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Power and Leadership in Organizations
Abstract
The trend in research on power and leadership in organizations toward greater interest in the role of followers is examined. The historical development of this trend is reviewed, along with current applications aimed at greater follower involvement in organizations. Problems and prospects of empowering subordinates are discussed, along with challenges to be met. Although power and leadership research has made notable progress in addressing questions of relevance to organizations, suggestions are offered for additional work to be done. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... As Abildgaard et al. (2020) pointed out, there is a difference between participating in intervention activities and having participatory influence over decisions on what kind of intervention activities are suitable. However, whether employees participate only marginally by taking part in intervention activities or exert a participatory influence over interventions is, in turn, ultimately a question of power sharing in various degrees (Hollander and Offermann, 1990). In other words, employee participation is directly dependent upon managers' sharing of power in some form, and the degree of power sharing will accordingly affect the level of employee participation. ...
... At one end is autocratic decision-making, where employees have no influence over decisions. At the other end is delegation, where employees are allowed to make decisions on their own (i.e., power is distributed rather than shared; Hollander and Offermann, 1990). In between autocratic decision-making and delegation are power sharing through consultation and shared decision-making, in which employees are asked for opinions before decisions are made or are invited to codecide (Vroom, 2003). ...
... Autocratic decision-making involves no involvement of employees in decisions and can hence be described only in terms of obligation to partake in activities according to premade decisions (Hollander and Offermann, 1990). Managers thus announce decisions for employees to heed (Hollander and Offermann, 1990;Vroom, 2003). ...
A participatory approach is widely recommended for organizational interventions aiming to improve employee well-being. Employees’ participatory influence over organizational interventions implies that managers share power over decisions concerning the design and/or implementation of those interventions. However, a power-sharing perspective is generally missing in organizational intervention literature. The aim of this paper is therefore broaden the picture of the mechanisms that influence, more or less, participatory processes by conceptually exploring this missing part to the puzzle. These conceptual explorations departs from both an empowerment and a contingency perspective and results in six propositions on what to consider in terms of power-sharing strategies, reach, amount, scope, culture and capacity. Implications for research, as well as for organizations and practitioners interested in occupational health improvements, are then discussed. Especially, the importance of aligning power-sharing forms with the needs of the participating employees, and taking factors that can facilitate or hinder the power-sharing process into consideration, are stressed. The importance of training managers in power-sharing practices and supporting a participatory process is also highlighted.
... In this structure, employees easily recognise and identify leaders' authority and legitimate power (Anderson et al., 2012;Brass & Burkhardt, 1993). Moreover, leaders with PLB enforce work requirements and make final decisions to guide employees to reach desirable outcomes, further reinforcing the employees' acceptance of leader power legitimacy (Hollander & Offermann, 1990;Stajkovic & Luthans, 2003). Thus, under PLB, employees clearly perceive and are willing to accept legitimate power of the leader. ...
... They also perceive a given leader, who holds a superior position in the structure, as competent (Rahim et al., 2001), further motivating them to regularly act according to their leader's requirements (Schaubroeck et al., 2007). Moreover, perceiving their leaders' power legitimacy can induce employees to realise that they must undertake the corresponding role responsibilities for the assigned tasks and requirements (Elangovan & Xie, 2000;Hollander & Offermann, 1990). The responsibilities are salient to employees as they perceive strong legitimate power due to daily exposure to supervisory guidance (Elangovan & Xie, 2000;Johnson, 1994). ...
In this paper, we use self-determination theory to examine the benefits of the use of paradoxical leader behaviour (PLB) by supervisors. We posit that PLB can initiate two complementary mechanisms: a top-down mechanism (perception of leaders' legitimate power) that may encourage employees to satisfy and exceed standard performance criteria, and a bottom-up mechanism (employee intrinsic motivation) that stimulates employees to be proactive. We argue that implementing these mechanisms simultaneously may interactively enhance employee creativity. Our study is based on field data collected from a sample of 392 employees and their supervisors. We find that PLB is positively related to employees’ perception of legitimate power and intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, power perception and intrinsic motivation are associated with standard performance and proactive behaviour, respectively, and these mechanisms jointly influence employee creativity. In demonstrating the efficacy of balancing extrinsic requirements and intrinsic motivation, our findings have significant theoretical and empirical implications for employee motivation.
