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Not What, but How One Feels: The Measurement of Affect during Exercise
Abstract
232 undergraduates participated in 3 experiments that evaluated the feeling scale (FS) by W. J. Rejeski et al (1987) as a measure of affect during exercise. In Exp 1, Ss were instructed to check adjectives on the Multiple Affective Adjective Checklist—Revised that they would associate with either a "good" or a "bad" feeling during exercise. As predicted, discriminant function analysis indicated that the good/bad dimension of the FS appears to represent a core of emotional expression. In Exp 2, Ss rated how they felt during exercise at 3 rates of perceived exertion (RPE). Exp 3 involved 3 4-min bouts of exercise at 30, 60, and 90% of maximum oxygen consumption. RPE and the FS were moderately related, but only at easy and hard workloads. FS ratings evidenced greater variability as metabolic demands increased, and RPEs consistently had stronger ties to physiologic cues than responses to the FS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Enjoyment. During physical exercise, individuals often undergo changes in mood (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Some may experience pleasure, while others may feel displeasure (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). ...
... During physical exercise, individuals often undergo changes in mood (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Some may experience pleasure, while others may feel displeasure (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). These feelings can also vary over time (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). ...
... Some may experience pleasure, while others may feel displeasure (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). These feelings can also vary over time (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). The feeling scale, developed by scientists (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989) is used to measure affective responses associated with exercise (Frazão et al., 2016;Hardy & Rejeski, 1989;Lins-Filho et al., 2019). ...
The study investigated the influence of mental fatigue on older people’s enjoyment during a series of physical exercises. Using a randomized cross-over design, participants (n = 35) completed a 6-minute walking test − 6MWT, a Timed Up and Go—TUG test and three sets of knee extension exercise (first set: KE1, second set: KE2, third set: KE3) under two experimental conditions (control or mental fatigue). The Nonparametric Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Factorial Experiments was used to compare the number of repetitions performed during three sets of resistance exercise between conditions. The same analysis method was applied to compare the perception of effort and enjoyment across five moments (Post- 6MWT, Post-TUG, Post-KE1, Post-KE2, Post-KE3) and two conditions and the Visual Analogue Scales (VAS) across four moments (baseline, Pre-6MWT, Pre-TUG, Pre-KE) and two conditions. Mental fatigue did not affect the physical function, perception of effort and enjoyment of exercise in older people. Participants, however, reported higher enjoyment for walking and dynamic balance compared to strength exercise. Mental fatigue had no effect on the physical function, perception of effort and enjoyment of exercise of older people. Participants presented a higher enjoyment for walking and dynamic balance compared to strength exercise. Given the importance of resistance exercises for health, clinicians should prioritize resources to education programs emphasizing the benefits of resistance exercise in both short- and long- term health. Including social interaction opportunities in physical exercise programs and prescribing activities appropriate to participants’ ability levels could enhance engagement and adherence.
... Self-report questionnaires that measure affective states, such as the widely used Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988), typically focus on resting conditions and thus might not be valid in the context of physical activity (Lox et al., 2000). Other measures, such as the felt arousal (Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985) and feeling scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989), are easy to administer and might be able to assess internal experience even during activity; however, they are considered inferior from a psycho metric point of view (Lox et al., 2000). Keeping in mind the limitations of the available measures, authors of the Physical Activity Affect Scale (PAAS) aimed to develop a questionnaire that (1) focuses on affective states characterizing physical activity, (2) fits well Russel's (1980) circum-Az affektus cirkumplex modellje alapján a PAAS a pozitív és negatív affektivitást, a fáradtságot és a nyugalom érzetet méri ötfokú Likert-skálán, összesen 12 tétellel. ...
... Arousal was assessed with the one-item ("Please estimate how aroused you actually feel") Felt Arousal Scale (FAS; Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985), ranging from 1 ("very low arousal") to 6 ("very activated"), while pleasure-displeasure (valence) was measured with the one-item ("Please estimate how do you feel at this moment") Feeling Scale (FS) (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989), ranging from -5 ("very bad") to 0 ("neutral") and +5 ("very good"). The Hungarian version of the two scales was used in previous studies (e.g., Köteles et al., 2020). ...
Background: Feelings and emotions during sports and exercise determine commitment, adherence, and enjoyment of the activity. The Physical Activity Affect Scale (PAAS) combined two earlier instruments, the Exercise-Induced Feelings Inventory and the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale, to investigate affective states generally characterizing post-exercise feelings based on the circumplex model of affect. Therefore, the PAAS measures positive affect, negative affect, fatigue, and tranquility on a five-point Likert scale having only 12 items. Aim: Its ease of administration and interpretation renders the PAAS a valuable tool in both research and practice, but it is unavailable to Hungarian scholars and sports and exercise professionals due to the lack of adaptation. Hence, this work aimed to develop and validate the Hungarian version of the PAAS. Methods: Three hundred sixty-two recreational exercisers (64.1% women), aged from 18 to 62 (mean of age: 27.0 [SD = 10.0]) years completed the questionnaires before and during their exercise (briefly interrupting activity). Measures: PAAS was used to measure positive affect, negative affect, fatigue and tranquility aspects of internal affective experience. Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) was utilized to assess the actual mood state, consisting of positive affect and negative affect subscales. Arousal was measured with Felt Arousal Scale (FAS), while the pleasure–displeasure affective valence was assessed with the Feeling Scale (FS). Results: A confirmatory factor analysis indicated good fit of the four-factor model. The results also revealed configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance between sexes. The internal reliabilities of the scales varied between (Cronbach’s α ) .73 and .85 before and during exercise. PAAS scales largely showed the expected associations with other measures of positive and negative affect and activation. The lowest association was between Tranquility (PAAS) and Felt arousal ( r = .14), followed by Tranquility and Feeling ( r = .27). Feeling and Felt arousal correlated negatively with Fatigue (PAAS, r = –.42 and r = –.44), as well as with the Negative affect (PAAS, r = –.61 and r = –.40). Positive affect from PAAS (PAAS PA) had a positive correlation with Feeling and Felt arousal ( r = .64, r = .54). PAAS PA and Positive affect from PANAS (PANAS PA) correlated strongly ( r = .77), similar to the Negative affect from both inventories ( r = .78; p < .01 for all cases). Conclusion: Therefore, the Hungarian PAAS could assess exercise-induced affect in a reliable and valid way in recreational exercisers. However, its validity in competitive sports remains to be tested.
... FS is frequently used for measuring affective responses during exercise (8). A discriminant function analysis has indicated that the positive/negative dimension of the FS demonstrates core affective expression (17). In addition, the FS has been shown to correlate to other affective measures, including positive well-being (r= .61) ...
... In addition, the relatively low sample size produced low power for this study, and made it more difficult to generalize the main findings of the study. We also acknowledge that self-report assessments may typically possess inherent limitations; however, such measures used for the purposes of this study were previously validated (17,52). Participant attrition may also be viewed as a potential limitation. ...
... Arousal and stress. Arousal was rated using the Feeling Scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 2016) an 11-point scale ranging from − 5 (very bad) to 5 (very good). Stress symptoms were measured with a single item (Elo, Leppänen, & Jahkola, 2003) which was introduced with "Stress means a situation in which a person feels tense, restless, nervous, or anxious. ...
