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Preliminaries to free throw shooting: Superstitious behavior?

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Abstract

To test the premise that procedurally irrelevant response patterns may be behaviorally or psychologically relevant, high school and college basketball players' (21 women and 22 men) preliminaries to free throw shooting were studied. Ss attempted 20 free throws each with their normal preliminary response patterns before each shot (regular) and without these preliminary patterns (without). A questionnaire was distributed 2 wks later to assess the psychological value the athletes placed on preliminary free throw shooting patterns. Free throw accuracy was higher in the regular condition than in the without condition, but athletes tended to overvalue the effectiveness of the regular routine. It is concluded that rather than being purely superstitious actions, the preliminaries to free throw shooting appear to contribute to the accuracy of the shot. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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... Superstitious in sport has been defined as "actions which are repetitive, formal, sequential, and distinct from technical performance and which the athletes believe factors" (Bleak & Frederick, 1998). "A universal truth about superstitious is that it emerges as a result of uncertainty to circumstances that are inherently random or uncontrollable" (Vyse, 1997, p. 20 who subscribe to superstitious rituals believe them to be effective for performance (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). (Neil. ...
... Men and women have been found to differ on the emphasis of "appearance" rituals, with women emp indicated a difference between gender and usage of superstitious behavior with women more likely than men to utilize superstitious beliefs and behaviors (Burhmann & Zaugg, 1981; Conklin, 1919; Greg Superstitious in sport has been defined as "actions which are repetitive, formal, sequential, and distinct from technical performance and which the athletes believe to be powerful in controlling luck or other external factors" (Bleak & Frederick, 1998). "A universal truth about superstitious is that it emerges as a result of uncertainty to circumstances that are inherently random or uncontrollable" (Vyse, 1997, p. 20 who subscribe to superstitious rituals believe them to be effective for performance (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). (Neil. ...
... "A universal truth about superstitious is that it emerges as a result of uncertainty to circumstances that are inherently random or uncontrollable" (Vyse, 1997, p. 201). Many athletes who subscribe to superstitious rituals believe them to be effective for performance (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). (Neil. ...
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urpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Superstitus Rituals and Locus of Control among Intervarsity Male Players. Samples: 100 Intervarsity male players age ranged between 18-25 years were randomly selected to take part in the study. Methodology: The Superstitious Ritual Questionnaire (SRQ) developed by Bleak & Frederick (1998) was used to measure superstitious ritual of the subjects and Rotter’s Locus of Control scale prepared by Dr. Anand Kumar & Dr. Satyendar Nath Srivastav (1985) was used to measure the locus of control of the subjects. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to investigate the relationship. Reault: Results indicated a positive significant relationship between Superstitious Rituals and Locus of Control among Intervarsity Male Players
... Previous research has shown the benefit of using cognitive-behavioral strategies preceding the execution of motor skills in sport (e.g. Boutcher & Crews, 1987;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). There are different pre-performance mental strategies that can facilitate the execution of motor skills, such as relaxation, self-talk, imagery, 4 attentional focus, among others (cf. ...
... The combination of cognitive and behavioral strategies preceding the execution of motor skills are known as pre-performance routines, and they include both covert (cognitive) and overt (behavioral) processes (Cohn et al., 1990). These routines help athletes to achieve an appropriate psychological and physiological state prior to execution (Jackson & Baker, 2001), and to maintain a high level of performance even when facing distractions (Boutcher, 1992;Jackson & Baker, 2001;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). Therefore, the impact of pre-performance routines on performance have been studied in several sports, such as basketball, volleyball, rugby, and golf, among others (e.g. ...
... Therefore, the impact of pre-performance routines on performance have been studied in several sports, such as basketball, volleyball, rugby, and golf, among others (e.g. Cohn et al., 1990;Cotterill, 2008;Czech, Ploszay, & Burke, 2004;Gooding & Gardner, 2009;Jackson & Baker, 2001;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Mesagno, Marchant, & Morris, 2008;Valentzas & Heinen, 2011;cf. Cotterill, 2010 for a review). ...
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Some common performance enhancement strategies used by tennis players are related to a pre-service mental preparation routine. This study provides an insight on the efficacy of the implementation of mental routines on performance of young tennis players (aged between 11 and 14-years old). Specifically, we compared several performance indicators before and after the intervention, and when players performed vs when they did not perform the mental routines. We also tested whether mental toughness was a good predictor of performance, using behavioral measures to assess both mental toughness and performance. The results revealed: (1) a positive impact of the intervention program on performance efficacy; (2) athletes won more service games after the intervention program; and (3) mental toughness, explained by pre-service routines and players' ability to positively manage errors, was a good predictor of players' overall performance.
... The free-throw shoot differs from other shots, such as 2-point, 3-point, and jumping shots, because players can take more time (five seconds), and can shoot with no pressure from opponent players. Many studies have reported factors affecting the accuracy of the free-throw, such as grip strength 1) , the pre-shot routine [2][3][4][5] , ball trajectory [6][7] , back spin 8) , quiet eye [9][10] , heart rate 11) , height of the release ratio, the center of gravity 12) , brain activity 13) , sleep time 14) , wrist-joint position sense 15) , kinematics of the shoulder angle 16) , elbow-wrist coupling 17) , and the kinematic chain 18) . However, these studies each focused on a singular factor at a time rather than multiple factors simultaneously in their effects on free-throw accuracy. ...
... routine timing), which was recorded with a high-speed camera. Some previous studies reported the importance of the pre-shot routine [2][3][4][5] . However, to the best of our knowledge, no studies have examined the relationship between *Correspondence: hiroki-nakata@cc.nara-wu.ac.jp free-throw accuracy and detailed free-throw motion such as the timing of each phase and variability during the routine. ...
... This suggested that participants with a higher accuracy showed smaller movement variability. Some previous studies reported the importance of the pre-shot routine [2][3][4][5] . Lobmeyer & Wasserman 2) and Gayton and colleagues 3) demonstrated that freethrow accuracy was higher in trials with a regular pre-shot routine than in trials without this routine. ...
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We investigated the relationship between basketball free-throw accuracy and anthropometry, physical fitness tests, and performance variables among 16 collegiate female basketball players. Each participant performed 20 basketball free throws. Anthropometric measures were height and weight; physical fitness tests were sit-and-reach, back strength, and grip strengths; other basketball performance variables were the phases of the pre-shoot routine: (a) time taken, (b) minimum angle when taking the ball back, (c) angle at ball release, (d) angular displacement during the forward arm swing, and (e) angular velocity at ball release on the elbow, shoulder, hip, knee, and ankle. We analyzed the correlation between free-throw accuracy and data on anthropometry and physical fitness, the time period and variability of the pre-shot routine, and kinematic data. There were negative correlations between free-throw accuracy and mean pre-shot time, and variability of the pre-shot time, indicating that participants with a shorter and less variable pre-shot time showed a higher free-throw accuracy. Angular displacement of the shoulder during the forward swing and angular velocity of the knee at ball release showed positive correlations with free-throw accuracy. There was also a negative correlation between free-throw accuracy and variability of angular displacement during the forward swing at the elbow, indicating that participants with smaller variability of angular displacement of the elbow showed higher free-throw accuracy. Some performance variables, including routine duration, angular displacement of the shoulder and elbow, and angular velocity of the knee, were related to free-throw accuracy.