... Most women using industrial era styles gravitate toward transformational or authentic styles (Eagly, 2005;Rhee & Sigler, 2015). The characteristics found in transformational leadership theory are considered more gender-balanced than transactional approaches for women leaders (Ayman & Korabik, 2010;Eagly & Carli, 2007;Hollander & Offermann, 1990). Most scholars describe transformational leadership using the nine traits of charisma/idealized influence; inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation; individualized consideration/attention; tied to a hierarchical position; change oriented; goal oriented; management of meaning/persuasion; and morality influenced purpose (Bass, 1985). ...
... The literature reviewed shows traditional leadership theories as behaviors that help leaders achieve outcomes. Burns (1978) and later theorists describe transactional leadership theories as transactional behavior between leader and follower (Ayman & Korabik, 2010;Fu, Tsui, Liu, & Li, 2010;Hollander & Offermann, 1990). Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) also advanced transformational leadership which centers on leaders facilitating changes in the mission, vision, value, and culture (Bass, Hollander & Offermann, 1990;Burns, 1978;Carless, 1998). ...
This qualitative phenomenological study examined emergent barriers revealed by analyzing data from job advertisements, structured survey results, and interviews with past and present women presidents and chancellors of public and private not-for-profit higher education institutions about their selection journey for these jobs. The purpose of this research was to engage women who were past and present presidents or chancellors of public or private nonprofit colleges and universities to explore their experiences with gender-bias during the president/chancellor recruitment, selection, and transition enactment. The first question was to study how gender-bias appears during the recruitment of women candidates for a higher education institution president or chancellor role. The emergence of first theme which was that institutional differences may influence gender equity supported the finding that there may be implicit bias in the recruiting process. The second question for exploration looked at how does gender-bias visibly manifest during a higher education institution selection process for president or chancellor. The second theme that evolved from data analysis was that stakeholders’ implicit bias may disadvantage women supported findings that there may be institutional implicit bias in the selection process. The final question assessed how woman presidents or chancellors experience gender-bias during transition events that communicate their selection as the higher education institution president or chancellor. The data analysis led to the creation of a third theme found that launch actions are institutional as well as individual symbolism and organizational communications goals may introduce implicit bias into announcement activities such as press releases. The conceptual framework used the Four-Frame model developed from organizational theory and difference theory. These two theories provided a lens which guided the analysis and interpretation of data from the three data sources that allowed for enhanced validity through triangulation. The study’s findings demonstrate that some women presidents and chancellors have been successful navigating processes despite possible implicit bias forming institutional barriers. The insights from this study regarding barriers in the recruiting, selection, and enactment processes can contribute to future policies and programs.
... Based on these results, can be known that the first group has a good selfmanaged team [42]. The self-managed team is defined as a team that effectively manages their own performance, makes a decision that related with their work, and take collective responsibility for achieving their team's goal [59], [60]. The implementation of self-managed team can improve the decision-making quality [61]. ...
This study aims to: (1) find out the variables that influence people’s trust in the virtual team in a project, (2) find out the relationship of these variables with people trust in the virtual team in a project, and (3) the relationship between the presence of experienced members on a virtual team in leading an organization to determine the success of a project. The experiment was conducted using online Werewolf game and collected questionnaires from 30 respondents that divided into 3 groups, i.e., (1) having experience of being leaders, (2) a combination of having and having no experience of being leaders, and (3) having no experience of being leaders. A correlation test and a comparative test were used to analyze the result. The results found four variables that could influence people’s trust, i.e., (1) ability, (2) benevolence, (3) integrity, and (4) task faithfulness. All variables had a positive effect, except for task faithfulness. There is a relationship between the presence of leaders in a virtual team to the success of the project.
... Leaders and followers play their respective roles, and the fact that anyone can be a leader and anyone can be a follower has gained prominence. This concept denotes that leaders exist because of their followers, and the value of leadership is recognized in followership [38]. Followers are those who provide initial assistance to support leaders, because they, in fact, perform tasks and achieve organizational success rather than remaining subordinate to leaders and managers [19]. ...
