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Attentional Overload and Writing Performance: Effects of Rough Draft and Outline Strategies
Abstract
Preparing a written outline during prewriting and composing a rough 1st draft are strategies that may ease attentional overload and consequently enhance writing performance. The present research examined how these strategies affect the efficiency of the writing process and the quality of the written product. The processing time and cognitive effort given to planning ideas, translating ideas into text, and reviewing ideas and text were monitored by using directed retrospection and comparing secondary-task reaction times. The results of Exp 1 indicated that preparing a written outline, compared with not doing so, led to higher quality documents as indexed by ratings of judges. Composing a rough draft, as opposed to a polished draft, had no beneficial effect on writing quality. Exp 2 showed that a mental outline improved the quality of the documents as much as a written outline, indicating that the written outline was not serving as an external memory aid. Also, both mental and written outlines eased attentional overload by allowing the writer to focus processing time on the single process of translating ideas into text. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... In Kellogg's (1988) study into pre-writing strategies and attentional overload, the effects of outlining and drafting on writing efficiency and quality were investigated. A two (outline versus no-outline) by two (rough draft versus polished draft) factorial design was used whereby 18 university students were randomly assigned to each of the four conditions (Kellogg, 1988, p. 356). ...
... For example, although Kellogg (1988, p. 357) found that participants in the Outline Group experienced significantly higher scores on overall writing quality compared to the No-Outline Group, the contributing significant differences lay in the areas of idea development, effectiveness, and language usage. Since idea development and language usage were not rated under 'structure' in this dissertation, it cannot be concluded that the findings of this dissertation support those of Kellogg (1988) in these areas. ...
... However, assuming that 'effectiveness', as measured by Kellogg (1988), related to the degree to which the written text met the requirements of the task, then it is argued that elements of the overall structure score -such as the use of paragraphing (formatting) and topic sentences -contribute to Kellogg's (1988) measure of 'effectiveness'. Thus, it is argued that the higher structure scores of the Outlining Group in the Delayed Post-Intervention Essay compared to the writing of the same group in the Pre-Intervention ...
The thesis explores the use of outlining and concept mapping as pre-writing strategies in the writing of in-class essays among ESL learners, and how these strategies influence the quality of particular language features.
... Quant au sous-processus de formulation, il sert à préparer la mise en texte suivant la conceptualisation effectuée. 14 D'après Kellogg (1988) l'activité mentale de planification améliorerait la performance rédactionnelle en tant qu'elle permet une réorganisation pertinente des connaissances récupérées, en fonction des contraintes rédactionnelles de la tâche. Si la phase de préécriture (qui précède la mise en texte) a une durée importante, c'est qu'elle recouvre la conceptualisation conjointement à la formulation des connaissances récupérées. ...
... Si la phase de préécriture (qui précède la mise en texte) a une durée importante, c'est qu'elle recouvre la conceptualisation conjointement à la formulation des connaissances récupérées. Elle aboutit ainsi à une qualité de texte visiblement meilleure au niveau du style, de la cohérence et de l'orthographe correspondant aux exigences de la littéracie académique (Kellogg, 1988). ...
... En effet, l'écriture académique est un processus complexe qui exige, au-delà de la mise en texte, une phase de pré-écriture et souvent une autre de réécriture. Durant la phase de préécriture, le processus de planification s'avère le plus sollicité, comparativement aux autres processus rédactionnels (Kellogg, 1988). Plusieurs observations empiriques témoignent d'un effet déterminant de l'utilisation du brouillon sur la qualité du texte produit (Piolat et al., 1997). ...
This work is part of a two-phase study, which analyzes a typed writing task, attempts via video capture software. Our sample consists of 32 students from different profiles, including adults returning to studies, repeat students and new incoming students. Analysis of the video recordings describing the processual course of the writing activity in real time (30 minutes) allowed us to note a relationship between the number and type of writing pauses taken, the relation to writing, the experience of the students and their performance. The results show a high link between the student's writing performance and the strategies they use to manage their writing. In addition, a constructive relation to writing seems to facilitate an effective management of the editorial processes by systematically alternating planning (outlining) and other revision steps. In addition to their good performances in writing, adults returning to studies seem to better master their editorial (writing) activity, compared to novices. In sum, following our results, we suggest three ways of procedures favorable to the appropriation of an academic literacy: the representational (relation to writing), the procedural (editorial management) and the automation (related to competence).
... Kormos (2011) sees the transcribing stage of paramount significance for EFL writers because concentrating on this stage would increase the problem-solving ability of L2 writers. Kellogg (1988)investigated the effects of outlining and no outlining and also polished versus rough draft on the text quality of L1 writers and intended to see if these strategies reduced the cognitive attentional overload of these writers. The results displayed that outlining and rough draft led to the reduction of attentionaloverload, but it was the outlining strategy that caused improvement in text quality. ...
... For Hayes and Gradwohl Nash (1996), planning in writing is considered a kind of reflection accompanied by other reflective procedures like decision making and inferencing strategies. A host of planning time studies have addressed the working memory and the learners' limited attentional resources in the working memory (Elbow, 1973(Elbow, , 1981Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1990Mancho´n& Roca de Larios, 2007;Roca de Larios et al., 2001;Roca de Larios, et al., 2006;Roca de Larios et al., 2008). The working memory, its conditions, and limitations have been the focus and concerns of several studies that have had a performance-centered nature although their contributions might be compared to writing task findings. ...
... Their second experiment involved 93 undergraduate psychology majored university students whose compositions were compared on the basis of their writing quality under pre-writing and immediate writing condition. Their findings revealed that in terms of the quality of compositions, the differences among the groups were not very outstanding.Two experiments by Kellogg (1988) produced different results concerning planning time and writing quality. In his first experiment, he examined the effects of planning and composing a rough draft on the fluency and quality of texts produced by 18 college learners. ...
In the present study, the effects of four planning time conditions (pre-task, extended task, freewriting, and control) were investigated over the quality of expository and argumentative writings of 108 undergraduate EFL writers. The maximum time limit was 30 minutes for all the four groups of the study. Theresults revealed significantly higher writing quality in the freewriting condition in both argumentative and expository writings. The results also showed that compared with the effects of the writing mode those of the planning time conditions were more decisive on the writing quality. Moreover, argumentative writings were of higher quality than expository writings. Being placed in different writing modes was not decisive in the choice of planning time conditions. The results may have pedagogical implications for EFL writing instructors and theoretical implications for EFL writing researchers.
... While better individual writing support may benefit any individual author, understanding document evolution becomes even more important, we would argue, as writing moves online, primarily because one of the primary benefits of these online platforms is their support for collaborative document authoring. Greer et al. [26] note that, if writing is decomposed into distinct rhetorical phases, this phased writing process helps structure writing, and can guide collaborators co-creating documents to appropriate subtasks during different phases of document creation [34,55]. Understanding -and depicting -document phases can also help new collaborators get up-to-speed, while supporting efforts at proper collaboration etiquette [17,27]. ...
... The cognitive process model of writing [20] divides up document authoring into distinctive and hierarchical phases, which enables writers to construct highly personal, idiosyncratic and complex workflows [55]. The complexity of these workflows requires authors to coordinate multiple and often competing writing activities [3,4] These processes compete for a writer's attention which can lead to cognitive overload [26,34]. Especially high demand processes, such as planning and reviewing, require significant levels of attention control [11,34]. ...
... The complexity of these workflows requires authors to coordinate multiple and often competing writing activities [3,4] These processes compete for a writer's attention which can lead to cognitive overload [26,34]. Especially high demand processes, such as planning and reviewing, require significant levels of attention control [11,34]. Non-expert authors utilize strategies to reduce the cognitive load by decomposing the writing task into smaller, more manageable subtasks and stages [25,26,34,35]. ...
Writing is a complex non-linear process that begins with a mental model of intent, and progresses through an outline of ideas, to words on paper (and their subsequent refinement). Despite past research in understanding writing, Web-scale consumer and enterprise collaborative digital writing environments are yet to greatly benefit from intelligent systems that understand the stages of document evolution, providing opportune assistance based on authors' situated actions and context. In this paper, we present three studies that explore temporal stages of document authoring. We first survey information workers at a large technology company about their writing habits and preferences, concluding that writers do in fact conceptually progress through several distinct phases while authoring documents. We also explore, qualitatively, how writing stages are linked to document lifespan. We supplement these qualitative findings with an analysis of the longitudinal user interaction logs of a popular digital writing platform over several million documents. Finally, as a first step towards facilitating an intelligent digital writing assistant, we conduct a preliminary investigation into the utility of user interaction log data for predicting the temporal stage of a document. Our results support the benefit of tools tailored to writing stages, identify primary tasks associated with these stages, and show that it is possible to predict stages from anonymous interaction logs. Together, these results argue for the benefit and feasibility of more tailored digital writing assistance.
... Finalmente, existen numerosos estudios que han demostrado que la escritura del alumnado de primaria, tanto en inglés L1 (véase el meta-análisis de Graham, McKeown, Kiuhara y Harris, 2012) como en español L1 (LÓPEZ; TORRANCE; RIJLAARSDAM; FIDALGO, 2017; ROLDÁN-PREGO; GONZÁLEZ-SEIJAS, 2016), mejora tras intervenciones didácticas centradas en las operaciones y en los procedimientos de planificación previa. El éxito de este tipo de intervenciones puede deberse a que la planificación permite al alumnado registrar las ideas que necesitará durante la escritura del texto y reduce la carga cognitiva que supone planificar durante la textualización (KELLOGG, 1988). ...