... Preshot routines have been shown to be an effective concentration cue in many different sports such as golf, bowling, basketball, tennis, and skiing. (Cohn, Rotella, & Loyd, 1990;Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001;Moore, 1986;Orlick, 1986;Weisberg & Pein, 1992). Wrisberg and Pein (1992) postulated that closed skills (e.g., free throw shooting in basketball, serving in tennis and volleyball, punting and place kicking in football) are often the types of skills in which athletes utilize preperformance routines to prepare for the best performance. ...
... Rather than be perceived as superstitious actions, Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) found that preperformance routines in basketball free throw shooting significantly contribute to the accuracy of the shot. In a similar study, Gayton et al. (1989) had free throw shooters alternate between using a preshot routine and not using one prior to shooting free throws. ...
... Little research was found which examined athletes' specific actions within routines. Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) suggested investigators should compare performance outcomes between situations where athletes follow a set routine to situations where deviations occur (e.g., a player who usually dribbles three times, instead uses five dribbles). This investigation examined whether shooting percentages were affected by following and deviating from a specific routine during free throws. ...
... A method to deal with these potential distractions suggested by Boutcher (1990Boutcher ( , 1992 and Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) is to develop a consistent preperformance routine. However, even at this basic stage there is a fundamental question that requires attention. ...
... Murphy also recommended that a mental routine should be developed for every shot to develop consistent performance, recommending mental routines as a way to focus attention on the performance in hand. Boutcher (1990) and Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) suggested that a method for maintaining high levels of performance in the face of potential distractions is to develop a consistent pre-performance routine (PPR). suggested that a pre-shot routine was an "ordered collection of thoughts and behaviours that is aimed at achieving the necessary mind set, concentrational focus and physical readiness for each shot" (p.9). ...
... Basketball (Lidor and Tenenbaum, 1993;Southard and Miracle, 1993;Lobmeyer and Wasserman, 1986;Harle and Vickers, 2001;Wrisberg and Penn, 1992); Football (Vealey, 1986); Bowling (Kirschenbaum, 1987); Gymnastics (Mahoney and Avener, 1977); Wrestling (Gould et al, 1981); Skiing and Skating (Orlick, 1986); Diving (Highlen and Bennett, 1983); Water Polo (Marlow, Bull, Heath and Shambrook, 1998); Rugby Union (Jackson and Baker, 2001;Jackson, 2003); and Track and Field ...
... Coupled with these characteristics, it has been observed that highly skilled performers also often utilize consistent cognitive-behavioural patterns that are maintained during competitions (Cohn, 1990;Crews & Boutcher, 1987) [3][4]6] . One example of a specific cognitive-behavioural strategy used in golf is the performance routine, and these has been shown to be effective in improving the performance of skilled participants across a number of sports Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986) [3][4]8] . Some evidence also suggests that such routines may benefit novice and low-skill level performers in the performance of specific motor skills (Beauchamp et al., 1996;Lidor et al., 1996) [2,7] , but that there is a possibility of long-term detriment due to a 'ceiling effect'. ...
... Coupled with these characteristics, it has been observed that highly skilled performers also often utilize consistent cognitive-behavioural patterns that are maintained during competitions (Cohn, 1990;Crews & Boutcher, 1987) [3][4]6] . One example of a specific cognitive-behavioural strategy used in golf is the performance routine, and these has been shown to be effective in improving the performance of skilled participants across a number of sports Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986) [3][4]8] . Some evidence also suggests that such routines may benefit novice and low-skill level performers in the performance of specific motor skills (Beauchamp et al., 1996;Lidor et al., 1996) [2,7] , but that there is a possibility of long-term detriment due to a 'ceiling effect'. ...
... One specific cognitive-behavioral strategy used in golfing is a pre-performance routine or pre-shot routine [13]. The use of pre-shot routines is effective in improving the performance of skilled participants across several sports [2,[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. Particularly, the pre-shot routine that focuses on both physical and mental (imagery, breathing control, and self-talk) preparation will be a good effect on driving performance [13]. ...
... The development of each factor can be achieved through physical and mental training. For the club head speed, it can be achieved through training warm-up programs [5-8, 11, 28] and pre-physical and mental routine [13,14,16]. However, there is no study focuses on a combination of both programs. ...
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The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of three different programs, i.e. active dynamic warm-up program plus functional resistance warm-up using Theraband plus pre-shot routine program (AFPR); pre-shot routine program (PR); and active dynamic warm-up program plus functional resistance warm-up using Theraband (AF) on driver club head speed, driving distance, and driving accuracy in the amateur golfers. Fifteen amateur golfers with an average age of 19.67 ± 0.89 years and 4.87 ± 1.77 points of average handicap were assigned to participate in either AFPR, PR or AF program. All participants in the three programs practiced three sessions on non-consecutive days per week during the intervention phase. Each participant’s performance was assessed before and after six weeks of the program through hitting ten maximal drives with the ball flight and swing analyzed using the P3ProSwing Golf Simulator and recorded for the driver club head speed, driving distance, and driving accuracy. Multivariate analysis of variance showed no statistically significant differences (P < .05) of the performances of the golfers participated in the 3 programs (club head speed: F = 1.02, P = 0.33; accuracy: F = 0.32, P = 0.72; distance: F = 0.18, P = 0.83). Furthermore, a paired t-tests also showed no statistically significant (P < .05) improvement occurred in the 3 programs after the six-week training. Although the effect of the 3 programs did not show statistically significant increase in the performance of the amateur golfers, however, the three parameters of the performance, i.e. the driver club head speed, the driving distance and the driving accuracy showed certain improvements. The 3 training programs may have benefit to the amateur golfers with certain increases of their performance.
... Athletes and fans are familiar with the "mental" side of sport; some athletes have superstitions, some have routines to calm their nerves, and some are well-known for their lack of mental control. Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) investigated the role of the mentality of athletes in free throw performance and observed that although athletes tend to overvalue their preshooting routines, they were more than just superstitions and resulted in significantly better shooting performance. Participants of their study showed a 7% increase in free throw shooting performance when utilizing their preshot routine compared to when they did not. ...
Article
The present study sought to investigate the effects of a self-talk intervention on free-throw performance under pressure. The experimental manipulation was designed using a video from a social media platform. Thirty male college basketball players were randomly assigned into two groups (i.e., control and experimental). The experimental protocol incorporated three trials of three free throws each. Psychophysiological stress was assessed by use of heart rate variability. The illusion of pressure was created using arena recordings of large crowds along with instructions for participants to visualize a high-pressure scenario. The results indicate that the self-talk intervention was sufficient to improve free throw shooting accuracy during the postintervention phase. Short-term heart rate variability reduced significantly for the control group and remained relatively stable for the experimental group. Self-talk appears to influence free throw accuracy during situations of psychosocial stress by inhibiting the influence of negative thoughts on peripheral physiological reactions and movement automaticity.
... Some of those rituals, such as pretending to shoot without the ball, have been argued to have an instrumental purpose: according to this view (which has received mixed empirical support), they are said to improve performance through simulating the actual shot and thereby allowing athletes to engage in a kind of "mental practice" (Ekeocha, 2015). However, most pre-shot rituals seem to consist in actions unrelated to the act of shooting, such as spinning or bouncing the ball, kissing or talking to the ball, touching the soles of one's shoes, etc. (Blumberg, 2014;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). ...
