-to-play period, particularly regarding injury management and sports performance.
... The size, brightness, colour of the image, the volume and pitch of the sound, and the intensity and temperature of the kinaesthetic sensations are also modified in order to select those that will result in a deep experience and the desired state. During visualisation training, the focus is on mentally repeating the karateka's starting strategies depending on the situation, with a sense of maintaining control and confidence in different situations during competition (20). Furthermore, it is beneficial to ascertain which values are of the greatest importance to a karateka-combat sport, martial art, selfdefence system-and how these can be leveraged during training and in competition to attain success (21). ...
Mental preparation for sports competition in karate is significant, as it is deeply embedded in the philosophical and ethical values that underpin this combat method. In practice, the mental preparation of karateka varies depending on the type of competition, for example preparation for kata (forms) and kumite (fights). Thus, this perspective offers a concise account of the authors' viewpoint on the leading mental skills required of kata competitors. It is argued that self-esteem, inner speech, imagination, visualisation, values and personality play a significant role in the development of confidence. In addressing stress, attention was directed towards the role of arousal, coping strategies, Jacobson's progressive relaxation, Schultz's autogenic training, biofeedback, schemas and scripts. Effective management of anxiety relies on the utilisation of mindfulness and desensitisation techniques. In maintaining attention, effective attention management, attention styles, the ability to filter out distractions, mantras and affirmations are significant. Conversely, practicing tasks that induce a Stroop effect can improve executive function skills. The above elements of mental preparation for kata competitors are universally applicable to all competitors in this field, yet they are not the sole elements that may be employed. Given the individual predispositions of kata competitors, other mental training techniques may also be applicable.
... Previous research shows that internal imagery more functionally evokes equivalent brain activity than external imagery [15]. On the other hand, some studies support the use of external imagery [16,17]. To compromise these two perspectives, implementation of a combination of both perspectives [13] is suggested, which is easily done by more advanced athletes [18]. ...
Introduction. There is a growing number of studies concerning imagery training in young athletes but on a much smaller scale than research in adults. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of imagery training on children’s soccer skills. Materials and Methods: We conducted two studies. In the first study a sample of 35 subjects, aged between 10 and 14 years, was divided into an experimental condition (18 players) and a control condition (17 players). Each person completed one script from the Sports Imagery Ability Measure (SIAM) and from the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3) and took a performance test on pre-test and post-test. In the second study 40 players, aged from 11 to 14 years, were divided into the control group (12 players) and the experimental group (13 players). They filled out the same questionnaires, as well as the Sports Imagery Questionnaire for Children (SIQ-C). They took part in 6 and 8 weeks of imagery training, respectively. Participants in the control condition performed only the shooting pre-and post-tests. Results: In the post-test, players in the imagery condition obtained better results in soccer skills and in SIQ-C, but not in imagery ability tests. Conclusions: The results supported effectiveness of the imagery training, especially since the intervention was conducted during the COVID lockdown.
Motor imagery (MI) is a cognitive process believed to rely on the representation developed through experience. The equivalence between MI and execution has been questioned and the relationship between experience types and MI is unclear. We tested how observational and physical practice of hand gesture sequences impacted visual and kinesthetic MI and transfer to the unpractised effector. Three groups (n = 22/gp.); no-vision physical practice, observational practice and no-practice control, practiced and visually and kinesthetically imagined performing the sequences. MI was assessed using mental chronometry, a movement time (MT) congruency measure and subjective ratings. Physical practice improved kinesthetic MI ratings and observational practice improved visual MI ratings. Contrary to predictions, physical practice did not enhance timing congruency. Imagined MTs were longer in transfer after physical practice, suggesting MI was not based on the same representation. These data question ideas of equivalence, with poor temporal matching after no-vision physical practice.
Ss were administered a spatial test and a new measure of "kinesthetic sensitivity," and then received extended practice on a Two-Hand Coordination (THC) task. The results confirm the hypothesis that sensitivity to proprioceptive cues are more important later in perceptual-motor learning while sensitivity to exteroceptive (spatial-visual) are more critical earlier in learning. The study extends previous work which showed that abilities which contribute to learning early in practice may be different from those which facilitate later learning. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three recommendations that are commonly made in the applied sport psychology literature are discussed. These three recommendations are : 1) cognitive anxiety is always detrimental to performance and should therefore be reduced whenever possible; 2) outcome goals and ego orientations have a detrimental effect on a number performance-related variables. so that performers should be encouraged to set performance rather than outcome goals; 3) internal visual imagery is more beneficial to performance than external visual imagery. so performers should always be encouraged to use visual imagery from an internal perspective. For each of these recommendations. empirical and experiential evidence is presented which challenges the recommendation. Alternative refinements to the recommendations are discussed.
Imagery has been proposed to be an effective strategy for controlling levels of competitive anxiety, but little b known about how imagery functions to achieve this. This study explored the relationship between imagery use. imagery ability. competitive anxiety and performance. Fifty-seven Junior North American Roller Skating Championship competitors completed the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 (CSAI-2). Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery to be predictors of cognitive state anxiety. Visual imagery ability also predicted somatic state anxiety. while motivational mastery imagery was a predictor of self-confidence. With respect to the relationship between imagery use and imagery ability, high imagery ability was associated with higher imagery use. Finally, self-confidence and kinesthetic imagery ability scores correctly classified a majority of the subjects as medalists versus non-medalists. These results suggest that imagery can be used to help control competitive anxiety levels and enhance self-confidence.
Analyzed 2 waves of survey data from 373 elite track and field athletes before the 1988 US Olympic trials and after the Olympic Games in Seoul, Korea. Focus was on measures of mental practice and visualization, including internal and external perspectives and association with sociodemographic data, prior collegiate experience, coaching influences, and Olympic team selection. 84.7% of the Ss practiced some form of visualization or mental practice. Education was significantly associated with mental practice. Also, field athletes used significantly more imagery than other athletes. Analyses suggest that mental practice may be associated with more successful track and field performance for selected groups of athletes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on the article by F. C. Bakker et al (see record
1997-06760-001) on changes in muscular activity while imagining weight lifting using stimulus or response propositions. Conceptual misunderstandings, methodological flaws, and analytical weaknesses are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thirteen male gymnasts were given a standard questionnaire and interviewed during the final trials for the U.S. Olympic team. Particular attention was given to psychological factors and cognitive strategies in their training and competition. Using their final competitive grouping as the primary dependent variable, correlations were performed to assess the relationship between these factors and superior athletic performance. Data from this exploratory study suggested that varying patterns of cognition may be strongly correlated with successful and superior gymnastic performance. Specifically, dream frequency, self-verbalizations, and certain forms of mental imagery seemed to differentiate the best gymnasts from those who failed to make the Olympic team. These two groups also appeared to show different anxiety patterns and different methods of coping with competitive stress. The implications of these results for sport psychology are briefly discussed.
When variations in imagery ability are used to predict task performance, distinct and consistent relationships do not tend to emerge. A selective review of studies is undertaken to outline some basic reasons why individual difference measures of imagery are often so unsuccessful. Relevant studies concerning the learning and performance of motor skills are examined in some detail. It is concluded that the major problem in these studies is the types of imagery tests that have been employed; these tests have not adequately measured imagery ability. A recently developed instrument, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire, which has been designed to assess individual differences in visual and kinesthetic imagery of movement is discussed.