... La unidad de análisis que se ha adoptado en el estudio de las interacciones es el episodio. Esta unidad ha sido empleada en muchas investigaciones sobre la escritura conjunta de textos (STORCH, 2005(STORCH, , 2011SWAIN;LAPKIN, 1995;CAMPS;GUASCH;MILIAN;RIBAS, 2000;GUTIÉRREZ, 2008; entre otros). La mayor parte de ellas se centran en los denominados language related episodes (LREs) que se definen como cualquier parte de diálogo en la que el alumnado habla sobre la lengua que está produciendo, cuestiona su uso lingüístico, o propone una corrección, tanto a su producción como a una ajena (SWAIN; LAPKIN, 1995). ...
... El hecho de que cinco de las 11 parejas escriban directamente el texto final en el borrador muestra, como observaron Bereiter y Scardamalia (1987), y Whitaker, Berninger, Johnston y Swanson (1994), que una parte del alumnado de estas edades no utiliza procedimientos de planificación y que planifica generando texto. La generación de texto durante la planificación previa explica también el hecho de que algunas de estas parejas dediquen parte de su interacción a hablar sobre aspectos metalingüísticos o estéticos, los cuales, si se quiere evitar la sobrecarga cognitiva (KELLOGG, 1988), sería más adecuado abordar durante la textualización. ...
RESUMEN Este trabajo, de carácter descriptivo y cualitativo, investiga las operaciones o subprocesos de planificación textual que lleva a cabo el alumnado de primaria así como las técnicas que emplea en la elaboración de borradores. La investigación se basa en los modelos cognitivos de la escritura y en los principios de la teoría sociocultural del aprendizaje. Para llevar a cabo el estudio, se analizan los episodios encontrados en las interacciones orales de 11 parejas de 5º de primaria de un centro de la región de Navarra (España) y los borradores que estas elaboran en el contexto de una tarea de escritura conjunta de textos expositivo-argumentativos. Los resultados muestran que, en general, el alumnado atiende principalmente al subproceso de generación de ideas, y, en menor medida, a aspectos metalingüísticos, estéticos y de gestión de la tarea. Respecto a las técnicas, se observa que solo seis parejas las utilizan y que presentan diferente nivel de complejidad. Estos resultados, junto a la gran variabilidad encontrada, evidencian la necesidad de trabajar este proceso de manera específica y sistemática en esta etapa.
... Among various sub-processes in writing, many researchers have concentrated on exploring either planning or revision (Eklundh & Kollberg, 2003;Faigley & Witte, 1981;Flower et al., 1986;Hayes & Nash, 1996;Kellogg, 1996;Lindgren, 2005;Olive & Passerault, 2012;Witte, 1987). Regarding planning, some researchers have interest in explicit planning activities (e.g., outlining); they showed that explicit planning activities were effective since they allow writers to reduce cognitive overload by concentrating on planning activities during the prewriting stage (Kellogg, 1988; see also Galbraith, Ford, Walker, & Ford, 2005;De Smet, Brand-Gruwel, Broekkamp, & Kirschner, 2012). Some researchers proved that students in the outlining condition outperform those in the no prewriting or other prewriting conditions such as clustering or listing ideas without organization (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 1990Limpo & Alves, 2018;Piolat & Roussey, 1996). ...
... Regarding planning, some researchers have interest in explicit planning activities (e.g., outlining); they showed that explicit planning activities were effective since they allow writers to reduce cognitive overload by concentrating on planning activities during the prewriting stage (Kellogg, 1988; see also Galbraith, Ford, Walker, & Ford, 2005;De Smet, Brand-Gruwel, Broekkamp, & Kirschner, 2012). Some researchers proved that students in the outlining condition outperform those in the no prewriting or other prewriting conditions such as clustering or listing ideas without organization (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 1990Limpo & Alves, 2018;Piolat & Roussey, 1996). Other researchers produced some useful planning or planning instruction strategies in various educational settings. ...
... By applying experimental designs of outline plan vs. synthetic plan, Baaijen et al. (2014) and Baaijen and Galbraith (2018) drew a similar conclusion as the above-mentioned research in that both plans can be admitted as effective strategies in certain conditions. However, these studies tended to conflict with precedent research that have emphasized the effectiveness of outlining (De la Paz & Graham 2002;De Smet et al., 2012;Kellogg, 1988;Kirkpatrick & Klein, 2009;Kiuhara, O'Neill, Hawken, & Graham, 2012;Limpo & Alves, 2018;Piolat & Roussey, 1996). In other words, it can be supposed that some researchers emphasize superiority of the planning strategy whereas other researchers focus more on the effectiveness of writers' dispositional choice for their own strategies. ...
This study aimed to identify undergraduate students' writing profiles based on quality of planning output, revision changes between the first and final drafts, and quantity of Internet searches while writing digitally. To investigate the performance of each profile, the differences in text quality according to students' profile membership were also examined. 260 Korean undergraduate students participated in the study and wrote an opinion essay. Latent profile analysis and one-way MANOVA were adopted as analytic tools. Four profiles emerged: Revision-based, Plan-based, Search-based, and Correction-based Writers. Correction-based Writers who showed many surface-level changes represented the majority. Revision-based Writers who showed many sentential and textual changes outperformed the other three profiles; the other profiles did not show significant differences in text quality between each other. The research findings corroborated evidence for the existing issue of planning vs. revising strategies and presented educational implications based on analyzing the current state of undergraduate students' writing.
Keywords digital writing; planning; revision; Internet search; latent profile analysis
... One approach to reduce dual-task interference in writing is separating the planning and generating of ideas from translating ideas into words. This allows writers to focus on organizing their thoughts more effectively without having to worry about producing texts (Kellogg, 1988). Once the writers lay out their ideas and have a clear organizational arrangement, their focus can shift to translating these ideas into words. ...
... Studies show that well-planned outlines are beneficial to students' writing development because they separate planning content from the transcription process, enabling students to devote more cognitive effort to translating ideas into words (Johnson, Mercado, & Acevedo, 2012;Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1990. Kellogg (1988) tested this process and concluded that the effect of separating the two cognitively demanding tasks-planning content and producing texts-reduced interference between these two tasks. ...
... Studies show that well-planned outlines are beneficial to students' writing development because they separate planning content from the transcription process, enabling students to devote more cognitive effort to translating ideas into words (Johnson, Mercado, & Acevedo, 2012;Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1990. Kellogg (1988) tested this process and concluded that the effect of separating the two cognitively demanding tasks-planning content and producing texts-reduced interference between these two tasks. Outlining and advanced planning are "particularly useful for less experienced writers, or writers who struggle with the linguistic demands of writing, as would be the case if they were writing in a second language" (Torrance, 2016, p. 82). ...
For second language (L2) learners, developing proficiency in academic writing is a cognitively demanding process that requires domain knowledge, in‐depth understanding of rhetoric and genre conventions, and mastery of linguistic principles. Teaching writing to students with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds in a way that fosters competence and confidence is equally challenging. However, carefully devised integration of digital tools into L2 writing curriculum can support developing writers. Considering the complexity of writing from students' and instructors' standpoints, this article proposes an integration of infographics into the L2 writing curriculum as a means of (1) supporting the writing development of multilingual students and (2) scaffolding the cognitive demands L2 writers face while composing. It also calls attention to communicative and rhetorical functions of writing. The curricular integration of infographics in second language writing courses is grounded in the process‐based writing approach that involves careful and iterative planning, writing, and revision. Arguing that infographics is an effective digital tool that holds tremendous potential to support both L2 students and instructors in writing intensive classes, the authors explore how infographics can be integrated in process‐based writing curriculum to support the writing development of multilingual students.
... Many writing theorists have theorised that writers with lower working memory capacity (than average) have difficulties integrating the lower and higher levels of writing (e.g. Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, -2008McCutchen, 2000); whilst dyslexia has been associated with deficient working memory capacity (Berninger, 2000;Berninger, Neilsen, Abbott et al., 2008). Both of these perspectives will be discussed later in the chapter. ...
... Research has shown that becoming more experienced at managing working memory load involves learning certain writing process techniques to maximise the limitations of working memory. For example, Kellogg (1988Kellogg ( , 1990Kellogg ( , 1999 studied how outlining at the planning stage of writing produces better quality writing products, because, he assumed, this preplanning frees up working memory for the composing process. ...
... Successive strands of writing research in the last two decades used each of these two models by adapting it to their view of writing: either by adding a working memory, or combining aspects of either model (e.g. Almargot & Fayol, 2009: Galbraith, Ford, Walker, & Ford, 2005Galbraith et al., 2009;Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, -2008. Then finally, these researchers arrived at a consensus of the Dual-Processing model, which includes both the high-level and low-level writing processes, and the dynamical interaction between these levels (their processes) in writing production and, thus, development (Galbraith, 2009). ...
Dyslexia has been conceptualised over several decades, mostly in the UK and North America, as a reading disorder, which originates in childhood. As the literature has evolved, conceptualisation has expanded into understanding dyslexia across the lifespan and its effects on adults in university contexts. Despite these advancements, there is a lack of research on how dyslexia impacts academic writing development. Conceptualisation of dyslexia has predominantly emanated from a cognitive perspective, focusing on single events of cognitive processing, mostly in the context of understanding childhood literacy development. It is questionable how much relevance this approach has for adults in academic writing contexts. Developing in parallel with these cognitive- literacy focused conceptualisations of dyslexia, writing theory and academic writing theory, as two separate disciplines, have developed a social cognitive perspective of the interactions between the cognitive and the social environment. Adopting an Academic Literacies’ framework, the current study interviewed 10 successful dyslexic academic writers, mostly senior lecturers. Their answers were analysed for themes that described the challenges they faced in becoming successful dyslexic academic writers. One distinction found in the current study was in how, despite other student groups being investigated for academic writing, identity and social-cognitivism, dyslexic writers continue to be conceptualised in terms of cognitivism and, more particularly, their difficulties with academic writing continue to be associated with literacy development. Other findings suggested that dyslexic writers are not able to access academic writing instruction in a way that addresses their specific needs because of a number of environmental barriers that interact with their ability to develop their dyslexic writer identities. These barriers come in the form of conflicts and tensions about what is the nature of dyslexia in adult contexts, and how being dyslexic interacts with academic writing development in those contexts.