Article
Across all cultures, people frequently engage in ritualized (non-instrumental) behaviors. How do those causally opaque actions affect perceptions of causal efficacy? Using real-life stimuli extracted from NCAA basketball games, we asked fans, players of the game, and subjects naive to the game to predict the outcome of free throw attempts. We found that the performance of personal pre-shot rituals increased the perception of shot efficacy irrespective of subjects' level of knowledge of and involvement in the game. Those effects became stronger when the score was less favorable for the shooter's team. Our findings suggest that even in non-religious contexts, people make intuitive judgements about ritual efficacy, and that those judgements are sensitive to ecological factors. The implications of those biases extend beyond sports, to various domains of public action, such as religion, courtrooms, college life, and political events.
... Continual repetition, then, can be easily marked as the first and most noticeable similarity between the practices. Arguably, the second similarity is that athletes who engage in either religious ritual or superstition associated with their respective sport do so because they believe that their actions make their performance more effective (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). Clearly, a serious athlete who is dedicated to bettering himself within his sport-either for his own personal gain or the collective gain of the team-would consider his sport performance as a personal endeavor. ...
Article
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This article discusses the use of superstition and religious rituals within sport. While the popular view among skeptics seems to be that religious ritual is nothing more than superstition, I argue that while there admittedly are many similarities, there also exist major differences which separate superstition and religious ritual into distinct entities. The realm of sport is one widely known for the numerous exhibitions of both superstition and religious ritual. The examples of sport-related superstition and religious ritual are so numerous that they have even gained noted media attention in the past two decades. Thus, I situate both terms within the practical framework of sport participation. From this foundation, I define both terms in context and begin to examine the effects on athletes' individual holistic development arguing that religious ritual leads ultimately to a greater holistic development than does superstition. Holistic development is examined in four aspects which are comprised of physiology, emotionality, intellectuality, and spirituality. The positive effects of religious ritual as applied within athletics are mentioned in each aforementioned category. I approach the topic from the perspective of the psychology of religion, sports psychology, as well as Judeo-Christian theological concepts regarding religious ritual. The numerous positive benefits of religious ritual over superstition within athletics lead to a final argument that religious ritual provides significant meaning to the lives of athletes in a way which superstition is simply unable.
... Some previous experimental studies have examined performance outcomes using two conditions, with and without the use of a PPR [13,26,32]. The general conclusion was that performance is significantly better when using a PPR, but researchers have not examined the effect of substituting one behavioral routine for another. ...
Article
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Study aim : The aim of the present study was to examine a single movement of dynamic stretching (SMDS) of the shooting arm as a pre-shot routine for free throw performance (FTP). Material and methods : The sample consisted of 60 junior and senior basketball players from the youth league of Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), and the national level – the First Division of B&H. The authors found that some players during a game and training sessions apply an SMDS of the shooting arm as a pre-shot routine for FTP. Since previous literature suggests that length of the routine and pre-performance behaviors are quite different among players of all levels, the sample was divided based on the number of training hours per week (lower/higher number of training hours) and basketball experience (experienced/less experienced). The procedure involves every player performing five free throws (FTs) without prior stretching, five FTs immediately after SMDS of the triceps muscle and five FTs after SMDS of the m. flexor carpi radialis. Results : After the first SMDS (m. triceps brachii) the percentage of FT slightly decreased in the first following attempt. After the second stretching (m. flexor carpi radialis), a significant FT percentage drop was noted in the first following FT for the whole sample. Players with more experience and more training hours per week had poorer results after the stretching. Conclusions : The SMDS routine did not enhance the FTP and it had a rather harmful effect on FTP, especially SMDS of the flexor carpi radialis muscle, and the authors do not recommend SMDS before the FTP.
... Los rituales religiosos son similares a los rituales supersticiosos, ambos buscan reducir la ansiedad que puede producir la competición en los deportistas; otra similitud es la repetición continua de los rituales (Maranise, 2013); también, aquellos deportistas que realizan estos rituales lo hacen por la creencia que estas acciones harán su rendimiento más efectivo (Lobmeyer y Wasserman, 1986). Para Robinson (2007) una similitud importante entre rituales religiosos y rituales supersticiosos es la existencia de un sentido de ir más allá de uno mismo y estar atento del "otro". ...
Article
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Este trabajo investigativo-estudio de caso, tiene como propósito comprender la influencia que tiene la superstición y los rituales religiosos, instaurados por una líder espiritual, sobre el rendimiento deportivo de un equipo profesional de fútbol. Para llevar a cabo el desarrollo de este artículo se realizó una investigación de tipo cualitativa y se diseñó un análisis de las narrativas y conductas, de los principales jugadores del equipo deportivo y de la líder espiritual, por medio de entrevistas radiales y un documental, que se transcribieron para poder analizar aquellas palabras más usadas en cada discurso por medio de un generador de nubes; luego se correlacionaban, estas palabras, con la ficha de aceptación o rechazo de la superstición de De Miguel et al., (2012). Se encontró que las conductas supersticiosas generan un aumento de la confianza, producto de la relación causal que hacen los deportistas entre los rituales realizados y las victorias conseguidas inmediatamente después. Se identificó, además, que al considerar real esta situación, se implementa una sensación de control sobre las circunstancias, lo que produce un aumento de la motivación al momento de competir.
... Para evitar el posible efecto de empezar con los tiros libres con o sin tarea secundaria, la mitad de los jugadores efectuaron primero 20 tiros libres simples y luego 20 tiros libres con la tarea dual, mientras que la otra mitad lo haría al revés. En cuanto al gesto técnico de lanzar a canasta, se pidió al jugador que si tenía algún tipo de rutina previa al lanzamiento la llevase a cabo, pues diversos estudios han comprobado que el acierto es mayor cuando se realizan las rutinas preliminares, mejorando, entre otros, la concentración previa al lanzamiento(14)(15)(16).Para la realización de la cuenta atrás por parte de los lanzadores, se reprodujo un sonido que definía intervalo temporal de 2 segundos que los jugadores debían tomar como ritmo para ir haciendo la cuenta atrás. Tanto en la tarea simple como en la tarea dual el método de puntuación se estableció siguiendo el ejemplo del ...
Article
El objetivo de este estudio fue estudiar los efectos de una tarea dual en el tiro libre en baloncesto, comparando esa influencia en función de la categoría y el sexo de los jugadores. Los resultados muestran que existe un descenso del rendimiento provocado por la tarea dual de los baloncestistas de categoría infantil y junior (p<0,05), no observándose lo mismo en la categoría senior. Tampoco se detectaron diferencias significativas entre el rendimiento de hombres y mujeres. Puede afirmarse, por tanto, que las tareas duales provocan un descenso en el rendimiento, sobre todo en etapas de formación, posiblemente por la automatización del patrón motor debido a un mayor tiempo de práctica en categorías senior. Por ello, las tareas duales pueden ser incluidas en los entrenamientos para crear situaciones estresantes y bajo presión similares a las que se pueden encontrar los deportistas en situaciones competitivas reales.