This study examined the impact of superiors’ ethical leadership on subordinates’ unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB) and the mediating effects of followership. The research subjects were officials from the ten central departments of the South Korean government, and a cross-sectional survey was conducted among them. Overall, 404 questionnaires were used in the empirical analysis. Multiple regression analysis and Hayes Process Macro were used to validate the research hypotheses, which examined the relationship among ethical leadership, followership, and UPB. The results are as follows: First, the relationship between ethical leadership and followership was statistically significant. Second, the study showed that followership had a statistically significant effect on UPB but not ethical leadership. Third, testing the hypotheses regarding the mediating effect of followership on the relationship between ethical leadership and UPB revealed statistically significant results. This study confirms that followership significantly influences UPB and suggests that ethical leadership is an important precedent factor of followership. The study concludes with the theoretical and practical implications of these findings, along with the study’s limitations.
... Second, power provides individuals the opportunity to act more freely in some areas of organizational operations. Third, power is defined as effectively resisting disapproved demands (Hollander & Offermann, 1990). In the contemporary leadership approach, the leader shares his/her power of authority and responsibility with the employee and provides a common unity of purpose. ...
... Worker effectiveness that followers have a role in inducing servant leadership. This challenges assumptions that followers are passive recipients of leadership processes (Hollander and Offerman 1990) and indicates that followers can play an active role in shaping leadership (Oc and Bashshur 2013). We have also illustrated the potential for CORT to provide powerful explanatory narratives to support followership studies. ...
The study drew on Conservation of Resources Theory to explain the adoption of servant leadership behaviours vis-a-vis targeted followers and these behaviors’ positive association with worker effectiveness. We collected 365 follower-leader dyadic questionnaire responses in mainland China and conducted 20 interviews in Hong Kong. Results showed that followers’ proactive personality and high person-supervisor fit are positively associated with supervisors’ servant leadership behaviours, with the latter in turn positively associated with followers’ work effectiveness. Our findings challenge the conventional assumption that servant leadership is solely a manifestation of the traits of the leader.
Keywords: Conservation of Resources Theory, Follower proactive personality, Followership, Mainland China and Hong Kong, Person-supervisor fit, Servant leadership.
... First, we made sure that the selection of participants resembled the workforce composition of the supermarkets along demographic criteria such as gender and age. Second, to avoid the influence of spurious factors that may arise from changes of team leadership (Hollander & Offermann, 1990), we included only store staff members who had worked for 3 months or more for the same supervisor. Third, we selected only employees who were scheduled to work on the day that the survey was administered. ...
Research on envy is dominated by a focus on approach-oriented behaviors—when envious employees take action to reduce the gap between the self and envied targets. Surprisingly little research has examined the relationship between envy and avoidance-oriented behaviors, even though emotion regulation research suggests that avoidance is a common reaction to unpleasant, painful emotions such as envy. We seek to understand envy’s consequences for workplace avoidance—namely absenteeism and turnover. Drawing on theories about how people interpret and regulate emotions according to their goals, we suggest that employees’ individual differences in motivational strivings shape the relationship between envy and avoidance behaviors. We propose that for employees high in communion or status striving, envy is associated with more absences and thereby increased turnover; for employees high in achievement striving, envy is associated with fewer absences and ultimately reduced turnover. A field study of supermarket employees shows general support for our conceptual model regarding communion and achievement strivings but a null effect for status striving. Our research expands the nomological network of envy by examining its impact on workplace avoidance, helps to shed light on contradictory findings in envy research, and offers implications for theories on work motivation, emotions, and avoidance behaviors.
... Cultures with lower power distance have values that are more egalitarian: employees expect their leaders to emphasize individual preferences, freedom, and individual autonomy (Jogulu, 2010). In low power distance cultures, leaders are expected to provide socioemotional resources and rely less on authority and power (Hollander & Offermann, 1990). In contrast, employees in higher power distance cultures respect formal authority, expect leaders to direct them and exercise power (House et al., 2002), view their leaders as parents or elders (Basabe & Ros, 2005), and are more likely to tolerate abusive treatment (Hon & Lu, 2016). ...