... Furthermore, this topic has surpassed practical interest in task-based language teaching (TBLT) as a means to compensate for L2 learners' limited attentional resources. Ellis and Yuan (2004) advocate Kellogg's (1988Kellogg's ( , 1996 writing model, which consists of formulation for generating ideas and choosing linguistic forms, translation for actual motor writing, and monitoring for revising. This model has been widely used to explain the theoretical role of pre-task planning in writing. ...
... In the present study, the term pre-task planning will be used to refer to strategic planning. Two crucial theoretical frameworks for pre-task planning in written tasks are 1) L2 learners' limited attentional resource capacity and 2) Kellogg's (1988Kellogg's ( , 1996 writing model. From an information processing perspective, the amount of information that learners can process (from input to output) is limited. ...
... Providing learners with planning time before writing has the potential to free up limited attentional resources and ease the pressure on working memory, thus improving linguistic performance (Skehan, 1998). Moreover, in Kellogg's (1988Kellogg's ( , 1996 writing model, task-based researchers have paid special attention to the formulation process. Formulation consists of two sub-stages, namely, planning and translating. ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate how the use of L1 versus L2 during pre-task planning affects novice L2 learners’ written performance. The study’s rationale is based on the following: 1) novice L2 learners’ planning behavior, including language choice (L1 versus L2), has rarely been examined in planning studies and 2) repeated and redundant measures for complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) combined with a lack of qualitative data on the relationship between planning and writing have not clearly shown what L2 writers actually do during planning. A total of 42 undergraduates were divided into two groups: Korean pre-task planning (KPP) and English pre-task planning (EPP). Each composed two narrative writings for a detailed selection for novice level of English proficiency and main task with L1 or L2 planning conditions. Twelve measures of CAF were assessed to compare two groups’ written performance, and qualitative data by four coding themes (new ideas, content ideas, linguistic errors, and L1 transfer) were supplemented. Findings demonstrated that the KPP group significantly improved phrasal syntactic complexity (MLC) compared to the EPP group, whereas the EPP group significantly increased overall accuracy (EFC/C) and specific accuracy (E3/T) compared to the KPP group. There was no significant difference in speed and repair fluency between the two groups. Additionally, the KPP group generated more new ideas during pre-task planning and applied them to writing, while L1 transfer may be one of reasons for deteriorating accuracy. The EPP group’s incorrect lexical use in planning seemed to be a predictive indicator for subsequent errors in writing. Experimental and pedagogical implications will be suggested.
... However, the ways in which students complete a writing task also vary in terms of how engagement in particular processes is distributed across the writing timecourse (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 2001Levy & Ransdell, 1995;Penningroth & Rosenberg, 1995;Piolat, Kellogg, & Farioli, 2001). In these studies time-on-task was divided into three equal periods. ...
... This effect was absent, however, when students wrote narratives. This fi nding is consistent with studies that found positive benefi ts of requiring adult writers to plan before writing full text (Kellogg, 1988;1990). Levy and Ransdell (1995) showed that text quality depends on the time that undergraduate writers spend on revision in a writing task without genre constraints. ...
... Again, this was predictable, although in principle it would be possible to compose text in smaller plan-write-revise cycles. These results are in line with previous studies conducted with adult writers (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 2001Levy & Ransdell, 1995;Penningroth & Rosenberg, 1995;Piolat et al., 2001) and secondary school students (Breetvelt et al., 1994;Van den Bergh & Rijlaarsdam, 1999;2001). They seem to indicate that, despite the recursive nature of writing (Hayes & Flower, 1980), writing processes are not equally likely to be activated at any time during composition. ...
Background:
The online management of writing processes is an important factor related to the composition of high-quality texts. In the present study we analysed the time that upper-primary students devoted to writing processes, the distribution of those processes during composition and the contribution of both aspects to text quality.
Method:
120 upper-primary students were asked to write an argumentative text in pairs under thinking aloud conditions. Verbalizations were analysed considering different writing processes and sub-processes.
Results:
Upper-primary students rarely used planning and revising processes. Planning, which basically involved content generation, was mostly activated at the beginning of the writing task. Revision, which mainly included reading, appeared at the end. The time devoted to writing processes or the time at which they were activated had no effect on text quality.
Conclusions:
Not only did upper-primary students make little use of planning and revising processes, it was also ineffective. Thus, there is a need to provide them with high-quality instruction in school from early on.
... Some recent studies examine controlling online planning and project situations (e.g., in particular, complexity) (Ong, 2014). Some of the others worked on L2 multi-word expressions that explore web planning (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 1990 or assignment settings (Glynn, Britton, Muth & Dogan, 1982), even as some others observed their relations (Ellis & Yuan, 2004;Ong, 2014;Ong & Zhang, 2010. ...
... This is while some emphasize the significance of nonmultiword expressions in lessening the intellectual request for interpretation, unity, and finding of thoughts (Elbow, 1973(Elbow, , 1981Wason, 1980). Other studies enumerate the advantages of planning in decreasing the theorization method capacity, hence creating a better multi-word expression (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987;Ellis & Yuan, 2004;Flower & Hayes, 1980, 1981Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1990. The bones of the opposition lie in Kellogg's (1990) two differing theories. ...
This research was carried out to examine the effect of using careful online planning vs. pressured online planning on learning multi-word expressions among intermediate English learners. To this end, two samples of learners through an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) were selected as the careful online group and pressured online group. After the pretest, the researcher exposed the experimental group to all multi-word expressions, adapted from input text. The experimental group was supposed to listen to some audio files and learn the multi-word expressions and then they must have been able to produce those expressions while speaking. They were asked to watch a film of The Donkey and The Master, take notes, and retell the story in six minutes for pressured online planners and then the time for careful online planners. The first time was for pleasure; the second time, they were expected to retell the story using Multi-Words Expressions in the film. After three weeks of instruction, the posttest was given to the students of both groups to assess their achievement. After quantitative data analysis, an independent sample T-test was performed. The results indicate that pressured online planning was more effective. This study has implications for EFL teachers and instructors.
... 269) From a theoretical perspective, Kellogg's (1990) Overload Hypothesis, Kellogg's (1996) model of working memory, and limited capacity models of attention (Skehan, 1998) support what Truscott stated in terms of the probable negative effects of the CF on learners' writing. According to these models, when several processes must be managed simultaneously, as in writing a text (Torrance & Galbraith, 2006), attentional demands are very high, and the learners who are writing can be overloaded and unable to attend adequately (Kellogg, 1988); therefore, learners may concentrate their efforts on gaining greater control over items which had already been internalized and are more stable (interlanguage) and avoid expanding their L2 knowledge system (Skehan & Foster, 2001). ...
... The mentioned scholars' points support what Truscott stated in terms of the probable negative effects of the CF on learners' writing. According to them, because several processes had to be managed simultaneously while viewing or rewriting a text, attentional demands could have been very high, and the learners could have been overloaded and unable to attend adequately (Kellogg, 1988). Moreover, as Pienemann (1987, 1989, 1998, as cited in Bitchener & Ferris 2012) explained in his teachability hypothesis and processability theory (PT), "information processing is unlikely to occur if the targeted linguistic forms and structures lie outside a learner's stage of 'readiness'" (Bitchener & Ferris 2012, p. 15). ...
This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class.
... To clear the point whether only the critical thinking level affected the essay quality since there was no significant difference in the pre-test writing task, it is necessary to explain that in the main experiment students were under pressure of using free writing strategy which pushed a heavy load on students (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 1990Shekarabi, 2017b). Therefore, according to the results of the present study, under a pressure condition such as free writing condition, high critical thinking level enhances the essay quality. ...
... Under free writing condition, L2 writers do these cognitive activities and thinking logically simultaneously with generating sentences and writing essays. Therefore, a huge load pushes the writers, and this load influence the text quality in a negative way (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 1990Shekarabi, 2017b). Even under such a load, critical thinking ability naturally helps writers with the part of thinking, thus high critical thinking skill contributes to better essay quality not only in terms of overall essay quality but also in terms of content, organization and coherence. ...
Critical thinking skills are widely acknowledged as an important component of medical and nursing education by both educators and students. is paper examined the teaching of critical thinking skills within the context of a content and language integrated medical ethics course. Specifically, we sought to gain insight into Japanese medical and nursing student perceptions about the nature of critical thinking, its significance for medical and nursing students, and what role critical thinking might be expected to play in their future careers. To do so, we collected questionnaire data from some of the students who completed the course (n=10). Student conceptions of critical thinking focused on gathering and evaluating evidence and building consensus in group decision-making, which perhaps reflects how students see critical thinking playing out in clinical contexts. All of the questionnaire respondents noted the importance of developing critical thinking skills for medical and nursing students, although some of them mentioned that they would like more opportunities to do so. Most of our students stated that critical thinking skills will be important for effectively communicating with and empathizing with patients from a wide range of backgrounds.
... Memorization of information is essential for problem solving (Kellogg, 1988), but new input and information must also be integrated with that retrieved from the long-term memory, and in complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, spatial processing, mental arithmetic, reasoning and problem solving, the memory is certainly relevant. Students must acquire the learning instruments and attitudes of mind essential to absorb information and extend their knowledge, but it is also vital that they learn specific concepts to extend their background knowledge and conceptual bases. ...