... Response format ranged from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Appropriate psychometric properties have been demonstrated for the Feeling Scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 2016) and the single-item stress symptom measure (Elo et al., 2003). ...
... (very good) (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Felt arousal (FAS) was measured using a scale from 1 (low activation) to 6 (high activation) (Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985). ...
... Felt arousal (FAS) was measured using a scale from 1 (low activation) to 6 (high activation) (Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985). Validity of both of these scales has been proven (Brito et al., 2022;Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Thermal sensation (TS), which has been shown to be a valid measure of perceived heat stress (Casa et al., 2007), was measured on a scale from 0 (unbearably cold) to 8 (unbearably hot) (Toner et al., 1986) and ratings of thermal comfort (TC) were measured on a previously validated scale from −3 (much too cool) to þ3 (much too warm) (Bedford, 1936(Bedford, , 1950. ...
Despite optimal cognitive function being essential for performance, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of combined cooling interventions on team sport athlete's cognitive function when exercising in the heat. In a randomised, crossover design, 12 unacclimatised men (age: 22.3 ± 3.0 years, body mass: 73.4 ± 5.1 kg, height: 181.0 ± 5.3 cm and V˙O2 max: 51.2 ± 9.5 mL/kg/min) participated in a control (CON) and combined cooling trial (ice slurry and ice collar; COOL). A battery of cognitive tests were completed prior to, during (at half‐time) and following a 90‐min intermittent running protocol in the heat (33°C, 50% relative humidity (RH)). Perceptual and physiological measures were taken throughout the protocol. In CON, response times were quicker on the Stroop task complex level (p = 0.002) and the visual search test complex level at full‐time (p = 0.014) compared to COOL. During COOL, response times were quicker at half‐time on the Stroop task complex level (p = 0.024) compared to CON. Lower rectal temperatures were seen during COOL (CON: 37.44 ± 0.65°C and COOL: 37.28 ± 0.68°C) as well as lower skin, neck and forehead temperatures (main effect of trial, all p < 0.05). Lower ratings of thermal sensation and perceived exertion and enhanced thermal comfort were recorded during COOL (main effect of trial, all p < 0.05). Whilst minimal differences in cognitive function were found when using the combined cooling intervention, the findings highlight a practical and effective strategy to improving many physiological and perceptual responses to intermittent exercise in the heat.
... HIIT protocols varied considerably. All studies measured in-task affect during exercise using the Feeling Scale (Hardy and Rejeski 1989). Mixed results were observed for affective response to HIIT versus MICT, with three studies reporting more positive affective responses to HIIT than MICT and three studies reporting more negative affective responses to HIIT than MICT. ...
... Psychological constructs measured included affect, arousal, and post-exercise enjoyment. Affect was measured using the Feeling Scale (Hardy and Rejeski 1989) and reported at multiple points during the exercise protocols depending on the study, including 50% duration, end of exercise, immediately post-exercise, and the lowest value achieved. Regardless of the timepoint of assessment, in-task affect was significantly lower in HIIT protocols compared to MICT (pooled effect estimates ranging from −0.22 to −1.18). ...
Debate over whether to promote high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in public-health contexts has centred on assumptions that people will have negative psychological responses to HIIT, leading to poor adoption and adherence. We challenge these assumptions through reviews of (1) studies that have measured psychological responses to HIIT and (2) studies that have measured adherence to HIIT protocols in supervised or unsupervised settings. Overall, the evidence suggests that HIIT is just as enjoyable as moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT). In supervised situations, on average, adherence is similarly high for HIIT and MICT (>89%). In unsupervised situations, adherence is similarly lower for both HIIT and MICT (<69%). Based on these findings, we recommend that attention be directed toward improving behaviour-change and maintenance for all types of exercise. Resources are better spent addressing fundamental questions about exercise initiation and adherence, than perpetuating a vitriolic and uncivil debate over the value of HIIT versus MICT. We discuss how debate, incivility, and bullying undermine scientific progress and we issue a call for respectful, civil dialogue in academic HIIT discussions. We conclude with recommendations that can be used by all members of the scientific community to practice, champion, and defend civil discourse.
... The Feeling Scale (FS) (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989) and the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) (Svebak and Murgatroyd 1985) were used to measure affective valence and perceived activation during exercise. The FAS in conjunction with the FS has been used in exercise research to assess exercise-related psychological responses (Andrade et al. 2022;Evmenenko and Teixeira 2020). ...
Memory intrusion is a characteristic of posttraumatic stress disorder manifesting as involuntary flashbacks of negative events. Interference of memory reconsolidation using cognitive tasks has been employed as a noninvasive therapy to prevent subsequent intrusive retrieval. The present study aims to test whether physical activity, with its cognitive demands and unique physiological effects, may provide a novel practice to reduce later involuntary retrieval via the reconsolidation mechanism. In addition, the study investigates the EEG representation of neural function in interpreting the interplay of intrusion and recognition. Eighty-seven participants were tested on successive sessions comprised encoding (Day 0), reconsolidation (24-hr) and priming retrieval (Day 7) in a between-subject design with random assignment to 3 different groups: whole-body exercise, sensorimotor engagement and sitting groups. Of the key results, when involuntary retrieval was subsequently triggered by relevant stimuli, reduced subjective recognition was observed, and working memory maintenance was shortened, indicated by shorter Negative Slow Wave duration. The study implicates the potential neurophysiological mechanism of cognitive and behavioral interventions, specifically those aimed at reducing intrusion frequency through the reconsolidation mechanism; these are proposed to facilitate accelerated recovery from involuntary memories.
... The scale ranges from -5 to +5, where zero (0) represents a neutral state. Negative values indicate negative feelings, ranging from "Very Bad" (-5) to "Very Good" (+5) (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). 2.Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EIFI): The Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory consists of 12 items that capture four distinct emotional states: revitalization, tranquility, positive engagement, and physical exhaustion. ...
This study investigates the effects of a structured CrossFit intervention on physical activity levels, cardiovascular health, body composition, and mental well-being among law students. A total of 50 first-year law students (24 females and 26 males) participated in a four-week CrossFit program consisting of three weekly sessions, each lasting 35-40 minutes. Participants were assessed at the beginning and end of the program using the Modified Baecke Physical Activity Questionnaire (MBPAQ), body composition measurements, and physiological indicators such as heart rate, blood pressure, and body fat percentage. Significant improvements were observed in physical activity levels (t = 7.135, p < 0.001), resting heart rate (t = 2.354, p = 0.027), systolic blood pressure (t = 6.669, p < 0.001), and body fat percentage (t = 6.431, p < 0.001). Small but significant increases were noted in body water content (p = 0.020). However, no significant changes were observed in work-related physical activity or bone mass. These results suggest that CrossFit is an effective intervention for enhancing physical and mental health in high-stress academic environments, particularly in improving cardiovascular health and body composition. The findings support the role of high-intensity exercise programs in reducing stress-related physiological markers in students.
... Odd numbers and zero are verbalized, with the scale ranging from −5 ("very bad") to +5 ("very good"). The scale was originally developed in English by Hardy and Rejeski [32,33]. The original study introducing the FS established its construct validity by demonstrating that scores on the FS correlated well with physiological markers of exertion and other self-reported measures of affect. ...