Given the high human and economic costs of workplace safety, researchers and practitioners have paid increasing attention to how leadership behaviors relate to workplace safety. Previous research has demonstrated that leadership behaviors are important for workplace safety. In this meta-analysis, we extend our understanding of the leadership-workplace safety relationship by (1) examining the associations between a broader range of 5 leadership categories—change-oriented, relational-oriented, task-oriented, passive, and destructive—and 7 workplace safety variables; (2) investigating the relative importance of these leadership categories in explaining variance in these workplace safety variables; and (3) testing contextual and methodological contingencies of the leadership-workplace safety relationship. Using effect sizes from 194 samples (N = 104,364), we find that although leadership behaviors are associated with workplace safety, the leadership categories vary considerably in their relative importance. Task-oriented leadership followed by relational-oriented leadership emerge as the most important contributors to workplace safety. Change-oriented leadership (which includes transformational leadership) does not emerge as the largest contributor for any of the 7 tested safety variables, despite it being the most frequently examined leadership model in the workplace safety literature. Effectiveness of leadership behaviors in relation to workplace safety varies by national culture power distance, industry risk, workforce age, as well as by contextualized forms of leadership (i.e., safety-specific vs. generalized). Finally, there is meta-analytic evidence for publication bias and common method variance.
... Akademik İsa Həbibbəylinin bir fikri bu aspektdə çox maraqlıdır. Akademik yazır: "...siyasi olimpin zirvəsinə doğru inkişafda Heydər Əliyev adidən aliyə doğru bütün pillələri addım-addım keçmiş, zəngin həyat təcrübəsi əldə etmiş və mükəmməl dövlət idarəçiliyi mədəniyyəti qazanmışdır" və bu yolda "...ən zəruri şərtlərdən biri siyasi şəxsiyyətin mübarizəsində ümummilli idealların aparıcılıq təşkil etməsi, xüsusi yer tutmasıdır" (17). ...
... Also, some similar theories like Self-Managing Work Teams (SMWTs) (Barry, 1991;Hollander & Offermann, 1990) and shared mental models (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Converse, 1993;Dalenberg, Vogelaar, & Beersma, 2009;Mathieu, Heffner, Goodwin, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 2000) can be seen as antecedents of shared leadership. These concepts, being closely related to shared leadership theory, take a similar approach to leadership styles, with self-managing work teams aiming to lead teams with shared and collective knowledge. ...
Although there are many studies of leadership in military teams, few have focused on military team factors that could be linked to shared leadership in an international military staff. The focus of shared leadership is on team members’ interacting in order to lead collectively by sharing leadership tasks, rather than on an individual being a sole leader. The aim of this study is to identify predictors of a positive attitude toward shared leadership in the context of military teams, and how they are related to perceived team effectiveness. Results show that task complexity is the critical predictor of a positive attitude toward shared leadership, and that attitude toward shared leadership is positively related to perceived team effectiveness through self-management in a military context. What is more, when self-management is low in military teams, trust compensates to increase the perceived effectiveness. The findings contribute to the literature on attitude toward shared leadership in the specific context of international military teams.
... Padilla et al. assert that whereas instability and weak institutions can enable the emergence of bad leadership, effective institutions, system stability, and proper checks and balances, can serve to deter bad leaders from emerging, and constrain their destructiveness if they do rise to power (Padilla et al., 2007, p. 186). Reflecting Kellerman's injunction on the need for "good followers," Padilla et al. also argue that developing strong followers, by promoting a culture of empowerment, is important in constraining a toxic leader's destructiveness (Hollander & Offermann, 1990). ...
The present moment of deep transition, as well as being a time of danger, presents an opportunity for positive renewal. This paper develops a model of deep institutional innovation at times of historic change such as the present and outlines a research agenda aimed at initiating a holistic assessment of the main foundational institutions in society and re-imagining them in ways that will allow them to fulfill their basic ethical and effectiveness functions. Such a fundamental critique and re-imaging, the paper argues, is essential if global challenges are to be mitigated and resolved.
... Emergent leaders boost team performance, particularly in virtual teams, due to their impact on team goals and setting team direction (Cogliser et al., 2012), as well as through their ability to build a supportive team climate and a sense of trust within the team (Tyran et al., 2003). While there has been significant research on emergent leaders in face-to-face teams (Druskat & Pescosolido, 2006;Hollander & Offermann, 1990;Neubert, 1999), less is known about leadership emergence within the virtual team context (Avolio & Kahai, 2003;Hertel et al., 2006;Hoch & Dulebohn, 2017). ...