This paper introduces a computer application, based on The Alphabet Game, designed to assist students of all disciplines understand the key academic concepts used in their respective fields, with specific application to economics and the study of national accounts. This approach offers a valuable contribution, in view of the difficulties often encountered in presenting key national accounting concepts in a dynamic and appealing manner. Due to the flexibility of the application, it can also be adapted to other fields of knowledge requiring the use of specialized or technical concepts. To assess the game’s impact on enhancing learning, students of national accounts in economics were asked to assess their participation by means of an attitudinal survey focusing on motivation, quality of learning, and the effective use of time. The survey was completed by 60 students from two Spanish universities. The overall assessment of the game was strongly correlated with its contribution to the memorization of concepts, usefulness, and enjoy ability. The second evaluation assessed the impact of the game through measurement of its effect on academic performance, with students´ academic records related to the scores from both individual and group gameplay. The assessment was done using a multivariate analysis consisting of a set of semi-logarithmic regression models in which the exam score was the dependent variable and a combination of game results according to the version played (individual, group, or both) were the explanatory variables. All combinations indicated that the individual game is much more strongly related to overall academic performance than the group score. However, to better assess the game, a control group, homogeneous samples, or pre- and post-tests should be used. Finally, to improve the game’s impact on learning, it can be used as a compulsory scoring activity, or a badge system could be implemented. Nonetheless, this tool should only be understood as an inextricable part of other assessment and learning activities.
... Many researchers have outlined different stages, modes, and roles in the writing process. For example, a variety of taxonomies of the writing process boil down to three main phases: prewriting, writing, and re-writing (Flower and Hayes 1981;Kellogg 1988). Some expand those roles to include more concrete steps along the way such as brainstorming, planning, and researching (Posner and Baecker 1992). ...
To paraphrase John Tukey, the beauty of working with data is that you get to “play in everyone’s backyard.” A corollary to this statement is that working with data necessitates collaboration. Although students often learn technical workflows to wrangle and analyze data, these workflows may break down or require adjustment to accommodate the different stages of the writing process when it is time to face the communication phase of the project. In this article, I propose two writing workflows for use by students in a final-project setting. One workflow involves version control and aims to minimize the chance of a merge conflict throughout the writing process, and the other aims to add some level of reproducibility to a Google-Doc-heavy writing workflow (i.e., avoid manual copying and pasting). Both rely on a division of the labor, require a plan (and structure) to be created and followed by members of a team, and involve communication outside of the final report document itself. This article does not aim to solve all collaborative writing pain points but instead aims to start the conversation on how to explicitly teach students not only how to code collaboratively but to write collaboratively.
... However, the cognitive benefit of outlining on the discourse aspects of writing is yet to be established. Unlike L1 studies, which generally find a positive influence of outlining (e.g., Kellogg, 1988;Galbraith et al., 2005), L2 studies show that outlining may exert no or even a negative Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org impact on writing quality (Ong and Zhang, 2010;Johnson et al., 2012). ...
Discourse connection is a challenging aspect of writing in a second language. This study seeks to investigate the effects of two classroom instructions on discourse connection in writing for EFL college students, focusing on their argumentative writing. Three classes were exposed to different pre-task conditions: receiving reading materials that provide content support for the writing, receiving planning instructions on effective outlining, and receiving no resources. The results showed that the instructions helped students attain better overall coherence in writing. However, noticeable differences between the two experimental groups emerged in terms of cohesion features. The reading group was found to employ more lexical cohesion devices in writing than the outline group, which indicated a heightened genre awareness. This inquiry helped us identify the reading group’s alignment with content support materials, particularly the change in stance as a factor that contributes to a higher level of lexical cohesion in writing.
... From a theoretical perspective, Kellogg's (1990) Overload Hypothesis, Kellogg's (1996) model of working memory, and limited capacity models of attention (Skehan, 1998) support what Truscott (2004Truscott ( , 2007 stated in terms of the probable negative effects of the CF on learners' writing. According to these models, when several processes must be managed simultaneously, as in writing a text (Torrance & Galbraith, 2006), attentional demands are very high, and the learners who are writing can be overloaded and unable to attend adequately (Kellogg, 1988). Additionally, according to Skehan's (1998) limited capacity models of attention, learners may concentrate their efforts on gaining greater control Valizadeh, M. (2022). ...
Research background: The effectiveness of Corrective feedback has been a controversial issue and thus a central part of second language writing instruction worldwide.
Gap in knowledge and Purpose of the study: It has been argued that the provision of written corrective feedback can affect the complexity of the written text negatively, and the issue is not sufficiently investigated. Therefore, this studyinvestigated the effects of two types of comprehensive written corrective feedback strategies: direct corrective feedback (DCF), and metalinguistic explanation (ME) on L2 learners’ written syntactic complexity.
Methods: This study was quasi-experimental and used a pretest-intervention-posttest-delayed-posttest design. Participants were 90 Turkish EFL upper-intermediate learners, whose L2 proficiency and L2 writing skills were controlled by administering the Oxford Placement Test and the IELTS Writing Task 2 test. They were assigned to three groups: DCF, ME, and NF (i.e., no feedback on grammatical errors).The treatment/control period lasted for five weeks. Every week, each participant wrote an essay of argument-led type in class and then received the specified feedback. No work was done on writing for the two-week interval between the posttest and delayed posttest. Lu’s (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyser was utilised to calculate the syntactic complexity measures. The MANOVA test was utilized to find the results.
Findings and Value added: It was revealed the ME group was not significantly different from the NF group. The DCF group significantly outperformed the ME group in the clauses per sentence (C/S) of the texts both in posttests and delayed-posttests. The DCF group also significantly outperformed the NF group in the clauses per T-unit (C/T), complex T-units per T-unit (CP/T), and C/S in posttests, but the positive effect of the DCF on CP/T was not durable after the two-week interval.
... the production of their written narratives). Until now, only a few studies (Abdi Tabari, 2021;Ellis & Yuan, 2004;Kellogg, 1990Kellogg, , 1988Kellogg, , 1996Ortega, 2005;Rostamian et al., 2018) have adopted an integrated approach and probed the relationship between process and product in various planning conditions. In this regard, Ellis and Yuan (2004) stated that the interplay between written process and product should be more closely examined to uncover how L2 writers' cognitive processes are activated while they engage in different kinds of task planning. ...
This study adopted an integrated approach to investigate how second language (L2) writers engaged in cognitive processes during planning and writing and generated their written products under a randomly assigned planning time condition. Participants were 160 intermediate-high L2 writers who performed a narrative task under either the pre-task planning condition (PTP), the online planning condition (OLP), the combination of the pre-task and online planning condition (PTP/OLP), or the no planning condition (NP). Furthermore, 60 writers, randomly selected from the four task conditions, participated in video stimulated recall interviews (VSRIs). L2 writers’ performance was analyzed using complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) measures. Quantitative analyses revealed that PTP, OLP, and PTP/OLP improved complexity and fluency, but OLP and PTP/OLP fostered accuracy while PTP had no effect compared to NP. Additionally, only the paired interaction between PTP/OLP and PTP was positive for fluency while other paired interactions remained insignificant. The VSRIs also demonstrated that while PTP facilitated attention to the planning processes and OLP improved attention to the translating processes and monitoring system, PTP/OLP aided in differentially attending to the writing systems and processes. These results suggest that task planning mitigated specific demands on L2 writers’ cognitive processes and fostered writing products.
... In this study, we focus on strategic planning because it is thought to mitigate the demands placed on limited resources of working memory such that they may be directed to the translation of ideas into linguistic expressions. This claim has been empirically confirmed by Kellogg (1988Kellogg ( , 1990) studies in which pre-task planning (esp. outlining) enabled L1 writers to improve writing fluency, holistic assessment of writing quality, and assessment of language use. ...
Using Bui’s (2014) task-readiness framework, this study investigates the interface between topic familiarity as a task-internal factor and strategic planning as a task-external factor in the TBLT field and explores how the two forms of task preparedness affect L2 learners’ writing complexity in assessment tasks. To this end, 64 L2 learners enrolled in a two-month intensive EAP program at an American university were randomly divided into planning and no planning groups and asked to perform a familiar and an unfamiliar task determined via a survey at the onset of the study. The sequence of the tasks was counterbalanced. The participants’ writing performances were analyzed using 11 finer-grained measures of linguistic complexity gauging L2 written syntactic and lexical complexity. Results revealed that topic familiarity had positive and substantial effects on syntactic complexity and some effect on lexical complexity. Strategic planning also promoted syntactic complexity at the phrasal level, but it had limited effects on lexical complexity. Furthermore, interaction effects between topic familiarity and strategic planning showed increases in general complexity, syntactic structure similarity, verb variations, and semantically similar words. These results are discussed in terms of the task-readiness framework, and pedagogical implications of the findings are provided for L2 writing assessment and complexity measurement in the EAP classrooms.
... Thus, allocating time for prewriting planning might reduce the demands placed on one of the working memory components and writers can divert much of their attentional capacity to activating lexical and syntactic frames. This process has been shown to lead to an increase in writing fluency (Graham & Perin, 2007;Page-Voth & Graham, 1999;Troia & Graham, 2002) and grammatical complexity (Kellogg, 1987(Kellogg, , 1988 in L1 writers. ...
This study compared English L2 writers’ (N = 111) performance on an integrated writing task from the Canadian Academic English Language (CAEL) Assessment under three prewriting planning conditions: required self-timed planning required fixed time planning, and suggested (i.e., optional) planning. The participants’ integrated essays were scored according to the CAEL writing bands by raters at Paragon Testing Inc. The effect of planning condition on the participants' planning time, writing time, and integrated writing scores were analyzed using MANOVA. The student interviews were analyzed using thematic content analysis. The results indicated that planning time was the only variable impacted by planning condition, with students in the required self-timed planning condition taking more time to plan before beginning to write. Students’ perceptions about prewriting planning are discussed in terms of implications for the teaching and assessment of L2 integrated writing.