Background and Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic brought significant challenges across governmental, industrial, and social systems. Additionally, numerous studies have reported a sharp increase in both mental health issues and musculoskeletal disorders worldwide. This study aimed to investigate whether a specific exercise program could alleviate neck and upper back pain symptoms and improve mood state among healthcare and office employees during the post-COVID-19 period. Materials and Methods: This was an unblinded (open label) randomized controlled trial (both the participants and the researchers knew which treatment or intervention was being administered). In total, 40 healthcare employees from a public hospital and 98 remote office employees, all of whom reported neck and upper back pain, were randomly assigned to an experimental (EG) and control group (CG). The experimental groups underwent the same exercise protocol, while their corresponding control groups underwent the assessments only. Pain assessment using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and mood state using the Feeling Scale (FS) questionnaires of the participants were recorded at baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately following the exercise intervention period of 6 weeks (post-intervention). The intervention consisted of 18 exercise sessions conducted over a 6-week period, with remote office workers participating online and healthcare workers attending exercise sessions on site (at the hospital). Statistical analysis was performed using non-parametric Mann–Whitney and Wilcoxon tests, as appropriate. Results: Following the six-week intervention, the percentage of workers in the EG reporting pain decreased significantly (from 75% to 45% for healthcare workers and from 54% to 25% for office employees), whereas no change was observed for their corresponding control groups. Similarly, the mood state of the EGs significantly improved compared with the control groups, as measured between pre- and post-intervention sessions. Conclusions: The COVID-19 period exacerbated stress and musculoskeletal strain, particularly for workers in demanding occupational roles. To mitigate these effects, exercise programs that can be applied while at work should be implemented, as they are effective in enhancing mood and managing neck pain in employees with physical exertion.
... Immediately after each exercise condition, participants provided a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) using a Borg CR-10 scale (Borg, 1998) based on the question "how hard was the exercise you just performed?". They were also asked to indicate what their affective valence was during the exercise using the Feeling Scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989), to rate the mental and physical demand of the task using the corresponding sub-scales of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX; Hart and Staveland (1988)), and to mark a point on a 150 mm Rating Scale of Mental Effort (RSME; Zijlstra (1993)). ...
... Participants were familiarized with the correct execution of movements using the equipment utilized in the study, which included the bench press, the knee extension machine, the lat pulldown, and the knee flexion machine. Standardized instructions regarding subjective perceived exertion scales (PSE OMNI-RES 0-10) and the Hardy et al. (12) sensation scale were provided during this stage. ...
... The form was presented to them on a scale of 1 = "not at all" and 7 = "extremely", and participants were asked, "How much did you enjoy this exercise session?". The one-item Feeling scale [39] was used to measure general affective valence (i.e., pleasure and displeasure) administered pre-and post-ES sessions, asking participants to respond to the question "How are you feeling right now?" (−5 = very bad to +5 = very good). ...
This 6‐week pilot study aimed to investigate the feasibility, perceived efficacy, and participation perspectives of a university campus stair climbing‐based exercise snack (ES) intervention and to compare it to moderate‐intensity continuous training (MICT). Healthy, young, inactive adults (age: 21.6 ± 2.3 years, BMI: 22.5 ± 3.6 kg/m²) were randomly assigned to three groups (ES, MICT, and Control [CON]). ES (n = 14, 6 females) and MICT (n = 13, 9 females) groups performed three sessions per week over 6 weeks, while the control group (n = 15, 9 females) maintained their habitual lifestyle. ES involved 3 × ~30 s ‘all‐out’ stair‐climbing (6 flights, total 126 steps and 18.9 m elevation) bouts separated by > 1 h rest, and MICT involved 40 min stationary cycling at 60%–70% HRmax. Mixed linear effect models were used to explore within and between‐group differences, and the change in magnitude was determined using mean difference (MD), 95% confidence interval (CI), and Cohen's d effect size. Fourteen participants also completed post‐intervention semi‐structured interviews. Retention rates of 93% (ES, 14/15), 93% (MICT, 13/14), and 100% (CON, 15/15) were achieved from baseline to post‐assessments, with compliance (participants' attendance to scheduled ES sessions) of 97% (733/756 sessions) and 93% (217/234 sessions) in ES and MICT, respectively. No significant differences were found between ES and MICT for future intentions (4.8 ± 1.4 and 5.0 ± 0.9), enjoyment (PACES, 89.0 ± 16.4 and 94.5 ± 11.9), and satisfaction. A significant group × time interaction was found in the quality of life and perceived stress. ES and MICT significantly increased the quality of life by 8% (MD = 5.5 [95% CI = 0.3, 10.7], Cohen's d = 0.64) and 6% (MD = 4.6 [95% CI = 0.9, 8.2], Cohen's d = 0.88) compared to baseline, whereas CON experienced a significant decrease (MD = −7.9 [95% CI = −14.4, −1.6], Cohen's d = 0.56). ES significantly decreased perceived stress by 7% (MD = −4.6 [95% CI = −8.9, −0.3], Cohen's d = 0.58), while MICT (MD = 2.0 [95% CI = −0.1, 4.1], Cohen's d = 0.28) and CON (MD = −2.4 [95% CI = −6.1, 1.3], Cohen's d = 0.22) had no significant effects. The majority (12/14) of participants generally demonstrated positive attitudes toward participation in ES and found it easier than expected while highlighting enablers, barriers, and future recommendations. Stair climbing‐based ES could be integrated into the campus setting, appeared feasible, and was similar to MICT regarding future intentions, enjoyment, and satisfaction. Both ES and MICT might induce relevant positive effects on the quality of life, and ES demonstrated greater benefits compared to MICT or CON for reducing perceived stress. Interviews provided positive insights into fostering adherence to ES among university students.
... The unique methods on how affective determinants are formulated in each processes also necessitates distinct approaches to measure them [12]. For instance, affective responses in the automatic processes can be measured by administering the Feeling Scale (asking "How do you feel right now?"), which is an established instrument that can be employed multiple times during an exercise session [13]. This approach makes it possible to depict the valence of the affective response when exercising. ...
Enjoyment is recognized as a determinant of physical activity habits. The enjoyment of engaging in physical activity can be measured with the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). Later versions of this scale have been shortened to capture the component of subjective feeling, which has been validated using German-speaking samples. The aim of this study was to examine internal consistency, factorial validity, criterion-related validity, test-retest reliability, and measurement invariance (across gender and languages) in an English-speaking population. Data on physical activity enjoyment and self-reported physical activity were collected through an online survey with a test-retest design (n = 276,189 female, M = 42.55, SD = 16.81 years) conducted from September 2023 to December 2023. In addition, a German-speaking sample (n = 1017, 497 female, M = 29.77, SD = 13.54 years) was analyzed to assess measurement invariance with respect to language. McDonald’s omega at time 1 was ω = 0.95. The confirmatory factor analysis supports the assumption of the unidimensional structure of PACES-S (χ² = 19.8, df = 2, p < 0.05; CFI = 0.984; RMSEA = 0.180, 90% CI [0.113–0.256]), as the model fit can be estimated as good in view of the CFI value, while the sensitivity of the χ² test is very high and the RMSEA may underestimate the model fit. Although the RMSEA value is higher than the conventional threshold, the small number of degrees of freedom may have a significant impact on this indicator. The criterion-related validity for light physical activity was r(107) = 0.26 (p < 0.05). The retest reliability was r(199) = 0.69 (p < 0.05). Further, the results supported measurement invariance across gender and partial measurement invariance across languages. Overall, the English PACES-S demonstrated good psychometric properties specifically for light intensity of physical activity, and can serve as an economical instrument to assess physical activity enjoyment.