... Techniques reported were playing different games, deep breathing, push-ups, listening to music, and adjusting their body temperature as ways to prepare for a performance (Himmelstein et al., 2017). This is a common pre-routine among all athletes and it helps to prepare body and mind for optimal performance (Boucher & Crews, 1987;Lobmeyer and Wasserman, 1986). Physical preparation was a key aspect of the pre-game period for players' physical and mental readiness' found Fletcher (2018) in his research with the four coach-athlete dyads. ...
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The current literature review compares eSports with sports focusing on psychological variables in order to clarify where does it stand in comparison to traditional sports. eSports is an alternate sports discipline where competition is facilitated by electronic systems. This literature review aims to give further visibility to what eSports really is, what psychological variables are defining it using teachings from sports psychology and where does it stand in respect to traditional sports. Market reports show tremendous economic growth and year after year indicate increasing numbers of both players and spectators. Drawing from the accepted sports definitions, concepts are explained from perspective of eSports and sports clarifying similarities and differences between two. The paper also examines personality, addiction and stereotypes. It was found that commonly emphasized factors of distinctiveness between eSports and sports are not as relevant as are some urgent matters such as addiction treatment and providing cyber athletes with mental training. It is suggested that future research should focus on experimental studies with cyber athletes using sports psychology teachings to improve their performance and that addiction in gamers should be further explored.
... Bleak and Frederick (1998) carried out an extensive study in which they showed that superstitious behaviors (such as carrying amulets, behavior referred to in CSLCS in Item 11) were not perceived by athletes as related to the result of the Competition and, therefore, with the locus of control; at least for the western population (Burger and Lynn, 2005). It seems that these superstitious behaviors are maintained by their direct and/or indirect protective effect against anxiety (Bleak & Frederick, 1998;Foster and Weigand, 2006;Lobmeyer and Wasserman, 1986;Schippers and Van Lange, 2006). Thus, the children participating in the study responded systematically to this item, providing little variability in their responses by dismissing their importance. ...
Article
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Locus of control has been studied in the sport context, however there was no valid instrument to evaluate it in children's sport. This study adapts into Spanish and validates the Children's Locus of Control Scale for Sport (CSLCS) in the Spanish language. This CSLCS was developed by Tsai y Hsieh (2015). The adaptation has two phases: an initial screening of 248 children between the ages of 7 and 16 to observe the qualitative behavior of the items; and a second one with 221 athletes with children between the ages of 8 and 22 in which the questionnaire was modified to fit the results. A final 10-item scale was obtained, with 5 items per dimension (internal and external), which presents an adequate fit. Results show that the Spanish version of the scale possesses adequate psychometric qualities for its use in research and applied fields in child´s sport evaluation. © 2018, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid y CV Ciencias del Deporte. All rights reserved.
... Second, the sports psychology literature has documented the existence of "preperformance routines" commonly used by athletes, which involve ritualistic elements of symbolism, repetitiveness, and rigidity (Womack, 1992). Correlational data suggests that these routines can improve athletes' performance, although it could be the case that better athletes are more likely to engage in such routines (Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd, 1990;Czech, Ploszay, & Burke, 2004;Foster, Weigand, & Baines, 2006;Gayton, Cielinski, Francis-Keniston, & Hearns, 1989;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Predebon & Docker, 1992;Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979). Our article joins a small but growing body of research suggesting that rituals and superstitions can causally affect performance (see also Brooks et al., 2016;Damisch, Stoberock, & Mussweiler, 2010). ...
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Rituals are predefined sequences of actions characterized by rigidity and repetition. We propose that enacting ritualized actions can enhance subjective feelings of self-discipline, such that rituals can be harnessed to improve behavioral self-control. We test this hypothesis in 6 experiments. A field experiment showed that engaging in a pre-eating ritual over a 5-day period helped participants reduce calorie intake (Experiment 1). Pairing a ritual with healthy eating behavior increased the likelihood of choosing healthy food in a subsequent decision (Experiment 2), and enacting a ritual before a food choice (i.e., without being integrated into the consumption process) promoted the choice of healthy food over unhealthy food (Experiments 3a and 3b). The positive effect of rituals on self-control held even when a set of ritualized gestures were not explicitly labeled as a ritual, and in other domains of behavioral self-control (i.e., prosocial decision-making; Experiments 4 and 5). Furthermore, Experiments 3a, 3b, 4, and 5 provided evidence for the psychological process underlying the effectiveness of rituals: heightened feelings of self-discipline. Finally, Experiment 5 showed that the absence of a self-control conflict eliminated the effect of rituals on behavior, demonstrating that rituals affect behavioral self-control specifically because they alter responses to self-control conflicts. We conclude by briefly describing the results of a number of additional experiments examining rituals in other self-control domains. Our body of evidence suggests that rituals can have beneficial consequences for self-control.
... In basketball, one of the most important, and at times anxiety provoking, game situations is free throw shooting. Many contests are won or lost in the final minutes by slim margins, and the outcomes of these games are often decided by how accurate athletes are at free throw shooting [2]. Basketball, like any sport, is an emotional activity and a cognitive one, in which players have to make decisions or to execute an action using the knowledge that he or she already possesses, which "are coloured by the player's feelings and perceptions of competition" [3]. ...
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Background & Study Aim:In basketball, one of the most important, and at times anxiety provoking, game situations is free throw shooting. Many contests are won or lost in the final minutes by slim margins, and the outcomes of these games are often decided by how accurate athletes are at free throw shooting. The purpose of this research was the effect of instructional condition on competitive state anxiety levels and free-throw performance in young basketball players. Material & Methods: Statistical sample included 28 elite basketball players aged between 13-17 years with at least four years playing experience. The research method of this study was quasi-experimental with 2 (trait anxiety group: high, low) ×2 (instructional condition: control, pressure) design. Firstly, the subjects took Sport Competition Anxiety Test for screening and then 11 players were assigned to high-level trait anxiety group and 10 players for low-level trait anxiety group. At the first day, the high and low-level trait anxiety groups were evaluated in terms of competitive state anxiety under control condition. Then they were requested to perform five basketball free-throws. At the second day, both groups again retook competitive state anxiety test under pressure instruction condition followed by performing five basketball free-throw. Results: One-way ANOVA showed that pressure instructional conditions had a significant effect on cognitive anxiety in both low anxiety trait and high anxiety trait groups (p≤0.05). The effect of pressure instructional conditions had not a significant effect on somatic anxiety and self-confidence in both low anxiety trait and high anxiety trait groups (p>0.05). The effect of pressure instructional conditions had not a significant effect on basketball free-throw performance in low anxiety trait, but the effect of pressure instructional conditions on basketball free-throw performance in high anxiety trait group was significant (p≤0.05). Conclusions: The results of this study support multi-dimensional theory of state anxiety. In both groups with high and low state anxiety experienced average level of somatic anxiety compared to cognitive anxiety implying that all players should experience an optimal level of somatic anxiety in order to have better performance and indeed somatic anxiety has less impact on performance than cognitive anxiety. Keywords: cognitive state anxiety • somatic state anxiety • state self-confidence
... In basketball, one of the most important, and at times anxiety provoking, game situations is free throw shooting. Many contests are won or lost in the final minutes by slim margins, and the outcomes of these games are often decided by how accurate athletes are at free throw shooting [2]. Basketball, like any sport, is an emotional activity and a cognitive one, in which players have to make decisions or to execute an action using the knowledge that he or she already possesses, which "are coloured by the player's feelings and perceptions of competition" [3]. ...