... Despite the widely proven effectiveness of preplanning strategies such as outlining and graphic organizers (e.g. Limpo & Alvez, 2018;Kellogg, 1987Kellogg, , 1988Kellogg, , 2001Kellogg, , 2008, not all preplanning strategies are equally effective for all types of writers (Rijlaarsdam et al., 2012). Some writers may benefit more from planning-by-drafting/post-writing revising strategies (Galbraith & Torrance, 2004), in which writers are allowed to immediately start writing to boost the idea generation process and then facilitated in revising this rough, first draft. ...
The current two studies examined the effects of an instructional unit on synthesis writing for 9th grade students on holistic text quality. Because students' writing routines have been shown to affect the effectiveness of writing instruction, we designed a unit that aimed to be equally effective for all writers, regardless of their routines. On two occasions in the unit, we provided students with options to choose between a Preplanning or Drafting strategy. They could create an individual learning path within the unit. We tested the effects of the unit in two consecutive studies with independent samples, using a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with switching panels. Study 1 included three teachers and 152 9th grade students from five classes in one school. We found a significant effect of the unit on text quality in both panels. However, analyses showed that this effect was moderated by writing routine. To generalize the effect across writing routines, we provided students in Study 2 with an extra session on metacognitive knowledge about (synthesis) writing processes, enabling them to make better-informed strategy choices. Study 2 included six teachers and 233 students from 10 classes in three schools, all different from Study 1. Analyses again showed a significant effect of the experimental condition in panel 1, which was replicated in panel 2. Moreover, the effect was no longer moderated by writing routine. This indicates that the redesigned intervention was equally effective for students with different routines.
... While some writers make an outline in note form before drafting, others plan without producing an outline. This latter form of planning has been called "mental planning" (Kellogg, 1988;Torrance et al., 2000). Thus, the thinking factor would correspond to mental planning while the planning factor would correspond to outline planning. ...
Research has shown that writers seem to follow different writing strategies to juggle the high cognitive demands of writing. The use of writing strategies seems to be an important cognitive writing-related variable which has an influence on students' writing behavior during writing and, therefore, on the quality of their compositions. Several studies have tried to assess students' writing preferences toward the use of different writing strategies in University or high-school students, while research in primary education is practically non-existent. The present study, therefore, focused on the validation of the Spanish Writing Strategies Questionnaire (WSQ-SP), aimed to measure upper-primary students' preference for the use of different writing strategies, through a multidimensional model. The sample comprised 651 Spanish upper-primary students. Questionnaire data was explored by means of exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory (CFA) factor analysis. Through exploratory factor analysis four factors were identified, labeled thinking, planning, revising, and monitoring, which represent different writing strategies. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the adequacy of the four-factor model, with a sustainable model composed of the four factors originally identified. Based on the analysis, the final questionnaire was composed of 16 items. According to the results, the Spanish version of the Writing Strategies Questionnaire (WSQ-SP) for upper-primary students has been shown to be a valid and reliable instrument, which can be easily applied in the educational context to explore upper-primary students' writing strategies.
... 69). Kellogg (1988) concludes that separating the planning and generating ideas from translating ideas into words allows writers to focus on organizing their thoughts more effectively without worrying about producing text. Once a writer lays out their ideas and has a clear organizational structure, their focus can shift to translating them into words, sentences, paragraphs, and full-length texts. ...
Although infographics have been used for educational purposes, their specific use
for teaching process-based writing in undergraduate writing courses is not documented
in the literature. When integrating infographics into a process-based
writing instructional approach, they may offer students multiple means of representation,
engagement, and expression – universal design for learning principles.
We examined one undergraduate writing course that integrated infographics into
a process-based writing approach to understand student experiences and uses of
this multimodal communication form. Results show that infographics have unique
benefits and challenges to supporting student writing. Results also reveal that students
used their infographics for revising, transferring, and rethinking the content of
their subsequent, text-only research papers. This work has implications for college
composition pedagogy.
... Με βάση το μοντέλο παραγωγής κειμένου Brown, των McDonald, Brown και Carr, ο Kellogg εντοπίζει τρεις συνιστώσες επεξεργασίας: τη σύνθεση-σχηματοποίηση, την εφαρμογή (εκτέλεση) και τον έλεγχο (Kress, 1994). Όπως έχει ήδη προταθεί από τους Hayes και Flowers (1980), τα συστήματα αυτά δεν απέχουν πολύ μεταξύ τους και μπορούν να ενεργοποιηθούν ταυτόχρονα, εάν τα αιτήματά τους δεν είναι πέρα από την περιορισμένη χωρητικότητα της μνήμης εργασίας (Kellogg, 1988). Το κύριο χαρακτηριστικό του μοντέλου αυτού είναι ότι καταφέρνει να διερευνήσει και να αναδείξει την αλληλεπίδραση που υπάρχει ανάμεσα στις διαδικασίες παραγωγής κειμένου και στη μνήμη εργασίας (Baynham, 2002). ...
Η διαμόρφωση του σχολείου για όλους τους μαθητές είναι ένας τελικός σκοπός, η επίτευξη του οποίου προϋποθέτει τη συνέργεια πολλών παραγόντων. Ο σχολικός σύμβουλος, στα πλαίσια του ρόλου του, καλείται να βοηθήσει στην άρση των παρουσιαζόμενων εμποδίων, τα οποία, κύρια, αφορούν τις υπάρχουσες στάσεις και αξίες, την περιορισμένη κατανόηση, τις ανεπεξέργαστες/ατελείς δεξιότητες, τα
περιορισμένα διαθέσιμα υλικά/μέσα και την αναποτελεσματική διοικητική οργάνωση του ελληνικού εκπαιδευτικού συστήματος. Στην παρούσα εργασία περιγράφεται ένα πρόγραμμα επαγγελματικής ανάπτυξης, ως ένα παράδειγμα δράσης του σχολικού συμβούλου στα πλαίσια της διαμόρφωσης του σχολείου για όλους τους μαθητές. Το συγκεκριμένο πρόγραμμα έχει ως στόχο την αλλαγή κουλτούρας των εκπαιδευτικών στο πεδίο της παραγωγής γραπτού λόγου.
... The present research examined how these strategies affect the efficiency of the writing process and the quality of the written product. The processing time and cognitive effort given to planning ideas, translating ideas into text, and reviewing ideas and text were monitored by using directed retrospection and comparing secondarytask reaction times (Kellogg, 1988). ...
This research discusses the outlining strategy that applied in the ELT students’ essay writing class 2019 A English Education Program STKIP PGRI Sidoarjo which amounted to 10 students. The instruments used in this study were checklist observation and questionnaires. The data technique used is qualitative data, where the data will be described. The first research instrument, the researcher used a checklist observation form for implementation assessment by observing the class writing essays and participating in learning activities from beginning to end whose data was described in a table with a tick, the results showed that many activities were carried out by students in the classroom to improve their abilities in writing essays through an outlining strategy. The next instrument is a questionnaire for response assessment, the researcher asks for data from ELT students via a google form containing 15 yes or no questions. The results of the questionnaire showed that 90% of students answered yes, and 10% of students answered no. The results showed that the implementation and response of students were very positive and good during the learning activities to write essays using the outlining strategies of ELT students.
... So far, a few studies have directly investigated the effects of different forms of planning on L1 and L2 writing and produced inconsistent findings. Within the L1 writing context, Kellogg (1988Kellogg ( , 1990 examined the effects of pre-writing activities such as written outlining, mental outlining, clustering, and no outlining on writing performance and found strong effects of mental and written planning on text quality but mixed results for fluency. Rau and Sebrechts (1996) also examined the effects of mental and written outlining on the content and quality of writing and found mixed results. ...
The present study examined the effects of written planning (WP) and oral planning (OP) on the complexity, accuracy, lexis, and fluency of L2 written production. This study also addressed the question of how attentional resources are distributed across different aspects of writing during planning and writing. To do so, 60 ESL learners were asked to perform an argumentative writing task under three different planning conditions: (1) in the WP condition participants had 10 min to take notes and 25 min to write, (2) in the OP condition participants had 10 min to verbalize their plans and 25 min to write, whereas (3) in the no planning condition participants had 25 min to write without planning time. Our findings indicate that both WP and OP promoted fluency, but the former facilitated syntactic complexity and accuracy while the latter promoted overall syntactic complexity and lexical complexity. Moreover, stimulated recalls show that, although WP and OP directed participants’ attention to content, complexity, and organization during planning, and language, monitoring, and complexity during writing, they differed from each other regarding lexical and grammatical encodings. These findings provide new venues for TBLT research by drawing insights into the role of pre-task planning modes in L2 written production and for L2 writing pedagogy by offering pedagogical implications for teachers to effectively use pre-task planning modes in L2 writing classrooms.
... Planning has a positive effect on writing because there is a strategy (Saddler dkk., 2004;Zamroni, Hanurawan, Hambali, dkk., 2020); (Shin, 2008;Zheng & Dai, 2012). Writers who use initial planning strategies tend to produce quality texts (Bereiter, 2013;De La Paz & Graham, 1997a, 1997bKellogg, 1988)and help them find topics and ideas (Pharr & Buscemi, 2009). Thus, the pre-writing phase is a strategic step in the writing process, which is undoubtedly related to the schemata. ...