This study addresses calls for a better understanding of how team interaction mode (e.g. virtual versus face-to-face) moderates the relationship between member attributes and emergent team processes. We use Mullen’s model of salience to explain conflicting predictions and results about the effects of extraversion on leadership emergence in virtual and face-to-face teams. Participants were randomly assigned to 27 four-person teams that met three times, engaging in an iterative decision-making task. Assessments of each member’s leadership influence were taken after each meeting, and transcripts were content-coded. Results show that interaction mode has an indirect moderating effect on the relation between extraversion and leadership emergence, fully explained by salience. As such, this study explains an important difference in patterns of leadership emergence between virtual and face-to-face teams.
... In this context, the follower's perception concerning fairness and equity of the exchange with the leader is vital. 21 Transactional leadership works best in mature organisations that already have clearly defined structure and goals, to keep them on track, and reinforce the status quo. Examples of transactional leaders include managers, who tend to focus on supervision, processes and follower performance. ...
... 42). Empowerment is also considered as a motivation tool (Hollander & Offermann, 1990) for task accomplishment because employees improve their own effectiveness by choosing how to do task and using their creativity. Companies that empower their employees increase motivation and creativity in return (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). ...
Enterprises require focusing on managing relationships in internal markets because internal marketing activities play a critical role in creating an organizational climate that supports customer relationship management strategies. The main objective of this chapter is to identify requirements for creating customer-centric culture in organizations. Customer service can cause the success or failure of a company; hence, the role of internal market in service profit chain cannot be ignored. After explaining the significance of the service profit chain for the company, the chapter continues with clarifying the role of customer experience management in creating customer retention. In this chapter, creating customer-keeping culture, getting 360 degrees of customer insight, using big data and predictive analysis, engaging customers through social media, and managing experience across multi-channels are explained as requirements for achieving excellence in customer service experience. This chapter ends up with discussing the characteristics of customer service in the digital era and key business trends about the future of customer service.
... In fact, settling the disputes among the followers of the group is also an important leadership function to bring everyone together. 38 Consequently, how to ensure that the followers with some antagonistic relations can still track the leader collectively is an interesting issue to be studied. Inspired by this fact, this article aims to study the consensus tracking problem for discrete-time second-order MASs over general signed digraphs with arbitrary antagonistic relations. ...
This article studies the problem of consensus tracking control for second‐order agents in multiagent systems over switching signed digraphs. Compared with the existing consensus tracking works on the structurally balanced signed digraph where the antagonistic relations exist only between two independent subgroups, this article explores a more general case for the first time, in the sense that the antagonistic relation is allowed between any two agents. On the basis of the design of a cooperation‐antagonism environment‐based distributed algorithm, suitable model transformation vectors are utilized to convert the stability of original system into a product convergence problem of time‐varying superstochastic matrices. By analyzing the convergence, algebraic conditions between positive and negative weights are established to ensure that all followers can eventually reach the leader's state under switching signed digraphs with arbitrary antagonistic relations. Simulation examples are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of our results.
This chapter discusses the relevance of followers by reviewing Implicit Leadership and Followership Theories to identify gaps in gender and roles in followership. It discusses the bias among roles and gender and exemplifies with Bible women figures the relevance and importance of women in a follower position.KeywordsFollowersLeadersWomenMenGap
Despite the prevailing positive view of leader delegation, subordinates are sometimes reluctant to fulfill a delegation request. We propose that direct reports’ acceptance of or resistance to a delegated task depends on how the delegation is performed as well as the nature of the delegated task. We apply social exchange theory in proposing that the delegation of non-developmental and undesirable tasks and supervisor incivility during delegation increase subordinate resistance to delegation due to weak commitment to a supervisor. Two experiments and one critical incident study found overall support for our proposed model. The findings suggest that the “what” and “how” of delegation, rather than simply the amount of work delegated, are important factors that influence subordinates’ commitment to their supervisors and resistance to delegation. In addition, we find that incivility does sometimes occur during delegation. However, being delegated to in an uncivil manner does not fully undermine the positive influence of being delegated a desirable and developmental task. This research contributes to the delegation and leadership literatures by challenging the assumption of subordinate compliance to delegation and positing that delegation may sometimes elicit counterproductive responses from subordinates due to poor delegation execution.