... After each set of each exercise, participants will be asked to rate their perceived exertion using the OMNI-Resistance Exercise scale from 0 to 10 [38]. During each session, participants will be asked to rank their feeling (before and immediately after) [43], enjoyment (immediately after) [44], self-efficacy (immediately after) [45], discomfort (5 min after the resistance exercise sessions) [46], and session rating of perceived exertion (5 min after the resistance exercise sessions) [29] using validated scales. ...
Background
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is preceded by prediabetes, and these conditions place a great burden on patients and society. These conditions are significantly associated with poor glycemic control, which is improved by resistance exercise. It has been suggested that resistance exercise should be performed with a high degree of effort to improve glucose metabolism, but this is associated with negative psychological responses that might lead to lower long-term adherence.
Objective
This study aimed to investigate the effect of the degree of effort during a resistance exercise session on glycemic control and psychological responses in individuals living with prediabetes or T2D.
Methods
This study will be a crossover, 3-arm, randomized controlled trial. A total of 15 participants living with prediabetes or T2D will be thoroughly familiarized with 7 resistance exercises; afterward, they will perform 3 randomized experimental sessions, each lasting approximately 48 hours each, separated by at least 4 washout days. In 2 of these sessions, supervised resistance exercise will be performed, but the sessions will differ in the degree of effort in each set (high vs low) and will be equalized in terms of total weight lifted and session duration. For this, proximity to failure will be manipulated by changing the number of sets per exercise, the number of repetitions per set, and the resting interval between sets and exercises. Participants will also complete a sedentary (control) session, where they will not perform any exercise. In response to each session, psychological responses will be assessed (exertion, affect, enjoyment, self-efficacy, and discomfort). Glycemic control will be assessed by a continuous glucose monitoring device every 5 minutes, throughout the approximately 48 hours of each experimental session. Food and drink will be individually prescribed by a registered dietitian nutritionist and provided to participants, in order to control for the confounding effect of energy intake and diet composition. Physical activity levels will be assessed by accelerometry. Randomization will be done using the opaque, sequentially numbered envelopes technique. Participants and researchers will be blinded for continuous glucose monitoring and accelerometry data, and data will be analyzed by a blinded statistician.
Results
This study has been funded, and data collection is expected to take place between June 2024 and May 2025. Final manuscript submission should happen by August 2025.
Conclusions
The results of this project might encourage individuals living with prediabetes and T2D to engage in resistance exercise while better informing exercise specialists on how to best incorporate resistance exercise in their client’s or patient’s routine.
Trial Registration
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06208189; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06208189
International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)
PRR1-10.2196/63598
... The FS consists of a 11-point bipolar scale that ranges from +5 (very good) to −5 (very bad) (52) and represents an individual's feelings of pleasure or displeasure to exercise at that moment. Prior to HIW and LGJ bouts, according to Hardy & Rejeski,(24), the following was read to each participant: "While participating in exercise, it is common to experience changes in mood. Some individuals find exercise pleasurable, whereas others find it to be unpleasant. ...
... Next (i.e. 90 min after drink provision), 75 min running at 70% VO 2 peak was performed, whilst measuring respiratory gas exchange to determine the energy expenditure and carbohydrate/fat utilisation. The HR, RPE, and Feeling scale (FS) were monitored every 15 min (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Immediately after exercise the Actiheart device was fitted to the participant. ...
... Participants will begin with a 3-min warmup, 24 min of cycling at a moderate intensity, followed by a 3-min cooldown. Monitoring of heart rate (beats per minute), resistance/load (watts), cadence (revolutions per minute), affect (Feeling Scale; [32]), and RPE [10] will occur every minute during the warmup/cooldown and every 5 min throughout the exercise to ensure participant safety and to maintain a moderate intensity. Thirty minutes of moderate exercise was chosen as previous data shows that this prescription improves state anhedonia [52,53] and increases BDNF in adults with MDD [51] and is perceived as feasible and acceptable pre-therapy [52,53]. ...
Background
Depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and treatments could be more effective. Identifying methods to improve treatment success has the potential to reduce disease burden dramatically. Preparing or “priming” someone to respond more effectively to psychotherapy (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy [CBT]) by preceding sessions with aerobic exercise, a powerful neurobiological activator, could enhance the success of the subsequently performed therapy. However, the success of this priming approach for increasing engagement of working mechanisms of psychotherapy (e.g., increased working alliance and behavioral activation) has yet to be formally tested.
Methods
The CBT + trial will be a parallel-arm randomized controlled trial that will recruit 40 adult participants with DSM-5 diagnosed depression (verified with clinical interview) via referrals, mass emails, local flyers, and social media posts. Participants will be randomized to an ActiveCBT or CalmCBT condition. The ActiveCBT group will receive an 8-week CBT intervention primed with 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (cycling on a stationary bike at a 13 rating of perceived exertion). The CalmCBT group will receive the same 8-week CBT intervention while resting for 30 min before CBT (i.e., cycling vs no cycling is the only difference). The primary outcome measures will be mean working alliance (assessed with the client version of the Working Alliance Inventory—Short Revised) and mean behavioral activation (self-reported Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale) recorded at each of the 8 therapy sessions. Secondary outcomes include evaluation of state anhedonia and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor before the active/calm conditions, between the condition and therapy, and after the therapy. Additional exploratory analyses will evaluate group differences in algorithm-generated ratings of therapist-participant interactions via the Lyssn platform.
Discussion
The novel approach of priming CBT with moderate-intensity aerobic exercise evaluated in a randomized controlled trial (CBT + trial) has the potential to demonstrate the usefulness of exercise as an augmentation strategy that improves working mechanisms of therapy and overall treatment outcomes for adults with depression.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06001346. Registered on August 21, 2023.
... Affective valence during each trial was recorded using the 'Feeling scale' (FS) (Hardy and Rejeski 1989). The FS is an 11-point numerical scale ranging from − 5 (very bad) and 0 (neutral) to + 5 (very good). ...
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to explore the validity, test–retest reliability and affective responses of a submaximal 20-m shuttle-run test (20mSRT) stopped at 6 on the Eston–Parfitt (EP) scale. The secondary aim was to examine and compare two submaximal 20mSRT protocols with different RPE end points (EP6 vs. EP7) using previously published data.
Methods
Twenty-five children (16 boys; 13.4 ± 1.0 years; 162.1 ± 8.7 cm; 49.1 ± 6.6 kg) completed three exercise tests (graded exercise test [GXT], 2 submaximal 20mSRT). The EP scale and Feeling scale were used to measure RPE and affect, respectively. The two submaximal 20mSRTs were stopped after participants reported EP6. Individual speed–RPE relationships from the submaximal 20mSRTs were linearly regressed to predict peak speed and then used to estimate VO2peak. Previously published data (n = 25) used comparable methods, except that the participants stopped at EP7.
Results
In the EP6 protocol, a two-factor repeated measures ANOVA revealed non-significant Test and Sex main effects (p > 0.05). Reliability analysis revealed intraclass correlation coefficient of ~ 0.7 (95%CI [0.432,0.867], p < 0.001) between the submaximal 20mSRTs. Significant differences in end-test affect between the GXT and submaximal 20mSRTs were found (p < 0.001), with GXT more negative. ANOVA revealed no significant differences in end-test affect between EP6 and EP7 protocols; however, frequency count analysis revealed EP6 to result in more positive end-test affect.