This study aims to reveal the pre-written schematic patterns of high school students' exposition texts. Three students as research subjects were selected according to the acquisition of high, medium, and low grades. A qualitative approach and analysis found a schematic pattern in the pre-written exposition text, namely functional patterns and patterns of development. Functional patterns, namely interrelated patterns of relationships. Students choose topics with consideration of mastery, controversy, and experience from the schemata regarding exposition text. Next, arrange the outline of the writing, find information material, and determine the purpose of writing. The relationship between the purpose of writing with the reader raises a plan to use straightforward and concise sentences, general terms, lowercase letters, capital, and punctuation appropriately in the text's contents. The development pattern consists of two, namely, direct and indirect development. The pattern is straightforward because students brainstorm, explore information sources, revise the writing outline, both theses, arguments, and recommendations. DF and ZR use this pattern. Both of them have used their schematics to understand new knowledge as a process of assimilation and accommodation in the exposition text's pre-writing activities. The pattern is indirect because it does not brainstorm, explore information sources, and revise the pre-writing stage as an assimilation and accommodation process. However, it will be done at the writing and revision stages. RB carries out this pattern. Thus, both the functional patterns and the development patterns are regulated and guided by the schemata as cognitive structures in the pre-written exposition text.
... The participants were given 10 minutes for planning in each of the two planned conditions. The planning time was determined based on previous studies (e.g., Crookes, 1989;Ellis & Yuan, 2004;Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1990Mehnert, 1998;Ojima, 2006;Skehan & Foster, 1997;Yuan & Ellis, 2003), suggesting that a minimum of 10 minutes of planning is required in order to obtain measurable effects on different aspects of language use. After 10 minutes of planning, students had 30 minutes to complete the writing task. ...
Research on pre-task planning has revealed that planned conditions have produced more fluent and complex language than unplanned conditions. To date, most of these studies have investigated the effects of individual planning on language production while collaborative planning has received scant attention. To determine the effects of pre-task planning on second language written production, the present study examined Iranian EFL learners' argumentative writings under the conditions of individual and collaborative pre-task planning. The participants' written productions were analyzed using three measures of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. The performance of individual planners and collaborative planners were compared using a series of one-way ANOVAs. Results indicated that collaborative planning promoted more accurate textual output while individual planning resulted in greater fluency, and neither type of planned conditions benefited complexity. Possible explanations are provided and the implications of the findings for the applicability of collaborative planning are discussed.
... Owing to its complexity, writing is regarded as a challenging task to be mastered, especially for second language learners, in order to become a good writer of the target language either academically or professionally. Therefore, proper writing strategies can enhance writing performance and reduce attentional overload [6]. ...
This action research was conducted with the aim to enhance the teaching of writing skills by using the substitution table as a teaching technique to improve teaching writing skills, consequently leading to an improvement in Second Language learners' writing skills in the English Language. The substitution table was used to teach pupils the rules about writing simple sentences correctly besides training and drilling them in wiring simple sentences. Participants of this action research were ten students of Year 3 from one of the schools in Pasir Gudang district, Johor. The data was collected via document analysis. Results showed that use of a substitution table facilitated in teaching about writing skills, which consequently led to the improvement in the pupils' simple sentence writing skills. The researcher discovered that pupils were interested and motivated when teachers used the substitution table to teach writing simple sentences. They also managed to write simple sentences without any errors.
... Teachers also try to elicit opinions through different strategies and techniques such as concept mapping (Ojima, 2006;Ruddell & Boyle, 1989), writing a story based on a picture (Ghavamnia, Tavakoli, & Esteki, 2013), outlining (Kellogg, 1988), clustering (Becker, 1991), dialogue journals (Urzua, 1987), brainstorming (Scott, 1996;Sebranek, Meyer, & Kemper, 2000;Williams, 2005), categorizing ideas and class discussions (Martinez-Gibson, 1998), dyads and triads (Freeman & Freeman, 2001), free writing (Vacca, Vacca, & Mraz, 2010;Williams, 2005), drawing (Byrd, 2011), graphic organizers (Novak, 1998), four column charts (Auman,1999), and L1 use for planning (Akyel, 1994;Beare, 2000;Friedlander, 1990;Krapels, 1990;Sevgi, 2016;Wang, 2003). Pre-writing techniques necessitate students' active involvement, which is found to facilitate their L2 writing skills (Hornung, 2000;Rau & Sebrechts, 1996). ...
This paper investigates the effects of three different types of prewriting instruction on Turkish students’ L2 writing production capabilities. This mixed method study was carried out with 45 Turkish EFL students enrolled at a state university. Students were allocated into three groups randomly. In the control group the prewriting phase was carried out with monologic instruction in L2, while in one of the experimental groups, it was done with dialogic instruction in L2 and in the second experimental group, dialogic instruction was conducted in L1. Data were collected by means of pre-and post-writing tasks of the students and semi-structured interviews, and analyzed with Kruskal-Wallis and Mann Whitney tests and through pattern coding, respectively. The statistical results indicated that the group who used their L1 during pre-writing stage with the help of dialogic instruction had higher mean scores than the group who was instructed monologically and the group who was instructed through dialogic instruction in L2.
... On the other hand, covert self-regulation is here related to mental planning through rehearsing ideas and mental outlining, for example (9) "I repeat in my head the ideas to write when I am reflecting about the organization of my text" and (14) "I make a checklist of all my ideas in my head before writing", which could contribute to improve writing performance. After having trained college students to use this kind of strategies, Kellogg (1988) found that the individuals wrote better quality texts considering language use and idea development; equally, these students spent less time for revising seeing that the mental outline reduced cognitive efforts during this writing process. ...
Introduction
Writing and metacognition play an essential function in the learning process, in that writers engage arduous cognitive efforts by selecting and organizing ideas, then reviewing and readjusting them.
Objective
The present research aimed to construct and validate a self-report instrument to measure some specific metacognitive processes implicated in writing planning. Two categories of metacognitive components were considered: metacognitive knowledge and self-regulation strategies.
Method
Based on exploratory and confirmatory analyses, the Metacognitive Components of Planning Writing Self-inventory (MCPW-I) was constructed and validated. This instrument is composed of three factors: Metacognitive Conditional Knowledge – MCK (6 items), Covert Self-regulation – CSF (4 items), and Environmental self-regulation – ESF (5 items). 1022 undergraduates students engaged in various programs of a French university filled in the inventory.
Results
The alpha coefficients indicated a reliable internal consistency and the test-retest reliability showed a good temporal stability. Correlational analyses revealed that the CRS factor was related to ESR and MCK factors, and these last two were not correlated with each other. After the analysis of variance, the responses relative to ESR and MCK dimensions differed according to gender, but no differences relatively to the academic disciplines considered was found. Concerning the predictive validity, CSF and MCK were correlated with writing performance.
Conclusion
The results confirm the validity and reliability of the MCPW-I which constitutes a new research tool for the study of metacognitive processes of writing.
... Research on L1 writing has revealed that the main difference between novice and expert writers is linked to the time they spend for planning (Scardamalia & Beretier, 1987). Furthermore, the effect of planning as a tool to develop writing fluency, writing quality and language use has been supported in L2 writing (Kellogg 1987(Kellogg , 1988(Kellogg , 1990. Kellogg (1996) specifies three main systems underlying the writing process. ...
The aim of the current study was to compare the influence of on-line planning and pre-task planning on the performance of EFL university students enjoying different levels of proficiency regarding accuracy, fluency and complexity. To this end a group of 134 EFL learners with different proficiency levels were asked to write narrative tasks under two planning conditions (Pre-task planning and on-line planning). The results of the investigation showed that neither on-line nor pre-task planning affected the accuracy of writing. It was also revealed that on-line planning led to more fluent written language than what pre-task planning did, and that pre-task planning, compared to on-line planning, caused the students to produce more complex written language. Another finding of the research was that students with higher proficiency levels outperformed their low-proficiency counterparts considering accuracy, fluency and complexity during both on-line and pre-task planning. In other words, no interaction was found between planning conditions and proficiency levels.
... Second, a fundamental constraint on the writing process is cognitive overload: conflicting demands on limited cognitive resources may prevent writers from carrying out the component processes effectively, even if these are directed at appropriate goals . Thus, a further distinction between novice and expert writers is that novices are more likely to employ a "single draft" strategy, in which they try to write a complete text straight away, carrying out all the component processes at the same time, whereas expert writers are more likely to focus on different components at different points in writing, developing more elaborate plans for text, and revising more extensively after completing a draft (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987;Kellogg, 1988). ...
METHODOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN INVESTIGATING L2 WRITING PROCESSES - Volume 41 Special Issue - David Galbraith, Ineke Vedder
... These prewriting planning activities reduce demands on the writer's working memory, thereby providing the writer with greater scope to devote time to translation and transcription, resulting in increased writing fluency and higher ratings of text quality (Kellogg, 2008). Prewriting planning in college students has been shown to consistently improve holistic writing quality (Kellogg, 1988(Kellogg, , 1990, including both the fluency and the syntactic complexity of the texts produced (Limpo & Alves, 2018). ...
Planning plays an important role in the production of written texts. Little is known about why children plan and the plans they create when they are not explicitly instructed. This study explores the plans that elementary school children in Years 1, 3, and 5 create before writing a text. We compared performance of children educated in Catalan and in English (the United Kingdom) and examined whether the plans were related to their language and literacy skills. Children of all ages produced plans before writing either by producing a draft or an organizer. The types of plan changed with age and were influenced by the educational context. Plans were not associated with either the text length or the text quality. Nor were language, literacy, and transcription skills associated with the plans. School instruction is important for producing plans but, at this stage, children’s self-generated plans do not impact on the texts produced.
... As incisively noticed by Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987 ), writing does not get easier with expertise; instead, expert writers choose to tackle ever tougher problems. Perhaps the most elegant experimental demonstration of the effortful nature of cognitive processes in writing comes from the programmatic research of Kellogg (1987aKellogg ( , 1987bKellogg ( , 1988Kellogg ( , 1990 ) that assessed cognitive effort during text composition, measured as the interference in secondary-task reaction times to random auditory probes, as compared to single-task reaction times. Consistently, Kellogg showed that cognitive processes in writing are effortful and only equivalent to those engaged, for instance, by experts playing chess; as vividly put by Kellogg (1994 , p. 17), writing "is the mental equivalent to digging ditches". ...