Purpose: Examination of the coaching psychology literature shows that discussion about leadership coaching is disconnected from the scientific literature about leadership. Similarly, the latter has only recently begun to consider how leadership is developed. This lack of cross-engagement between two relevant evidence-based literatures is brought into sharp focus through leadership development coaching practice. This review from the perspective of external professional practice seeks to close the relevant knowledge gap through utilisation of a conceptual framework.
Methods: Lane and Corrie (2009) proposed three criteria which needed to be satisfied for effective coachee formation through coaching. Elliott (2007a) developed a framework from client case studies and naturalistic participant-observer reflections on coaching practice for leadership development intentionally informed by a range of evidence-based leadership theories. This framework satisfies the criteria proposed by Lane and Corrie. It is here applied and extended to provide an evaluation of current limiting assumptions in both the evidence-based coaching psychology and scholarly leadership literatures.
Results: The extended framework prompts systematic utilisation of salient knowledge domains, information inputs and processes for intentional coaching for leadership development. It demonstrates the necessary relevance of evidence-based leadership theories to coachee goal definition. It describes and contextualises coach-managed processes to establish, maintain and bound the coaching reflective space and demonstrates the relevance of other related literatures to inform coaching in organisations.
Conclusions: The required parameters in coaching for leadership development proposed by Elliott (2005) are further refined by proposing a more comprehensive model for leadership coaching to guide responsible professional practice and future research.
Research Summary
Building on upper echelons theory and implicit leadership theory, we examine if the personal attributes of CEOs of firms undertaking an initial public offering influence the pricing decisions of investment bankers. We argue that charisma and humility in CEOs alter two of the most important decisions of investment bankers: determining the firm's offer price range and setting the firm's actual offer price. Specifically, we argue that the perceptions and negotiation abilities of more charismatic CEOs result in higher offer prices and smaller offer price ranges for their firms. We also argue that the perceptions and negotiation abilities of more humble CEOs result in lower offer prices and broader offer price ranges for their firms.
Managerial Summary
We investigate how charisma and humility in CEOs of firms undertaking an initial public offering influence two of the most important decisions of investment bankers: determining the firm's offer price range and setting the firm's actual offer price. We show that firms led by more charismatic CEOs enjoy higher offer prices and smaller offer price ranges due to their perceptions of being an effective leader and their strong negotiation abilities. We also show that firms led by more humble CEOs have lower offer prices and broader offer price ranges since humble leaders fall outside of expected perceptions of effective leaders and lack strong negotiation abilities. Ultimately, our study demonstrates the importance of CEO characteristics on pricing decisions throughout the initial public offering process.
Many libraries engage in strategic planning, but few studies have examined whether planning processes are effective and result in meaningful action. This research argues the practice of shared leadership in libraries will result in more effective strategic planning processes. The author explores research into shared leadership and its positive impacts on organizations, job performance and satisfaction, and employee commitment. She surveyed employees of academic libraries to learn their perceptions of shared leadership characteristics in their libraries and of recent strategic planning processes.
This article is on open access until December 31, 2022 at https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/FS-11-2021-0225/full/html
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to nurture reflections on the colonization of the future in the present with a particular focus on Africa. This paper aims at exploring how participatory research and particularly anticipatory action research can contribute to a decolonising process.
Design/methodology/approach
Considering the future as a public good, this paper develops a reflection on the colonization processes that can turn it into a club or a private good. This paper mobilizes the notions of participatory knowledge production and local action research as a way to decolonize the future and empower imagination. This paper revisits the tenets of participatory action research as a means to achieve this objective and discusses the main features of a non-colonial anticipatory action research in the context of African futures.
Findings
This paper highlights the challenges associated with connecting anticipatory endeavours focusing on action research, the creation of collective intelligence and co-design, with the intention of encouraging the decolonisation process. It includes design principles and anticipates a possible process of counter-decolonization.
Research limitations/implications
This is a conceptual paper, which does not provide field-tested evidence. Yet, the authors hope it serves as an input enabling to design methodologies that will prevent the colonisation of the future when engaging in future-oriented research activities in Africa and elsewhere.
Originality/value
This paper provides an integral approach to the colonisation of the future, as a renewed old question. This paper also connects this process with a reflection on the nature of what could be non-colonizing anticipatory action research.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to develop an empirically informed framework to analyze women empowerment and entrepreneurship, contextualized within a collective society.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted 15 in-depth semi-structured interviews with women entrepreneurs located in the United Arab Emirates to understand their entrepreneurial experiences and how they were empowered.