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Background & Study Aim:In basketball, one of the most important, and at times anxiety provoking, game situations is free throw shooting. Many contests are won or lost in the final minutes by slim margins, and the outcomes of these games are often decided by how accurate athletes are at free throw shooting. The purpose of this research was the effect of instructional condition on competitive state anxiety levels and free-throw performance in young basketball players. Material & Methods: Statistical sample included 28 elite basketball players aged between 13-17 years with at least four years playing experience. The research method of this study was quasi-experimental with 2 (trait anxiety group: high, low) ×2 (instructional condition: control, pressure) design. Firstly, the subjects took Sport Competition Anxiety Test for screening and then 11 players were assigned to high-level trait anxiety group and 10 players for low-level trait anxiety group. At the first day, the high and low-level trait anxiety groups were evaluated in terms of competitive state anxiety under control condition. Then they were requested to perform five basketball free-throws. At the second day, both groups again retook competitive state anxiety test under pressure instruction condition followed by performing five basketball free-throw. Results: One-way ANOVA showed that pressure instructional conditions had a significant effect on cognitive anxiety in both low anxiety trait and high anxiety trait groups (p≤0.05). The effect of pressure instructional conditions had not a significant effect on somatic anxiety and self-confidence in both low anxiety trait and high anxiety trait groups (p>0.05). The effect of pressure instructional conditions had not a significant effect on basketball free-throw performance in low anxiety trait, but the effect of pressure instructional conditions on basketball free-throw performance in high anxiety trait group was significant (p≤0.05). Conclusions: The results of this study support multi-dimensional theory of state anxiety. In both groups with high and low state anxiety experienced average level of somatic anxiety compared to cognitive anxiety implying that all players should experience an optimal level of somatic anxiety in order to have better performance and indeed somatic anxiety has less impact on performance than cognitive anxiety. Keywords: cognitive state anxiety • somatic state anxiety • state self-confidence
... Three lines of research point toward ritual's ability to enhance goal pursuit, although none of this work clearly demonstrates that rituals can overcome deficits in pursuing goals. First, preparation rituals can improve goal-driven performance (Cohn et al., 1990;Foster et al., 2006;Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979); the majority of these studies examine free-throw shooting performance (Czech, Ploszay, & Burke, 2004;Gayton, Cielinski, Francis-Keniston, & Hearns, 1989;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Predebon & Docker, 1992). Here, we can see the overlap between our first two proposed functions. ...
Article
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Traditionally, ritual has been studied from broad sociocultural perspectives, with little consideration of the psychological processes at play. Recently, however, psychologists have begun turning their attention to the study of ritual, uncovering the causal mechanisms driving this universal aspect of human behavior. With growing interest in the psychology of ritual, this article provides an organizing framework to understand recent empirical work from social psychology, cognitive science, anthropology, behavioral economics, and neuroscience. Our framework focuses on three primary regulatory functions of rituals: regulation of (a) emotions, (b) performance goal states, and (c) social connection. We examine the possible mechanisms underlying each function by considering the bottom-up processes that emerge from the physical features of rituals and top-down processes that emerge from the psychological meaning of rituals. Our framework, by appreciating the value of psychological theory, generates novel predictions and enriches our understanding of ritual and human behavior more broadly.
... In performance domains, most notably in sports athletics, there is some evidence showing rituals serve a regulatory function. For instance, performing rituals during athletic events, like right before shooting a free-throw in basketball, helps players perform better (Czech, Ploszay & Burke, 2004;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Predebon & Docker, 1992), especially in high-stakes competition and stress (Gayton et al., 1989;Wrisberg & Pein, 1992). The thinking is that rituals help improve performance because they mobilize motivational and regulatory states, either through improving concentration, creating physical readiness, or boosting confidence (Foster,Weigand & Baines, 2006;Weinberg, Gould & Jackson, 1979). ...
Article
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Rituals are found in all types of performance domains, from high-stakes athletics and military to the daily morning preparations of the working family. Yet despite their ubiquity and widespread importance for humans, we know very little of ritual’s causal basis and how (if at all) they facilitate goal-directed performance. Here, in a fully pre-registered pre/post experimental design, we examine a candidate proximal mechanism, the error-related negativity (ERN), in testing the prediction that ritual modulates neural performance-monitoring. Participants completed an arbitrary ritual—novel actions repeated at home over one week—followed by an executive function task in the lab during electroencephalographic (EEG) recording. Results revealed that relative to pre rounds, participants showed a reduced ERN in the post rounds, after completing the ritual in the lab. Despite a muted ERN, there was no evidence that the reduction in neural monitoring led to performance deficit (nor a performance improvement). Generally, the findings are consistent with the longstanding view that ritual buffers against uncertainty and anxiety. Our results indicate that ritual guides goal-directed performance by regulating the brain’s response to personal failure.
... Bleak y Frederick (1998) llevaron a cabo un extenso estudio en el que demostraron que las conductas supersticiosas (como portar amuletos, comportamiento que se refiere en la CSLCS en el Ítem 11) no eran percibidas por los deportistas como relacionadas con el resultado de la competición y, por lo tanto, con el locus de control; al menos para población occidental (Burger y Lynn, 2005). Parece que estos comportamientos supersticiosos se mantienen por su efecto directo y/o indirecto protector frente a la ansiedad (Bleak y Frederick, 1998;Foster y Weigand, 2006;Lobmeyer y Wasserman, 1986;Schippers y Van Lange, 2006). Así, los niños participantes en el estudio respondieron de forma sistemática a este ítem, aportando poca variabilidad en sus respuestas al desestimar su importancia. ...
Article
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Locus of control has been studied in the sport context, however a valid assessment instrument in children's sports has not existed. This study adapts into Spanish and validates the Children's Locus of Control Scale for Sport (CSLCS) in the Spanish language. This CSLCS was developed by Tsai y Hsieh (2015). The adaptation has two phases: an initial screening of 248 children between the ages of 7 and 16 to observe the qualitative behavior of the items; and a second one with 221 athletes with children between the ages of 8 and 22 in which the questionnaire was modified to fit the results. A final 10-item scale was obtained, with 5 items per dimension (internal and external), which presents an adequate fit. Results show that the Spanish version of the scale possesses adequate psychometric qualities for its use in research and applied fields in child´s sport evaluation.
... While it is widely acknowledged that rituals serve to calm athletes by providing a predictable routine without distractions (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986), the distinction between sport rituals and superstitions can become blurred when superstitious behaviours function to relieve tension among athletes. In baseball, for example, coincidental superstitions have been associated with the unconscious rituals of players, such as batters shrugging their shoulders or pulling the cap or helmet down in a specific manner before each pitch (Ciborowski, 1997). ...