A model of literacy development and early writing.
Intelligence is considered as the strongest predictor of scholastic achievement. Research aimed to identify the impact of the use of supra-cognitive thinking strategies in the analysis of texts for first year students at Mosul University in Iraq . The researcher used the questionnaire as a tool to collect information about supra-cognitive. This study aimed to identify the impact of the use of supra-cognitive thinking strategies in the analysis of texts for first year students at Mosul University in Iraq. To achieve the goals of the study, the researcher used the a questionnaire as a tool data collection instrument for the study, and. The study was applied to 10 Iraqi university lecturers to take their views on the effect of using supra-cognitive thinking strategies in teaching on students' ability toanalyze.
Research on task complexity focuses on the influence of different task features on language learners' production in terms of linguistic complexity, accuracy, fluency and lexis. Within this field, a line of investigation that has attracted much attention is the influence of resource-directing and resource-dispersing features of cognitive task complexity. Notwithstanding, the evidence assembled to date has yielded contradictory results that are not consistent across task type, proficiency level, and task modality. The study attempts to shed some light by examining the role of task complexity along the [± Here-and-Now] dimension in written production, and whether the effects of task complexity are the same at different proficiency levels. To this aim, data were elicited from Swedish high school learners of Spanish as a FL (n = 67) using two different versions of a narrative task. In turn, the participants' proficiency was assessed using a multiple-choice test. The results suggest that task complexity had a statistically significant effect on the four areas of language production. On the other hand, when splitting the sample into proficiency groups, differences across task conditions were found, but only in the higher proficiency group. These results are interpreted in light of Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis and Skehan's Trade-Off Model.
p>This research examines the impact of the dyslexic cognitive profile on the writing process. Seven undergraduate and postgraduate students from a University have participated in this study. The research records writing behaviours which occurred during the production of a written assignment. The task environment is naturalistic and embedded in the student’s coursework. Real time sampling data are used in conjunction with semi-structured interviews, drafts of written work and final text products to examine how the dyslexic students meet the demands placed upon them in the writing process in a Higher Education environment.
The data show that, despite very individual cognitive profiles, a combination of working memory capacity and speed of processing deficits combined with weak literacy scores results in a disproportionate percentage of time being spent upon the translation component of the writing process. Thus, text generation and time and task are affected. The findings also demonstrate that these students have developed compensatory strategies, adapted to the cognitive deficits, to cope with the demand of this discourse community.</p
This chapter is composed of two parts. The first part introduces the conceptualization, development and validation of the China’s Standards of English language ability (CSE), with a focus on the sub-scales of English writing in the Chinese EFL context. Based on the Communicative Language Ability model (Bachman, Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990; Bachman and Palmer, Language testing in practice: designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996), the construct of writing ability in the CSE integrates organizational knowledge, pragmatic knowledge, text typology knowledge and writing strategies. As such, the sub-scales include sets of “can-do” statements that describe what English learners at different levels can do. In addition, how the writing sub-scales were validated is also briefly introduced in this part. The second part is concerned with the praxes of how the writing sub-scales can be applied to assessments of English writing in the Chinese EFL context. On the one hand, the self-assessment descriptors can be localized to enrich the feedback of writing tests to test takers. On the other hand, the writing sub-scales can also have a key role to play in formative assessment, such as peer assessment. Examples and tentative guidelines of such applications are provided in this chapter for better illustration.KeywordsChina’s Standards of English Language AbilityWriting assessmentsWriting sub-scales
INTRODUCCIÓN: Se ha observado que el uso de procedimientos de registro escrito durante la planificación previa redunda positivamente en la calidad de los textos escritos por alumnado adolescente y adulto, pero no en los realizados por alumnado de primaria. El presente trabajo pretende contribuir al conocimiento sobre el uso de procedimientos de planificación escrita por parte de alumnado de primaria y, especialmente, sobre su relación con la calidad de sus producciones finales, aportando datos procedentes de una tarea de escritura colaborativa de textos expositivo-argumentativos. MÉTODO: Los participantes en el estudio fueron 66 estudiantes de 5º de primaria de dos centros españoles que produjeron un texto en parejas. Se analizaron, en primer lugar, los borradores para observar si el alumnado utilizó algún procedimiento de planificación escrita, y, en su caso, determinar su nivel de complejidad. En segundo lugar, se evaluó la calidad de los textos finales mediante una rúbrica y se cuantificó el número de ideas incluidas en ellos para comprobar si se observaban diferencias estadísticamente significativas en función de si el alumnado había empleado o no un procedimiento escrito de planificación previa. RESULTADOS: Los resultados muestran que la mayor parte del alumnado emplea un procedimiento escrito de planificación de nivel medio. Por otro lado, si bien el análisis estadístico muestra que no hay relación entre el uso o no uso de procedimientos de planificación y la calidad de los textos, el número de ideas contenidas en los textos finales es significativamente superior cuando se emplean técnicas de planificación. DISCUSIÓN: En línea con otros estudios, se observa que el uso de procedimientos de planificación previa es un proceso emergente en estas edades que, si bien contribuye a enriquecer el contenido de los textos finales, no siempre redunda positivamente en la calidad de estos, por lo que debe trabajarse explícitamente en las aulas.
The current study explores the effects of task complexity on senior high school students’ writing performance. The participants were 60 Chinese senior high school EFL students. The variable of task complexity is based on the combination of reasoning demands and prior knowledge aspects and the writing performance is measured by syntactic complexity. The results show that the participants produced more complex syntactic structures in task with higher complexity. Meanwhile, the participants’ perception of task complexity can influence the production of writing.
This study analyzes the writing experiences of elderly female literacy learners in the cultural literacy class, to identify difficulties in writing and provide basic data on adult literacy education. To this end, we observed the teaching and learning processes of five participants who completed basic-literacy level and participated in the courses for cultural literacy learners. Transcripts of all recorded communications during teaching and learning, post-interviews of participants, and the instructor’s logbook were analyzed based on the grounded theory approach. In addition, the paradigm model was also applied to the analysis procedure. As a result of open coding, 112 concepts and 33 categories were derived. Axis coding from the categories were conducted based on the following six paradigms: phenomenon, casual conditions, contextual conditions, intervening conditions, action/interaction strategies, and consequences. According to the selective coding, the core category of “female elderly literacy learners who cope with the difficulties in writing are actively intervening in teaching, as well as lacking in confidence as learners” was drawn. Educational implications on the results from the selective coding were also discussed.
Keywords : literacy education, literacy teacher, cultural literacy, writing education, grounded theory, paradigm model, participatory observation
The writing process as it is widely conceived today is five steps: brainstorming, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. Perhaps none of these steps is more difficult to begin and to finish as the rough draft. The rough draft, before which the writer stares at the “blank page,” and during which the cartoon image of a writer surrounded by crumpled-up pages is seen, is the critical moment of putting the ink to the paper: the first step of getting it all down. And at this moment of beginning, the writer may suffer more than at any other time the repression or “beat down” of the internal editor, a part of the psyche that always seems to tell the individual that they don't know, they can't do it, and it isn't good enough. For this reason, after getting through the rough draft, a writer may think “it's all down hill from here.” And the writer may be right. To get through this difficult process, this chapter will consider various strategies and development ideas so that the writer can succeed in the rough draft stage.
Writing is a complex non-linear process that begins with a mental model of intent, and progresses through an outline of ideas, to words on paper (and their subsequent refinement). Despite past research in understanding writing, Web-scale consumer and enterprise collaborative digital writing environments are yet to greatly benefit from intelligent systems that understand the stages of document evolution, providing opportune assistance based on authors' situated actions and context. In this paper, we present three studies that explore temporal stages of document authoring. We first survey information workers at a large technology company about their writing habits and preferences, concluding that writers do in fact conceptually progress through several distinct phases while authoring documents. We also explore, qualitatively, how writing stages are linked to document lifespan. We supplement these qualitative findings with an analysis of the longitudinal user interaction logs of a popular digital writing platform over several million documents. Finally, as a first step towards facilitating an intelligent digital writing assistant, we conduct a preliminary investigation into the utility of user interaction log data for predicting the temporal stage of a document. Our results support the benefit of tools tailored to writing stages, identify primary tasks associated with these stages, and show that it is possible to predict stages from anonymous interaction logs. Together, these results argue for the benefit and feasibility of more tailored digital writing assistance.
This chapter starts to turns our attention towards the empirical element of this exploration of the reading experience: namely, the design, testing and analysis of a novel approach to investigate stylistic equivalence between a ST and a TT, specifically at points where the style is particularly foregrounded. Having discussed aspects of literary and linguistic theories in the previous chapter, we will now address the eye-tracking element of this research, to ascertain how this method can be used in the context of literary reading. While it is obviously impossible, using eye tracking alone, to ascertain what a reader’s response to a given stimulus is at a particular point (i.e. what they think or feel), it is possible to measure the extent or scale of a response—that is, those aspects of a text which invoke higher levels of visual attention than others—by drawing on extensive research in the eye-tracking paradigm which links eye movements with cognition. This chapter first provides a brief history of eye-tracking techniques and research before progressing to a discussion of linguistic influences on eye movements, drawing on natural reading research. It closes with research from the field known as the Empirical Study of Literature (ESL), which helps to forge the essential link between stylistics and empirical studies of literature, and importantly ties together notions of cognitive effort with foregrounding and visual attention.
Bu araştırmada, yazma eğitiminde kullanılan/kullanılması gereken yöntem ve teknikleri konu alan
akademik çalışmaların genel eğilimlerinin raporlaştırılması amaçlanmaktadır. Çalışma, nitel araştırma
yöntemlerinden meta-sentez ile desenlenmiştir. Veri toplama sürecine ilk olarak çeşitli arama motorlarına
“yazma eğitimi”, “yöntem”, “teknik” anahtar sözcükleri yazılıp alanyazın taraması yapılarak başlanmıştır.