Findings
Findings suggest that the three aspects of power characterized as “positive” from within Rowlands’ distinctions (“power to”, “power with” and “power within”) dominate, as opposed to those emphasized in the literature (“power to” and “power over”). Findings include empowerment of the “me” (individual) also synergistically contributes to empowerment of the “we” (society), when considering empowerment within a collective society.
Originality/value
A psychology model was used as a basis to develop a Collective Empowerment Process Framework. This framework provides a fresh look at empowerment, allowing for explanations of how women in specific contexts experience empowerment and social change.
Purpose
Over time, the role of followers within leadership discourse has gained greater status, leading to followers being acknowledged as significant actors in the leadership process. This has led to the development of follower-centric leadership studies, as well as the more emergent research area of followership, with followership research having the specific intention to find out about followers from the perspective of followers. In this paper, the authors provide a review of role-based followership approaches, and implicit leadership and followership theories as a basis to build a case for follower implicit followership theories (FIFTs) as a focus area for future research.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted a review of seminal and current role-based followership literature, with a specific focus on FIFTs and followership studies conducted within the African context.
Findings
Implicit theories have been an area of leadership research that has added much value, and as such could do the same for development of followership research. FIFTs as a research area are nascent and, as such, should continue to be explored in order to expand our understanding of followership.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is one of the first literature reviews to have a specific focus on FIFTs, as well as on followership research conducted within the African context.
Benevolent leadership has emerged as a contemporary leadership style that has been studied only scantly. To fill this gap, this work has two goals. The first is the identification and assessment of the relationship between benevolent leadership and employees’ affective commitment in the context of Polish organizations. Secondly, it will be investigated whether all constructs of benevolent leadership contribute to affective commitment. Data were obtained from 415 company employees. The relationships were investigated using structural equation models (SEMs). Analyses of the results showed that benevolent leadership has a positive relationship with affective commitment. The more benevolent leadership qualities a supervisor has, the more commitment employees show. All dimensions of benevolent leadership are positively correlated with affective commitment. However, the greatest was found in the “community dimension.” All analyzed dimensions correlate positively with each other, so there is a high probability that if a leader displays one BL dimension, he will also display another.
Job crafting is a situational proactive behavior. Based on existing research findings on job crafting, four research perspectives on the intricate relationships between job crafting and social contexts are systematically summarized (i.e., social contexts as targets of job crafting, social contexts being involved in job crafting, social contexts as antecedents of individual job crafting, social context as moderators of job crafting). In addition, mechanisms underlying effects of social contexts on job crafting, interactions of social contexts and individual characteristics on job crafting, as well as the effectiveness of job crafting in specific contexts are proposed and discussed. Incorporating research on other related constructs and variables, prospects for future research on job crafting embedded in social contexts are proposed, which include examining the influence of job crafting on coworkers, exploring the multiple paths through which team job crafting drives individual job crafting, discovering the internal mechanism underlying the influence of social contexts on job crafting, investigating interactions of social contexts and individual characteristics on job crafting, and testing the effectiveness of job crafting under the Chinese social context.
Business leaders have traditionally avoided wading into society’s debates. Yet more and more CEOs are taking visible public stands on hotly contested issues, engaging in what has come to be called CEO sociopolitical activism. Despite its growing prevalence and potentially major implications, this class of executive behaviors remains largely unexplored by organizational scholars. Our study tests and elaborates on stakeholder alignment theory to investigate the influence of CEO activism on employees’ attitudes and behaviors, particularly its effects on employees’ organizational commitment and support for the ideology underpinning the CEO’s public stance. Our theoretical predictions hinge on the degree of alignment between the CEO’s stance and the prevailing ideological tilt of the employee population, as well as the degree to which employees view the CEO as a credible leader. We test our ideas in the context of a highly publicized letter signed by nearly 100 public company CEOs in opposition to North Carolina’s controversial 2016 “bathroom bill.” Relying on multiple data sources to examine differences between firms whose CEOs signed the letter and firms whose CEOs declined the invitation to sign, we find general support for our theory, indicating that CEO activism has important intra- and extra-firm implications.