Conclusion
Submaximal 20mSRT utilising RPE may offer valid predictions in VO2peak while minimising negative affect. Test end points of EP6 and EP7 both offer valid predictions in VO2peak. EP6 may be more beneficial in avoiding negative affect, even though a reduction in test–retest reliability was observed.
... The feeling status scale is a measure for how a person feels during exercise (6). Hardy and Rejeski (6), suggest that although RPE represents what an individual feels during exercise, it does not reflect how a person feels. ...
... Core Affective Valence. The Feeling Scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989) was used to measure core affective valence during exercise, with a single item ranging from −5 (very negative) to +5 (very positive). Participants were asked to indicate affective valence every 5 min during exercise (resulting in four measurements per participant per session; see below). ...
This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness in improving affect during moderate-intensity exercise and to test the hypothesis that this intervention is particularly beneficial for those who are already sufficiently active. Two groups of sufficiently and insufficiently active participants were recruited to complete a 20-min moderate-intensity exercise (based on 55%–65% of heart rate reserve) on treadmill in three different experimental conditions (mindfulness, attention distraction, and no-intervention control) in a randomized order. Core affective valence was measured repeatedly during exercise. Linear mixed-effects modeling and subsequent Tukey post hoc comparisons revealed that more positive affective responses occurred in the mindfulness condition than in attention distraction and control conditions, but only among those who reported sufficient physical activity in their daily lives. We also found that participants in the insufficiently active group experienced more pleasant feelings in the attention distraction condition than in the control condition. Additional exploratory analysis suggested that all participants reported a more positive forecasted affect for exercising in the future in mindfulness and attention distraction conditions, whereas only the sufficiently active group reported greater postexercise enjoyment after mindfulness condition. We interpret these findings as evidence that nonregular exercisers should be advised to divert their attention from their bodily sensations during moderate-intensity physical activity rather than to be mindful, which is more appropriate for those who are already used to regular exercise.
... Hardy & Rejeski's feeling scale (FS) (Hardy and Rejeski, 1989) and Borg's rating of perceived exertion scale-10 items (RPE) (Li et al., 2023) were used to evaluate subjective perception and provide an overall assessment of subjects' subjective motor sensations during a single training session. Additionally, a circular model-based dualmode model (DMM) was employed to illustrate the dose-response relationship between RPE and FS in two orthogonal/bipolar dimensions (Ekkekakis et al., 2002). ...
Introduction
Vigorous physical activity (VPA) has been demonstrated to enhance cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) in sedentary college students more effectively than other PA. However, differences in training volume may affect this outcome. This study examines the physiological, psychological, and internal training load (ITL) characteristics of VPA with varying volumes in a single session.
Methods
Thirty sedentary college students were divided into three groups: high-intensity interval training (HIIT), sprint interval training (SIT), and threshold training (THR). PA process was monitored. The study measured various cardiorespiratory parameters, including heart rate (HR), respiratory waveform and amplitude, respiratory rate (RR), tidal volume (TV), minute ventilation volume (VE), fractional concentration of oxygen in end-tidal gas (O2%), fractional concentration of end-tidal carbon dioxide (CO2%), global oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide discharge (VCO2), and the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. The following physiological indicators were measured: carbon dioxide discharge (VCO2), Oxygen pulse (OP), and respiratory exchange ratio (RER). Additionally, subjective perception indicators were recorded, including the feeling scale (FS), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and dual-mode model (DMM). The session-RPE (s-RPE) and Edward's TRIMP were used to measure ITL.
Results
There were no significant differences in HR across the three conditions. THR had the highest level of TV (p = 0.043), but RR was significantly lower than that of HIIT and SIT (p < 0.01). HIIT had the highest levels of VO2, VCO2, O2%, and OP (p < 0.05). RPE was higher in HIIT and SIT compared to THR (p < 0.01), but the difference in FS was not significant. The DMM time-domain trajectories were similar in HIIT and THR. The correlation between exercise intensity, RPE, and FS was highest in THR group (r = 0.453, r = −0.58, r = −0.885). ITL did not show a significant difference between three conditions, but TRIMP and s-RPE readings were opposite in magnitude.
Conclusion
This study proposes that using an appropriate amount of THR to foster interest and adaptive strength during the PA habit establishment period, incorporating HIIT to enhance exercise efficiency during the adaptation period, and implementing SIT to reduce the monotony may effectively enhance the cardiorespiratory fitness of sedentary college students and establish PA habit.
... Exercise intensities below LT were used as previous research has shown that during exercise at an intensity greater than LT, the demand for increased carbohydrate consumption surpasses the influence of oestrogen (Hackney, 2021;Hackney et al., 1994). In the last minute of each stage, metabolic variables were collected using breath-by-breath analysis (Metalyser 3B, Cortex, Germany) and heart rate, breathing frequency, rating of perceived exertion (Borg, 1970), felt arousal (Svebak & Murgatroyd, 1985) and feeling scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989) were recorded. ...
The pharmacokinetic profile of oral contraceptives (OCs) results in an acute, transient increase in circulating synthetic reproductive hormones. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of acute OC ingestion on cognitive function, substrate metabolism and exercise performance. Sixteen combined OC (30µg ethinyl oestradiol and 150mg Levonorgestrel) users ingested either their OC or placebo (PLA) in a randomised, double-blind, crossover manner. After 60 minutes, participants completed tests of verbal memory and verbal fluency, followed by sub-maximal treadmill exercise for 6 minutes at 60% lactate threshold (LT) and 90% LT where respiratory exchange ratio (RER), carbohydrate oxidation, fat oxidation, heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), felt arousal and feeling scale were recorded. Participants then completed an incremental ramp test to exhaustion to assess time to exhaustion (TTE) and peak oxygen uptake (VO 2 peak), before ingesting the pill corresponding to the condition, they were not in. RER, arousal and feeling scale were all significantly lower in the OC condition compared to PLA (all P < 0.05) with no difference in HR, carbohydrate oxidation, fat oxidation, RPE, TTE or VO 2 peak (all P > 0.05). Verbal fluency score was significantly higher in the OC condition compared to PLA (P < 0.05), with no differences between conditions for any aspect of verbal memory (all P < 0.05). Combined OC ingestion acutely affects substrate metabolism, affective responses to exercise and verbal fluency. The timing of OC ingestion should be considered in relation to aspects of physiological function.
Key findings
Ingestion of a combined oral contraceptive (OC) results in a transient increase in circulating synthetic reproductive hormones.
The altered reproductive hormone profile affects substrate metabolism and affective responses to exercise.
Cognitive performance in a verbal fluency task is also improved post OC ingestion.
The within-day timing of OC ingestion can be manipulated to affect aspects of physiology, which may have implications for athletes, exercises and the general population, in addition to interpretation of prior research using OCs.
... • Affective response: measured using the feeling scale (FS) proposed by Hardy and Rejeski (1989). This is an 11-point bipolar scale ranging from +5 to −5, commonly used to measure basic affective valence (pleasure/displeasure) during physical exercise. ...