Tarama sonucunda derlenen 85 çalışma içerisinden, araştırmanın amacına uygun olan 24 makale seçilmiştir.
Belirlenen çalışmalar; yıllara göre dağılımı, ele alınan konu alanları, kullanılan yöntemler, sonuçları ve
önerileri bağlamında değerlendirilmiştir. Araştırmanın sonuçlarına göre; incelenen 24 araştırma makalesinin,
çoğunlukla yaratıcı yazma, yansıtıcı yazma, not alma, aktif öğrenme konu alanlarında yazıldığı görülmüştür.
İlgili araştırmaların, daha çok görüş ve algıların incelenmesini amaçladığı saptanmıştır. Araştırmalarda,
çalışma grubu olarak genellikle öğretmen adaylarının yeğlendiği; veri toplama tekniği olarak görüşme,
tarama ve doküman incelemesinden yararlanıldığı görülmüştür. Makalelerde, yöntem teknik kullanımının
yazma becerisini geliştirdiği ve yaratıcı bakış açısı kazandırdığı sonuçlarına ulaşılmıştır. Diğer yandan
öğretmenlere uygulama konusunda deneyim kazandırılması gerektiği önerisinde bulunulmuştur.
Background
The planning behaviors of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during writing remain overlooked. Targeted examination of planning behaviors may help to better understand their heterogeneous writing skills.
Aims
This study examined overt planning behaviors of three groups of school-age children (ASD, ADHD, and typically developing [TD]) during the planning stage of a standardized narrative writing assessment. Aims explored group differences in time spent planning, between- and within-group differences in overt planning behaviors, and relationships between planning behaviors and writing performance as well as age, cognitive skills, and diagnostic symptom severity.
Methods and procedures
This study included 121 9–17-year-old children (60 ASD, 32 ADHD, and 29 TD). Video recordings captured overt planning behaviors during a two-minute prewriting planning stage.
Outcomes and results
Not all participants planned, but group membership overwhelmingly did not influence planning likelihood. Groups differed in time spent engaging with the outline (29 %–70 %), with the TD group spending the most time. Groups spent similar amounts of time looking away from the task (< 10 %) and looking at the task picture (20 %–33 %). The TD and ASD groups demonstrated more similar within-group-level differences in planning behavior s, while the ADHD group appeared more variable. The ADHD and TD groups but not the ASD group showed stronger associations between planning behaviors and writing performance.
Conclusions and implications
Children with ASD and ADHD differed relative to each other and to TD peers in specific planning behaviors. Implications are discussed regarding instructional practices and needed future research to examine planning during writing in children with developmental disabilities.
This study aims at providing Taiwanese students at different levels of study with a cloud language learning tool. The design of the learning tool can be divided into three stages. The first stage is the design of the curriculum. It combines paper learning log sheet with a simple computer program to help students write short essays and “tell” the stories. Findings of this study showed that students were highly motivated to make use of the computer learning tool to practice English sentence patterns and to create short essays. In the second stage, the researcher developed a cloud English learning tool that can be used in different types of computer facilities. This learning tool aims at helping students practicing English sentence patterns and at providing teachers with tools to monitor students learning process and performance. In the third stage, the researcher applied this computer learning tool to vocational high school students. The participants were two classes of high school seniors in New Taipei city, with 34 students in each class. One of the two classes was assigned as the experimental group and the other class the control group. The experimental group practiced English sentence patterns, using the cloud English learning tool. The control group was provided with paper handouts and was taught in a traditional way. The results showed a significant difference in performance between the two groups of students, with an F value 4.563 (p<.05). The experimental group had higher mean scores than the control group had. We may conclude that the cloud English learning tool can improve vocational high school students’ English writing skills. In the three-stage study, the researcher found that students at different levels of study used different types of computer facilities, for example, senior high school students used smart phones or notebooks, junior high school students used desktops in the computer lab, and elementary school students used learning log sheets to learn. Therefore, the researcher integrated HTML 5 and jQuery into a learning system and provided teachers with learning logs forms to download. That is, teachers can apply this learning system to students of different levels of study. The goal of this learning tool is to help students write short English essays.
Two studies are reported that explore the feasibility of computer assisted composition in helping school-age children handle high-level aspects of the composing process. The first study used a program featuring help in selecting structural elements to include in opinion essays. The twelve grade six students, serving as subjects in the study, reported that the program was helpful, but a qualitative analysis of their products suggests the intervention was too easily assimilated to a low-level “What next?” composing strategy. In an attempt to strengthen the intervention, the second study introduced a response-sensitive questioning procedure. Qualitative measures suggest the thirty-six grade eight students found this on-line intervention to be too intrusive. The two approaches to on-line facilitation are discussed, and lines for the future investigation of computer assisted composition for the novice composer are suggested.
Sixty subjects, 40 of them blockers, provided over 5000 examples of self-talk accompanying the initiation and completion of writing sessions. An inductive procedure of sorting those thought-list cards into reliable and discrete categories produced 7 cognitive components of blocking (listed in descending order of importance): (1) work apprehension, (2) procrastination, (3) dysphoria, (4) impatience, (5) perfectionism, (6) evaluation anxiety, and (7) rules. Blockers were more likely than nonblockers to list negative thoughts and less likely to evidence “psych-up” thoughts during writing sessions.
Most psychological research on expository writing is conducted within a purely cognitive paradigm. Writing provides a test case of its generality because the claims which writers make about their experience are incompatible with any purely cognitive model. We maintain that the fundamental problem of writing is affective, concerned specifically with the attitudes of openness and trust. A method of writing is presented which we conjecture induces such attitudes. Its efficacy may be tested on individuals suffering from writing difficulties.
This protocol study identifies college readers' purposeful behaviors when writing from sources, determines whether these behaviors cluster at identifiable stages in the reading-writing process, and determines whether proficient and less able readers' processes are the same. The results showed that the subjects did not approach the task of writing from sources in the same way. All subjects referred to the reading sources as they composed, but they consulted them at different points in the reading-writing process. Overall the better readers engaged in more planning than the less able group. Findings show strong associations between reading level and use of study-skill reading strategies, postreading-prewriting strategies, and composing strategies.
In 2 experiments, 40 graduate and 60 undergraduate students wrote preliminary and final drafts of a persuasive document. In Exp I, the need for Ss to comply with mechanics (i.e., punctuation and spelling), to form complete sentences, and to sequence their ideas, respectively, were eliminated one at a time from preliminary-draft formats. The elimination of sentence-formation and sequence operations produced corresponding increments in persuasive argument production. In Exp II, Ss with average verbal ability (as assessed by the Scholastic Aptitude Test) benefited more from the elimination of these structure operations than did Ss with low verbal ability. When allowed to freely choose their typical preliminary-draft format, Ss with average verbal ability usually selected proposition-based formats (e.g., lists, outlines, and diagrams) that dispensed with the need for structure operations. Ss with average verbal ability also produced more sentences, more arguments per sentence, and fewer mechanical errors than did those with low verbal ability. In both experiments, comparatively few new arguments were constructed during revision. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes that verbal reports are data and that accounting for them, as well as for other kinds of data, requires explication of the mechanisms by which the reports are generated, and the ways in which they are sensitive to experimental factors (instructions, tasks, etc). Within the theoretical framework of human information processing, different types of processes underlying verbalization are discussed, and a model is presented of how Ss, in response to an instruction to think aloud, verbalize information that they are attending to in short-term memory (STM). Verbalizing information is shown to affect cognitive processes only if the instructions require verbalization of information that would not otherwise be attended to. From an analysis of what would be in STM at the time of report, the model predicts what could be reliably reported. The inaccurate reports found by other research are shown to result from requesting information that was never directly heeded, thus forcing Ss to infer rather than remember their mental processes. (112 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study aimed to describe the methods of writing used by university faculty and to explore relationships between method and productivity in writing. The survey reported here examined the cognitive strategies, tools, work scheduling, environment, and rituals used by 121 science and engineering faculty members in writing technical documents such as journal articles. The most commonly reported methods (e.g., the cognitive strategy of mentally planning large units of text structure and selecting a pen or pencil for a tool) were uncorrelated with reported productivity. Selecting a quiet work environment was the only typical habit that was associated with high productivity. Three other aspects of writing method were also related to high productivity, but they were not widely employed. These were using a dictation machine, preparing detailed written outlines before beginning a first draft, and the ritual of exercising vigorously before or during a writing session.
Speech recognition is not yet advanced enough to provide people with a reliable listening typewriter with which they could compose documents. The aim of this experiment was to determine if an imperfect listening typewriter would be useful for highly experienced dictators. Participants dictated either in isolated words or in continuous speech, and used a simulated listening typewriter which recognized a limited vocabulary as well as one which recognized an unlimited one. Results suggest that reducing the rate at which people dictate, either through limitations in vocabulary size or through speaking in isolated words, led to reductions in people's performance. For these first-time users, no version of the listening typewriter was better than traditional dictating methods.
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Holistic assessment of writing: Experimental design and cognitive theory
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Writing essays: The actions and strategies of students The psychology of writing (pp. 98-109) Composing and com-puters: Case studies of experienced writers Writing in real time: Modelling production processes Selected personality traits and achievement in male scientists
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Addressing an audience: A study of expert-novice differences in writing Working memory and reading
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Text production Barron's new guide to the Law School Admissions Test
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Measuring the commu-nicative effectiveness of prose
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Writer's block: The cognitive dimension. Carbon-dale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press Cognitive activities of beginning and advanced college writers: A pausal analysis
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New directions in compo-sition research
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Designing idea processors for document This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. composition
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Thinking through writing
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