Article
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O desporto tem vindo a configurar-se como um dos mais importantes elementos da esfera da vida social. Do mesmo modo, a atividade física desportiva tem vindo a ser considerada como um dos mais importantes elementos constituintes de um estilo de vida ativo e saudável, essen-cialmente pelas melhorias e benefícios associados à sua prática regular. A evolução recente do desporto e das práticas desportivas tem vindo a manifestar-se como um crescente desafio para quem desenvolve trabalho nesta área específica. Num tempo onde cada vez mais são debatidos os problemas relacionados com a saúde pública da sociedade atual (e.g., obesidade, doenças cardiovasculares), o elevado índice de sedenta-rismo e o baixo índice de hábitos de prática desportiva junto dos estudantes de ensino superior são questões complexas mas pertinentes, que merecem reflexão da comunidade científica. As instituições de ensino superior, especialmente as que enquadram nos seus planos curricula-res cursos na área do desporto, devem ser pro-ativas na busca de respostas aos desafios colo-cados na atualidade, justificando dessa forma o seu papel educativo e social. Assim, Desporto no Ensino Superior é o tema principal desta edição da revista EXEDRA. Este número temáti-co reúne um conjunto de oito artigos relevantes, relacionados com algumas destas problemá-ticas, produzidas por especialistas académicos. Carlos Hernando-Domingo e Óscar Chiva-Bartoll apresentam, no primeiro artigo, uma série de orientações para o futuro do desporto no ensino superior, partindo da análise da situação atual, caracterizada pela heterogeneidade dos modelos de serviços de desporto universitário. No segundo artigo, Vicente Orga apresenta uma análise macro-organizacional dos serviços do desporto universitário, tendo em consideração os membros das Universidades do Comité Es-panhol do Desporto Universitário. Ao longo da análise, encontra-se uma grande percentagem de organizações de pequena dimensão e fundação recente, que apresentam diferentes proble-mas organizacionais e estruturais. Ramón Terol Gómez realiza uma reflexão sobre a posição da National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) no modelo desportivo norte-americano. Neste terceiro artigo são salien-tados os novos desafios e as reformas pendentes apresentados por este modelo de desporto universitário. No quarto artigo, Sofia Silva, Catarina Vicente, Samuel Amaro e Francisco Campos apresen-tam um estudo sobre os estudantes da UCLM (Campus de Cuenca), comparando praticantes e não praticantes de atividade física desportiva regular, em relação à perceção de gordura cor-poral, auto-conceito físico geral, auto-estima, e aparência física. É realçado o impacto positivo da prática desportiva regular na saúde, em especial na perceção das dimensões estudadas. Derek Van Rheenen, Ethan Guevin, Jason Atwood e Laura Pryor, da Universidade de Berke-ley - Califórnia, apresentam, no quinto artigo, um estudo sobre comportamentos supersticiosos e incerteza em atletas universitários norte-americanos. Este estudo sugere que o nível per-cebido de incerteza num contexto desportivo poderá ser um poderoso preditor de frequência e intensidade do uso de superstição entre os atletas universitários. O estudo realizado por Alessandro Porrovecchio, Zakhem Eddy, Warnault Kloé, Caby Isabe-lle, Masson Philippe, Kuehn Carl, Hurdiel Rémy, Pezé Thierry, Gautier Zunquin, e Theunynck Denis tem como objetivo descrever algumas características dos hábitos desportivos de uma população de estudantes de ensino superior do litoral de Opal Coast (França), no que diz respeito a insegurança socioeconómica, relação entre o consumo de álcool e hábitos desportivos, e comportamentos de risco. No sétimo artigo, da autoria de Ricardo Melo e Francisco Campos, são apresentados os resul-tados de um estudo sobre os hábitos desportivos e as perspetivas de participação em ativida-des físicas desportivas dos estudantes do Politécnico de Coimbra. Este estudo evidencia uma elevada taxa de sedentarismo entre os estudantes, e uma elevada procura potencial por ativi-dades físicas desportivas, evidenciando a necessidade de criação de uma política de desenvol-vimento desportivo baseada no “desporto para todos”. No último artigo, desenvolvido por Francisco Campos, Elisa Ângelo, Bruno Abrantes, Ruben Ferreira e Ricardo Melo, apresentam-se os resultados de um estudo sobre os motivos de aban-dono da prática de atividade desportiva no ginásio do Politécnico de Coimbra. Os resultados permitem refletir sobre a definição de medidas a implementar de forma a aumentar a qualida-de percebida, satisfação e fidelização dos praticantes do serviço desportivo em causa. Os artigos aqui publicados apresentam, de forma isolada e em conjunto, um contributo diverso para a produção do conhecimento sobre o desporto no ensino superior, oferecendo ao leitor a oportunidade de refletir sobre esta temática em diversos contextos e diferentes abordagens
... The role of micro-level routines was highlighted in 1990 in separate publications by Cohn and Boutcher. In addition to numerous studies that have supported the performance-enhancing effects of one-off preparatory mental strategies such as "psyching up" or mental rehearsal imagery for self-paced short duration skills (e.g., Elko & Ostrow, 1992;Lee, 1990;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Shelton & Mahoney, 1978), a number of studies exist that support the effectiveness of putting several strategies together into routines (e.g., Boutcher & Crews, 1987;Cohn, Rotella & Lloyd, 1990;Gayton, Cielinksi, Rancis-Keniston & Hearns, 1989;Marlow, 1998). Several methods have been recommended for developing pre-performance routines at the micro level (see Boutcher, 1990;Moore and Stevenson, 1994). ...
Conference Paper
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In this paper I have argued that it is possible to distinguish between preparatory routines at at least two, and possibly three, levels (micro, meso, macro), with preparatory routines defined as “routinized patterns of strategies used in preparation for psycho-physiological performances”. Although various patterns are emerging regarding the characteristics of preparatory routines of successful performers, there is still ample room for further research on this topic. For example, more studies should address both the effectiveness and the essential ingredients of preparatory routines in different circumstances and for different types of tasks and performers. Furthermore, more attention needs to be given to explanatory theories regarding the underlying mechanisms that determine the potential effectiveness of preparatory routines, in particular at the meso level.
... While it is widely acknowledged that rituals serve to calm athletes by providing a predictable routine without distractions (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986), the distinction between sport rituals and superstitions can become blurred when superstitious behaviours function to relieve tension among athletes. In baseball, for example, coincidental superstitions have been associated with the unconscious rituals of players, such as batters shrugging their shoulders or pulling the cap or helmet down in a specific manner before each pitch (Ciborowski, 1997). ...
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EXEDRA - Revista Científica (ESEC) - "Desporto no Ensino Superior" (Número Temático)
... Previous research has identified both functional and dysfunctional consequences of group rituals (e.g., Atran & Henrich, 2010;Blake, 2014;Collins, ritualistic elements including symbolism, repetitiveness, and rigidity (Dunleavy & Miracle, 1979;Womack, 1992), such as eating exactly the same foods in the same order before a game or warm- ing up for the game using a particular set of steps. Several studies suggest that pre-performance routines are correlated, at least directionally, with improved performance in basketball and golf (Cohn, 1990;Cohn et al., 1990;Gayton, Cielinski, FrancisKeniston, & Hearns, 1989;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Predebon & Docker, 1992;but see McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001). For example, basketball players who use pre-shot routines when making free-throw attempts, such as spinning the ball three times and bouncing it once before shooting it, tend to have a higher percentage of successful free-throws than those who do not (Czech, Ploszay, & Burke, 2004). ...
... Pre-performance routines in sports are often confounded with superstition. It has been shown that routines performed before the motor tasks (e.g., basketball free throw) contribute to the accuracy of the shot, so they improve the subsequent performance (Cotterill, 2010;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Singer 2002). It is important to distinguish superstitious behaviors from pre-performance/pre-game routines (PPR). ...