... The scale is a reliable and valid instrument for estimating exertion in endurance and strength training [7] Feeling Scale. Affective valence (pleasure-displeasure) was assessed using the Feeling Scale [23]. The Feeling Scale is a single-item, 11-point scale that ranges from +5 (very good) to -5 (very bad). ...
Measuring exercise performance is important in school sports as
well as in amateur and elite sports training. Many factors play
a role in whether the performance potential can be called upon,
including suitable orientation and information during the test to
support correct performance, as well as encouragement. The interdisciplinary "Sonic Shuttle Run" project investigates the potential of using specifically designed, complex sounds to support these aspects and increase motivation or willingness to exert maximal effort. In a pilot project, sound design variants for the shuttle run test have been created in a design-driven process. The resulting designs, and a standard shuttle run audio sequence, were evaluated with 21 participants. The evaluation combined a shuttle run test, focusing on possible effects of the sounds on exertion, affective valence, flow, and auditory user experience, with a passive online listening test, focusing on auditory user experience, movement potential and judgement of sound quality. Also the associations evoked by the sounds were assessed and compared with the design intentions and the test outcomes. The results clearly indicate a potential benefit of carefully designed and evocative sounds for maximal exercise testing and indicate fruitful directions for further development and research in sound design strategies for exercise and sports.
... Affect. General affective valence was assessed using the single-item, 11-point Feeling Scale (46). ...
Purpose
To compare the effects of 8 weeks of no intervention (CON), lower limb heat therapy (HEAT), moderate-intensity exercise training (EX), or combined training and therapy (HEATEX) in young, healthy recreationally active adults.
Methods
Sixty participants (23 ± 3 years, 30 females) were randomly allocated into either CON (n = 15), HEAT (n = 15), EX (n = 14), or HEATEX (n = 16). The primary outcome was vascular function, assessed through brachial artery flow-mediated dilation tests (BA FMD). Secondary measures included arterial stiffness (pulse wave velocity, PWV); cardiorespiratory fitness (VO 2 peak); body composition; and quadriceps muscle strength.
Results
There were no differences in BA FMD between the groups before and after the interventions (all p > 0.05). Both interventions with a heating component were associated with within-group reductions in carotid-femoral PWV, and increases in absolute and relative VO 2 peak after 8 weeks (HEAT: ∆-0.27 [-0.53, -0.02] m/s, ∆0.18 [0.06, 0.29] L/min, ∆2.18 [0.60, 3.76] ml/kg/min, respectively; HEATEX: ∆-0.33 [-0.58, -0.09], ∆0.21 [0.11, 0.32] L/min, ∆2.59 [1.06, 4.12] ml/kg/min, respectively), but no between-group differences were observed (p = 0.25, p = 0.21, and p = 0.55, respectively). There was also a within-group decrease in body fat percentage with EX (∆-1.37 [-2.45, -0.29] %), but no changes in leg strength in any of the groups (p = 0.79).
Conclusions
This randomized controlled trial is the first to examine the efficacy of lower limb heating against traditionally prescribed exercise training. In our young cohort, 8 weeks of training and/or therapy was insufficient to improve vascular function. More intense protocols and longer interventions involving lower limb heating may be required to elicit improvements in health outcomes.
... The Borg 6-20 scale was selected to rate the perceived intensity of exertion [27] Pre-and Post-RSS. To assess the participants' mood, we used the FS [28]: FS was measured using Hardy and Rejeski's bipolar feeling scale. Immediately after the RPE assessments, the participant was asked to respond to the question "How are you feeling right now?" by choosing one on the 11-point scale [from + 5 (very good) to -5 (very bad) with a midpoint of 0 (neutral)]. ...
The study aimed to investigate the effects of acute ingestion of saffron (SAF) on physiological (i.e., heart rate and blood lactate) and perceptual (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion [RPE] and feeling scale) measures in response to a repeated-sprint ability test (RSS) in healthy young males (N = 22; mean ± SD: age, 21.7 ± 1.24 yrs.). All participants completed two experimental trials with a one-week washout period using a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design. In each session, the participants were randomly chosen to receive either a capsule of saffron (300 mg) (SAF session) or a capsule of lactose (PLB session) two hours before performing the RSS.
No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found for heart rate, RPE, and feeling scale between the SAF or PLB sessions at pre- and post-RSS. There were no significant changes (p > 0.05) in peak time, total time, fatigue index, and blood lactate in either the SAF or PLB sessions. Acute SAF ingestion did not significantly improve RSS performance nor physiological and perceptual measures in active young males. Future trials should address the topic by using shortened/prolonged higher doses of SAF on biological, physical, physiological, and perceptual responses to acute and chronic exercise.
... Each trial commenced with a 5-min warm-up at 50 W and then one of three randomised 30 min trials: 1) Moderate intensity continuous exercise (MICE) consisting of 30-minutes of cycling at 65%-70% HR max , 2) High volume-high intensity interval exercise (HV-HIIE) consisting of 4 × 4-minute cycling intervals at 80%-85% HR max with 3 min of passive rest between each interval or 3) Low volume-high intensity interval exercise (LV-HIIE), consisting of 4 × 2-minute interval at 90%-95% HR max with 5 min of passive rest between each interval. HR was monitored continuously alongside ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) (Robert and Brown, 1982) and the affective response using the Feeling Scale (Hardy and Rejeski, 2016) every minute. Total energy expenditure from each trial was estimated from power output using an equation proposed by Ettema and Lorås (2009). ...
Introduction
Peripheral blood stem cell (PBSC) donation is the primary procedure used to collect hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Single bouts of exercise transiently enrich peripheral blood with HSPCs and cytolytic natural killer cells (CD56dim), which are important in preventing post-transplant complications. To provide a rationale to investigate the utility of exercise in a PBSC donation setting (≈3 h), this study aimed to establish whether interval cycling increased peripheral blood HSPC and CD56dim concentrations to a greater degree than continuous cycling.
Methods
In a randomised crossover study design, eleven males (mean ± SD: age 25 ± 7 years) undertook bouts of moderate intensity continuous exercise [MICE, 30 min, 65%–70% maximum heart rate (HRmax)], high-volume high intensity interval exercise (HV-HIIE, 4 × 4 min, 80%–85% HRmax) and low-volume HIIE (LV-HIIE, 4 × 2 min, 90%–95% HRmax). The cumulative impact of each interval on circulating HSPC (CD34⁺CD45dimSSClow) and CD56dim concentrations (cells/µL), and the bone marrow homing potential of HSPCs (expression of CXCR-4 and VLA-4) were determined.
Results
There was an increase in HSPC concentration after two intervals of LV-HIIE (Rest: 1.84 ± 1.55 vs. Interval 2: 2.94 ± 1.34, P = 0.01) and three intervals of HV-HIIE only (Rest: 2.05 ± 0.86 vs. Interval 3: 2.51 ± 1.05, P = 0.04). The concentration of all leukocyte subsets increased after each trial, with this greatest for CD56dim NK cells, and in HIIE vs. MICE (LV-HIIE: 4.77 ± 2.82, HV-HIIE: 4.65 ± 2.06, MICE: 2.44 ± 0.77, P < 0.0001). These patterns were observed for concentration, not frequency of CXCR-4⁺ and VLA-4⁺ HSPCs, which was unaltered. There was a marginal decrease in VLA-4, but not CXCR-4 expression on exercise-mobilised HSPCs after all trials (P < 0.0001).