Article
The objective of this first literature review, in this area, is to unveil the current status of knowledge on superstition in sport. Its outcome reveals that superstitious behaviors vary with the type of sport, athletic level, as well as athletic role. In agreement with past theories, they increase with the level of challenge, as reflected by the importance of the competition, as well as with the level of uncertainty. Cultural factors, in conjunction with the education level, as well as gender, have a strong influence on superstitious behaviors in sports. Based on current thoughts, religiosity and superstition are different psychological constructs used as psychological aids by several athletes. Personality factors appear to mediate the manifestation of the behavior. Elite athletes are clearly more superstitious than non-elite athletes, An interaction between athletic skill and task-difficulty emerges to be another strong predictor of superstition in sport. It is evident that a set of complex personal and situational factors interact in the manifestation of superstitious behavior in sport that is used for the regulation of emotions in a quest for optimal performance. It is concluded that the objective benefits (i.e., success) of superstition in sport may be ascribed to the placebo effect that yields an increased sense of control and mental reassurance in unpredictable contest situations.
... Results of their study indicated an overall increase in the triathlon performance of the participants. The positive influence of PST on athletes' performance and behaviours has been supported within a number of other sports, including basketball (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986; Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989), bowling (Paiva, 2007), cricket (Thelwell & Maynard, 2003), golf (Beauchamp et aI., 1996), soccer (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006), swimming (Bar-Eli, Dreshman, Blumenstein & Weinstein, 2002), and tennis (Mamassis & Doganis, 2004). In summary, the PST frameworks effectively highlight the commonalities between the PST process and coaching effectiveness (Horn, 2008). ...
Article
Multiple conceptual frameworks support the link between coaches' attitudes and behaviors, and their effect on a variety of athlete outcomes, such as performance, motivation, and athlete self-perceptions. The present study explored the relationships among coaches' attitudes and behaviors, with respect to psychological skills training (PST), and the beliefs of their athletes. One hundred and fifteen coaches completed PST attitude (SPA-RC-revised) and behavior measures, while 403 athletes completed two perception measures (CCS and SCI). Structural Equation Modeling showed that the proposed relationships were statistically significant, except for the pathway between coaches' attitudes and their behaviors. Results support the disconnect between coaches' attitudes and behaviors previously established in PST research, as well as the theoretical links between coaches' behaviors and athletes' perceptions (i.e., evaluation of their coach and self-confidence).
... Researchers have provided equivocal results regarding the effectiveness of PPRs, with novices appearing to benefit the most (Beauchamp, Halliwell, Fournier, & Koestner, 1996;Crews & Boutcher, 1986;McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001); while studies involving experienced athletes have indicated mixed results following PPR training (e.g., Boutcher & Crews, 1987;Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd, 1990;Kingston & Hardy, 2001;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Marlow, Bull, Heath, & Shambrook, 1998). Cohn et al. (1990) for example, examined the effects of a cognitive-behavioural PPR intervention on three male collegiate golfers during competition and reported that although the intervention increased PPR adherence, there was no immediate performance increase. ...
Article
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Researchers have identified that pre-performance routines improve performance under pressure, yet have not investigated the effects of post-performance routines. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the type of performance routine training could improve tenpin bowling accuracy and in-game performance. Design A mixed-method design was adopted, whereby the impact of a performance routine intervention on performance accuracy and in-game performance was examined. This was followed by participants completing semi-structured interviews which explored the perceived effect of those routines. Method Thirty-six experienced tenpin bowlers completed 30 accuracy shots pre- and post-intervention training, with league scores obtained for in-game performance comparison. Four groups (i.e., pre-performance routine [PPR], post-performance routine [POST], combined pre-post routine, and a control group) practiced 12 games across four weeks while listening to the group specific routine instruction on an IPod. Results It was noted that accuracy improved (albeit non-significantly) for the PPR and combined pre-post routine group, but not the other groups. Critically, all intervention groups (PPR, POST & COMBO) improved in-game performance. The qualitative data indicated that both the PPR and POST was perceived to influence positively performance, attentional and emotional control, self-awareness, self-confidence, motivation. The PPR was also considered to enhance a state of readiness, and perceived control. Conclusions Results indicate that the PPR training enhanced accuracy and in-game performance, with the POST training acting as a supportive role for in-game performance as evidenced by the qualitative and quantitative data. Future research should continue to investigate the effects of POSTs.
... Researchers have provided equivocal results regarding the effectiveness of PPRs, with novices appearing to benefit the most (Beauchamp, Halliwell, Fournier, & Koestner, 1996;Crews & Boutcher, 1986;McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001); while studies involving experienced athletes have indicated mixed results following PPR training (e.g., Boutcher & Crews, 1987;Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd, 1990;Kingston & Hardy, 2001;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Marlow, Bull, Heath, & Shambrook, 1998). Cohn et al. (1990) for example, examined the effects of a cognitive-behavioural PPR intervention on three male collegiate golfers during competition and reported that although the intervention increased PPR adherence, there was no immediate performance increase. ...
... It is clear from these numerous suggested functions that developing a consistent PPR should have beneficial effects on performance (Boutcher & Crews, 1987;Hill & Borden, 1993;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986). This paper will provide evidence based suggestions how best to develop and apply pre-performance routines. ...
Article
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Golf is a complex and technical sport demanding many attributes to achieve excellence. Performers are required to execute complex sets of motor skills in a perfect or near perfect way in order to be successful (Singer, 2002). As a result, not only technical perfection is essential, but also obtaining a mental state from which this complex set of skills is executed is crucial (Abernethy, 2001). Sport psychologists working in golf aim to aid golfers to play flawless, or near flawless golf on a consistent basis. A key strategy often used to prepare the golfer to perform at their optimum level is the pre-performance routine.
Thesis
Introduction – Pre-performance routines (PPRs) Introduction are defined as physical and psychological routines that are carried out by athletes prior to performing a particular skill. PPRs are highly integral in improving an athlete’s performance by building on mental strength, focus, determination, resiliency and concentration. Athletes in Malta do not have the advantage of being solely focused on weightlifting, but rather have to split time between employment and sports. This creates a rather stressed athlete that needs to learn to perform under pressure. The purpose of this study is to be able to see how basic mental skills during pre-performance routines including visualisation of the movement, deep breathing techniques and positive self-talk aid in conducting a successful lift. Furthermore, this research will outline the important of pre-performance routines for weightlifters along with the knowledge Maltese athletes own, with regards to PPRs. Finally gender differences with regards to maintenance and usage of PPRs will be investigated. Methodology – Qualitative Analysis is the method utilised in this dissertation. Questions for the interview are semi-structured and the athletes were chosen through convenient sampling. Information sheets were handed through the gatekeeper, and signed consent forms were collected prior to the interviews. Thematic Analysis is utilised for codes and themes to be generated. Results – Not all Maltese weightlifters have a set routine and not all weightlifters know what pre performance routines are. It is clear that in Malta, both coaches and athletes need to learn more how to utilise and develop pre-performance routines in their training
Article
A county level golfer reported that when his concentration wavered, the consistency of his pre-shot routine broke down and he played what he termed ‘sloppy’ (or careless) shots. After playing a careless shot, the participant would often become angry and annoyed and the associated feelings remained with him, leading to errors on successive holes. A pre-shot routine comprised the basis of the intervention which was designed to assist the participant cope with, and reduce, the number of careless shots. Results suggested that the intervention was effective at reducing the relative number of careless shots and enhancing specific performance attributes (e.g. motivation). Little change in the participant’s emotional state pre- to post-intervention was observed. Although further research is necessary, this case study suggests that performance routines may be used to help athletes cope adaptively with errors by refocusing attention.