Discussion
The results of the present study indicate that HIIE caused a more marked increase in HSPC and CD56dim NK cell concentrations than MICE, with mobilised HSPCs maintaining their bone marrow homing phenotype. LV-HIIE evoked an increase in HSPC concentration after just 2 × 2-minute intervals. The feasibility and clinical utility of interval cycling in a PBSC donation context should therefore be evaluated.
... As variáveis avaliadas foram: percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) -escala CR-10 modificada, de 1 a 10, sendo 1 muito leve e 10 máximo (Foster e colaboradores, 2001); motivação -de 0 a 10, sendo 0 totalmente desmotivada e 10 totalmente motivada (Prado e colaboradores, 2021); atenção -de 0 a 5, sendo 0 totalmente desconcentrada e 5 totalmente concentrada; e afeto -de -5 a +5, sendo -5 muito ruim e +5 muito bom (Hardy, Rejeski, 1989), qualidade do sono na noite anterior -de 1 a 7, sendo 1 excelente e 7 péssima (Thorpe e colaboradores, 2015); e desempenho esportivo -de 1 a 5, sendo 1 muito baixo e 5 muito alto. ...
Os impactos do ciclo menstrual no desempenho e em fatores psicológicos de atletas ainda é inconclusivo, ademais há poucos estudos deste tema dentro do futebol. O objetivo deste estudo piloto foi analisar a variação do desempenho esportivo e de fatores psicológicos ao longo do ciclo menstrual em jogadoras de futebol. Sete atletas foram diariamente acompanhadas via um questionário digital de avaliações autorrelatadas sobre seus treinamentos durante três ciclos menstruais. O desempenho esportivo foi significativamente melhor durante a ovulação, também houve alterações significativas na atenção, afeto e qualidade do sono, com respostas negativas nas fases menstrual e pré‑menstrual. Conclui-se que o ciclo menstrual impacta tanto no desempenho esportivo quanto em fatores psicológicos. Estudos futuros são essenciais para melhor compreensão das respostas observadas, mas os resultados preliminares indicam a importância de monitorar o ciclo menstrual em atletas a fim de promover melhores cuidados e otimizar o desempenho em futebolistas.
... Valence was assessed using the Feeling Scale (FS; Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Children were asked to rate their present feelings on an 11-point bipolar single-item scale that ranges from − 5 (very bad) to +5 (very good) along a displeasure-pleasure continuum. ...
... Two single-item measures based on the circumplex model were used to assess twodimensional affective states affective valence and perceived activation (Russell, 1980). Affective valence was assessed by the Feeling Scale (FS; Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). The FS provides anchors at zero (neutral) and at all odd integers, ranging from +5 = very good to −5 = very bad. ...
Since the majority of body image research focused on female participants exclusively, this study aimed to investigate acute changes of state body satisfaction in male and female students through exposure to fitspiration pictures. Using an experimental cross-sectional web-based study design, male and female participants were randomly allocated to either gender-matching fitspiration pictures or travel pictures. State body satisfaction was collected before and after picture exposure. Statistical analyses included mixed analyses of covariance. In total, n = 360 participants (Ø = 22.29 ± 3.36 years) completed the study. State body satisfaction decreased after picture exposure in the fitspiration group and stayed similar in the travel group, F(1, 356) = 6.18, p = .013, η² = .12. This effect was significantly stronger in women compared to men, when including affective valence to the model, F(1, 355) = 3.88, p = .050, η² = .011. Viewing fitspiration pictures can negatively affect body satisfaction. Both gender and affective valence seem to be important variables that should be considered when analyzing the fitspiration–body satisfaction relationship.
Background: Being able to choose elements of an exercise session, known as autonomy support, improves motor performance and psychological responses. Virtual reality (VR) programs provide many options for embedding autonomy support in exercise sessions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of autonomy support in a VR setting on physiological and psychological responses to self-regulated rowing exercise.
Methods: Using a repeated-measures crossover design, healthy untrained men and women (N = 20, age = 23.0 ± 7.4) completed exercise sessions on a rowing ergometer coupled with a head-mounted immersive VR application. In the Choice condition, participants chose the virtual environment, and in the Control condition, the environment was assigned to the participant. Participants were instructed to complete 1500 m as quickly as possible in both conditions, while ratings of perceived exertion, affective valence, and heart rate were recorded throughout the trials. Finishing time and remembered pleasure were assessed at the end of each session. Repeated-measures analyses with an alpha level of 0.05 were used for all variables as appropriate, with Bonferroni adjustments applied for any post hoc tests.
Results: There was a main effect of condition on affective valence which was higher in Choice (2.07 ± 1.67) than Control (1.64 ± 2.12, P = 0.03, η2 = 0.22). No other differences were detected between conditions for finishing time or the remaining variables.
Conclusion: During self-regulated exercise accompanied by an immersive VR application, being able to choose the virtual environment oneself leads to a more positive affective state without compromising exercise effort, physiological strain, or performance.
Objective
This study compared the effects of prior cognitive, physical, and concurrent exertion on physical performance.
Background
Fatiguing cognitive and physical exertions have been shown to negatively affect subsequent task performance. However, it is not clearly understood if concurrent physical and cognitive effort may exaggerate the negative carryover effects on physical task performance when compared to cognitive or physical exertion alone.
Method
Twenty-five participants completed four isometric handgrip endurance trials on different days. The endurance trials were preceded by four, 15-minute experimental manipulations (cognitive, physical, concurrent, control). Electromyography (EMG) and force tracing performance were monitored, with handgrip strength measured pre and post. Subjective ratings of mental and physical fatigue, as well as affect, motivation, and task self-efficacy, were also assessed.
Results
Handgrip strength decreased following both physical (−14.4% MVC) and concurrent (−12.3% MVC) exertion manipulations, with no changes being observed for the cognitive and control conditions. No differences were observed across conditions for endurance time, EMG, nor tracing performance. When compared to the control conditions, perceptions of mental and physical fatigue were higher following the experimental manipulation. Endurance trial self-efficacy was lower for the mental, physical and concurrent conditions compared to control.
Conclusion
The concurrent condition resulted in similar decreases in strength as the physical fatigue condition, but otherwise resulted in similar carryover effects on endurance performance across all conditions. Further study is required at higher exposure levels, or for longer exposure durations, to further probe the influence of concurrent physical and cognitive effort on task performance.
Application
Concurrent cognitive and physical effort resulted in similar physical performance decrements to physical effort alone.
The purpose of the present study was to identify eminent sport and exercise psychology researchers, based on citation count, and their most highly cited papers. Men (n = 121) and women (n = 32) from 17 different countries (e.g., the United States n = 47 to Ireland n = 1) were identified. Researchers were selected if their h-index was 60 or greater for Google Scholar and Web of Science combined. This criterion reflects Hirsch’s (2005) characterization as follows based on h-index: a successful scientist (20), an outstanding scientist (40), and truly unique (60), for one database. Our criteria of 60 for two databases are equivalent to a designation halfway between successful and outstanding. The results indicate an h-index mean of 103, median of 94, mode of 105, and range of 60–346. Top-cited publications leaned toward more sport psychology than exercise psychology topics. Prominent journals included the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (n = 24) and Psychology of Sport and Exercise (n = 15). Other publications were in related fields (e.g., Psychology and Health). In summary, we have identified the most highly cited researchers in sport and exercise psychology and their single most-cited papers. We hope this information is of both heuristic and practical value to readers.