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Purpose. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of KPGA tour golf players' pre-shot routine time consistency regarding skill level. Theorizing based on sport psychology literatures, we pay attention to psychological traits of functional routine consistency and further investigate to contribute in improving golfers' skill level. Methods. In order to achieve this research objectives, we selected 9 high professional skill level players and 15 low professional skill level players based on the 2012 prize money ranking provided by KPGA Association as of 2013. Researchers have measured pre-shot routine time for the tee shot, second shot and putting of each player in every hole in the first round of golfers' tournament competition in which their average skill level were obtained. We analyzed 2 professional skill level group data using t-test technique. Results. Our empirical findings indicate that the consistency of a pre-shot routine time of the tee shot have shown to be significantly different between high skill level and low skill level professional golfer groups. On the other hand, there were no significant differences regarding the consistency of the second shot and putting pre-shot routine time between two skill level professional golfer groups. Conclusion. Based on our findings, the pre-shot routine time of tee shot demonstrate significant influence on performance of professional golfers. A consistent training to maintain the pre-shot routine time of the tee shot will be more effective than those of the second shot and putting. Above all, categorical rumination provide adequate psychological references for both academics and field experts researching golfers' performance implications.
Chapter
Eine wesentliche Fragestellung im Hinblick auf sportliche Leistungen ist, wie eine optimale motorische Leistung so „konserviert“ werden kann, dass sie in Wettkampfsituationen systematisch abrufbar ist. Gerade im Wettkampf gibt es eine Reihe von Faktoren, wie etwa sozialen Druck von außen, die mentale und motorische Stabilität drastisch herabsetzen können. Eine beachtenswerte Ressource für den Aufbau mentaler Wettkampfstabilität im Hochleistungssport liegt in der Entwicklung von Routinen (Wettkampf-, Performance-Routinen). Routinen sind automatisierte Handlungsmuster, die die optimale Ausführung einer Bewegungstechnik vorbereiten und unterstützen. Empirische Studien haben gezeigt, dass durch geeignete Wettkampf-Routinen zentrale Leistungsreserven erschlossen und aufgebaute Leistungspotenziale sicher abgerufen werden können. Das Kapitel gibt einen Überblick über die Funktionsweise von Routinen, zugehörige Erklärungsmodelle, ihre aufgaben- und umweltbezogene Klassifikation.
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Interlocking contingencies that exist between a customer and sales representatives (SRs) may contribute to buying decisions. Verbal behaviors related to closing sales were identified by analyzing these contingencies statistically. Self-observation checklists were then implemented. On average, the six targeted verbal behaviors related to sales increased 12 percentage points over baseline, compared to a 2% point increase in the comparison group. These changes were associated with 126% more sales for the experimental group compared with 36% more sales for the comparison group. For each SR, this increase in sales translates into $1,094,444 more in annualized revenue.
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Temporal characteristics have been a main area of focus in the study of pre-performance routines in elite sports. Ball and player tracking data is currently available that precisely measures service preparation times in professional tennis. However, this data has yet to be utilized for studying service pre-performance routines. In this paper, we present a Bayesian multilevel model of the time-to-serve in a professional tennis match, which includes heterogeneous means, variances and covariate effects. Applying the model to a sample of serves played at the 2016 Australian Open reveals that the typical time-to-serve was 19 s for male players and 20 s for female players. Point importance and the length of the previous rally account for approximately 15% of the within-match variance. However, even with this adjustment, within-match variation is notably larger than between-player variation, 60% greater for men and 30% greater for women. The proposed Bayesian modeling approach is demonstrated to be a useful tool for analyzing in-competition temporal data on preparation time for tennis and other sports.
Article
Rituals are found in all types of performance domains, from high-stakes athletics and military to the daily morning preparations of the working family. And yet despite their ubiquity and widespread importance for humans, we know very little of ritual’s causal mechanisms and how (if at all) they facilitate goal-directed performance. Correlational and anecdotal evidence suggests that rituals might assist in goal-regulation by dealing with potential performance setbacks, either by: (i) bolstering self-efficacy that then promotes controlled performance in the face of errors or (ii) buffering the sting of performance errors. Here, in a fully pre-registered pre/post experimental design, we test these two competing mechanisms by examining changes in the error-related negativity (ERN), a measure of neural performance-monitoring involved in regulatory control. Participants completed an arbitrary ritual – novel actions repeated at home over one week – followed by an executive function task in the lab during electroencephalographic (EEG) recording. Results revealed that relative to pre rounds, participants showed a reduced ERN in the post rounds, after completing the ritual in the lab. The findings offer support for the palliative explanation: rituals dampen the neuroaffective signal in response to task errors. Corroborating the long-established view that rituals protect against uncertainty and anxiety, our results provide preliminary evidence that even arbitrary rituals can mute the brain’s response to distressing performance failures.
Article
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A preperformance routine may support consistent optimal performance. Preperformance routines' benefits for closed skills are largely accepted, but effects of time and situational factors are little understood, nor have results of altering movements of preperformance routines been much studied. This observational study investigated preservice routines of 4 elite tennis players. Inconsistent with much prior research, the presence of a routine did not enhance performance in this study: Mean serving percentage measured 66% for players with routines, 69% for others. The findings do support Jackson (2003) and Jackson and Baker (2001), studies of rugby players forced to alter routines during competition. Observation of preservice routines and performance over several months at various tournaments may advance the research on this topic.
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Boutcher (1990), Lobmeyer & Wasserman (1986) suggested that a method for maintaining high levels of performance in the face of potential distractions is to develop a consistent pre-performance routine. Crew’s & Boutcher’s (1987) study of elite golfers highlighted an apparent relationship between consistency of the timing of routines and the consistency of behavioural characteristics. Research in golf to date has only explored pre-performance routines (PPR’s) in putting tasks with a regulated variability in task difficulty (putting distance). The aim of this study was therefore to explore the extent to which these characteristics of PPR’s hold true across a range of different shot types. Subjects were 8 professional golfers with handicaps ranging from +1 to 2 (mean = 1.2). Each subject played 36 holes on a golf simulator (Smartgolf). Each shot played was videoed allowing the analysis of the major components of the pre-shot routines. The temporal characteristics of these components was also analysed. This allowed inter-shot type comparisons. The results indicate that there appears to be different pre-performance routines for different golfing shots. Different routines are employed across a range of shot types from driving off the tee to putting. The subjects in the study followed systematically different routines depending on the type of shot they were required to play. These routines were composed of temporally & behaviourally differing characteristics The results from this study question the conclusions drawn by previous research into PPR’s in golf. It appears that previous studies have adopted a too simplistic approach to the study of PPR’s in golfing performance. Future research needs to explore in greater detail the complex nature of PPR’s.
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