The purpose of the present study was to identify eminent sport and exercise psychology researchers, based on citation count, and their most highly cited papers. Men ( n = 121) and women ( n = 32) from 17 different countries (e.g., the United States n = 47 to Ireland n = 1) were identified. Researchers were selected if their h-index was 60 or greater for Google Scholar and Web of Science combined. This criterion reflects Hirsch’s (2005) characterization as follows based on h-index: a successful scientist (20), an outstanding scientist (40), and truly unique (60), for one database. Our criteria of 60 for two databases are equivalent to a designation halfway between successful and outstanding. The results indicate an h-index mean of 103, median of 94, mode of 105, and range of 60–346. Top-cited publications leaned toward more sport psychology than exercise psychology topics. Prominent journals included the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology ( n = 24) and Psychology of Sport and Exercise ( n = 15). Other publications were in related fields (e.g., Psychology and Health ). In summary, we have identified the most highly cited researchers in sport and exercise psychology and their single most-cited papers. We hope this information is of both heuristic and practical value to readers.
Obesity is one of the key challenges that our society faces today. Virtual Reality (VR) exergame technologies have indicated significant results in health, increased physical activity, and weight loss, but were not used based on the daily need of obese and overweight subjects (over 18 years of age) to burn calories needed to lose weight. Since the current VR does not offer exercises based on the individual’s need to burn the necessary calories, this research focuses on two aspects to solve this problem. First, examines different sociodemo-graphic variables that influence the design of an effective VR tool regulating obesity. Second, evaluated the effectiveness of designing a VR-exergame prototype based on the user’s in and out calories to suggest an appropriate exercise they need to burn extra calories. In addition, to track users’ progress and update their exercise plan based on the user’s weight loss result. The WMVR was designed based on the needs and requirements of the targeted people, and it was evaluated by them. The results show that the prevalence of obesity was higher in all groups, at more than 40%. Aerobic exercise was the most preferred exercise at 91.5%. Health practitioners who participated in the study were advised through an expert survey to use virtual reality to adopt healthy habits. The WMVR prototype evaluated result shows that 65% of participants felt that the VR aspect of choosing exercise and scenarios increased their motivation, and 90% of respondents liked to use or recommend this system to others.
Background
Studies have shown increases in affect after acute exercise. However, the specific aspects of an exercise experience that predict or contribute to post‐exercise affect remain relatively unknown. This study aimed to determine which physical (i.e., duration and intensity), contextual (i.e., social context and time of day), and psychological factors (i.e., motivation and need satisfaction) predicted post‐exercise affect.
Methods
In 2021, 296 gym users self‐reported affect before and immediately after exercising at a gym facility. Participants also reported situational motivation towards exercise, need satisfaction (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness), who they exercised with (social interaction), and the duration and perceived intensity of their exercise session. We first conducted a paired samples t‐test to identify whether affect significantly increased from before to after exercise, and then a hierarchical regression model to determine which factors predicted post‐exercise affect.
Results
Affect significantly increased from before to after exercise ( t [291] = 8.116, p < .001). Autonomous motivation ( β = .23, p = <.001), autonomy satisfaction ( β = .15, p = <.05), and relatedness satisfaction ( β = .19, p = <.01) significantly predicted post‐exercise affect, whereas duration, perceived intensity, social interaction, and time of day did not.
Conclusions
People should be encouraged to engage in activities that satisfy their need for autonomy and relatedness during leisure‐time (i.e., not during the workday).
So What?
This approach to physical activity promotion may lead to better affective outcomes and increased adherence compared to focusing on how long, how intense, or with whom people exercise.
The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of music on psychophysiological responses in a High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) protocol with preferred (PM), non-preferred (NPM) and no music (NM). Thirty-one physically active adults of both genders participated voluntarily. All subjects were exposed to all protocols. Before starting the sessions, an anamnesis was used in order to measure data on PM and NPM during the exercise (Visual Analog Scale for Musical Taste). Seven days before the first intervention, a maximal exercise test of maximal speed at maximal measurement was performed. The Subjective Perceived Exertion (PSE6-20) and the Affect Scale (AFETO+5/ -5) were used during the study in 10 bouts of 60 seconds of exercise for 60 seconds of passive rest (60”: 60”). Results showed regular criteria of normality and sphericity. A one-way ANOVA test with repeated measures [F(2, 26)= 9,703; p< 0.05] followed by the Sidak post-hoc showed that HIIT with PM generated lower PSE6-20 and higher AFETO value compared to the use of HIIT with NPM and NM. It is concluded that MP is reduced, which consequently makes HIIT on the treadmill more tolerable and probably a more efficient way of training, increasing and improving physical exercise performance.
Virtual reality (VR) exercise aims to offer positive affective and sensory experiences through an immersive experience rich in audiovisual stimuli. Notwithstanding, there is a paucity of large sample size studies comparing the acute effects of VR exercise compared with a matched exercise performed in a non-VR environment. The study compared the acute effects of a VR exercise versus a matched non-VR exercise session in effect, pleasure, enjoyment, perceived exertion, and heart rate. This is a crossover randomized clinical trial. The time, difficulty, and exercise type of the non-VR exercise were matched to VR exercise. Before and immediately after each session, participants responded to the Borg’s Perceived Exertion Scale, the Feeling Scale and the Felt Arousal Scale, and the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale. The analyses were conducted with Generalized Linear Models, Wilcoxon’s, and T-test for paired samples. A total of 83 adults (40 females) aged 35.46 years were included in the study. Participants in the VR condition had a greater increase in affect (mean change difference = 0.95, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.83–1.06, P < 0.001), arousal (mean change difference = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.23–9.50, P < 0.001). The pleasure and enjoyment median after the VR session were higher. In conclusion, the immersive VR exercise was more strenuous, but resulted in a better affective response, greater pleasure, and enjoyment.
Chemotherapy treatment-related side-effects are common and increase the risk of suboptimal outcomes. Exercise interventions during cancer treatment improve self-reported physical functioning, fatigue, anxiety, and depression, but it is unclear whether these interventions improve important clinical outcomes, such as chemotherapy relative dose intensity (RDI). The National Cancer Institute funded the Exercise and Nutrition to Improve Cancer Treatment-Related Outcomes (ENICTO) Consortium, to address this knowledge gap. This paper describes the mechanisms hypothesized to underpin intervention effects on clinically-relevant treatment outcomes, briefly outlines each project’s distinct research aims, summarizes the scope and organizational structure of ENICTO, and provides an overview of the integrated common data elements used to pursue research questions collectively. In addition, the paper includes a description of consortium-wide activities and broader research community opportunities for collaborative research. Findings from the ENICTO Consortium have the potential to accelerate a paradigm shift in oncology care such that cancer patients could receive exercise and nutrition programming as the standard of care in tandem with chemotherapy to improve RDI for a curative outcome.
The study of the affective impact of physical activity and exercise has a long and fraught history. In this chapter we outline some of the longstanding issues, in the hopes that research moving forward will be more mindful of these. Included are: (a) what we are actually trying to assess; (b) measurement issues; (c) the timing of affective measurement; (d) research that highlights what we know and don’t know; and (e) suggestions for moving forward.
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