Strategic planning is frequently dismissed by employees because it does not seem to result in any real change or impact in the library. The failure of strategic planning processes can be attributed to a lack of shared leadership. Shared leadership encourages the development of strategic thinking, problem solving, dialogue, and shared vision, all of which are required for a successful strategic planning process. This article discusses the development of shared leadership and its impact on planning.
The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between the perceived
leadership style, employee participation, and positive psychology functioning. Such
functioning includes a sense of coherence, engagement in work and avoiding burnout.
The Leader Behavior Descriptive Questionnaire, the Employee Participation Survey, the
Orientation to Life Questionnaire the Utrecht Work Engagement Survey and Maslash
Burnout Inventory General Survey were applied to a sample of 200 permanent
employees of the manufacturing.
The results indicate significant relationships between all the variables and the way in
which employee participation is predicted by perceived leadership style, sense of
coherence, and work engagement. Significant differences were found between
perceived leadership style and educational levels, and functional department; employee
participation and educational level, and functional department; sense of coherence and
educational level; work engagement and age, and educational level; burnout and age,
and educational level.
The current study aimed to explore the leadership styles of the administrators at the Federal Authority
for Identity and Citizenship in the Emirate of Umm Al Quwain and Ajman Umm Al Quwain at UAE. A
representative sample of the study population was selected using a random sample from all the administrators of the
Federal Authority for Identity and Citizenship in the Emirate of Umm Al Quwain and Ajman with a size of 105
workers. Researchers prepared a study tool by designing a questionnaire to identifying the leadership styles. The
findings showed that the prevalent leadership styles according to sample responses are the freestyle of leadership
pattern with a small arithmetical difference with statistical significance according to the mean of the study sample
responses on the leadership styles for the benefit of the free leadership pattern and the tool as a whole. Also, it
showed there are no statistically significant differences in employees' perception of leadership styles among the
administrators of the Federal, attributed to the nationality and education level variable and duration of service and
sex variable
The study relies on the assumption that one of the main effects of phycological empowerment composed by attributes like self-esteem, locus of control, and assertiveness, is increased autonomy. The theoretical arguments are tested based on a structural equation model that allows estimating hypothetical relationships simultaneously. Additionally, differences in means between women and men are estimated for each phycological variable and the hypothetical model is tested separately to both sexes. 1,569 people (56% women) from five Mexican States compose the sample. The average age is 29 years and 59% of the sample has college degrees. The results suggest that psychological empowerment is strongly related to autonomy. How to cite this article: Muñoz-Márquez, C. E., Morales Barrera, R., & Domínguez Espinosa, A. del C. (2021). Model of Psychological Empowerment Based on Structural Equations for Predicting Autonomy. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 30(2), 55-69. Retrieved from https://revistas.unal.edu.co/index.php/psicologia/article/view/82149
What leadership activities do employees need from their supervisor? New research findings and suggestions
What leadership activities do employees need from their supervisor? New research findings and suggestions
Gedrag & Organisatie, volume 24, nr. 3, pp. 233-256.This article focuses on employees’ expectations and preferences about the behavior and activities of their direct supervisors. A sample of 304 employees working in four different organizations was asked which of 20 leader activities they needed personally, and which activities they considered neccesary for work unit performance in general. Both the series of items measuring the personal and general need for leadership could adequately be explained by one underlying dimension. The response patterns on the questions measuring the general need for leadership were more strongly associated with the employees’ work unit and organization than the response patterns for the personal need for leadership. In addition to the commonly used presentation of work unit averages and organization averages, graphical configurations based on multidimensional unfolding provided insightful information about individual and subgroup preferences. Research into employees’ general and personal need for leadership may result in usable information in determining organizational policy.
Shared consumer decisions, particularly those made with a relationship partner, can be very different from decisions that are made alone. Across multiple studies, we investigate how shared consumer decision making affects perceptions of power and relationship satisfaction. We integrate two streams of research to create a novel theory about consumer decision making and perceived power. Specifically, we suggest that shared consumer decision making combines two necessary components of power—an individual’s influence over and a partner’s engagement in the decision—and that these combined components drive power perceptions. In other words, individuals who relinquish some control and make a decision with their partner, ironically, perceive having greater power than if they had made the decision alone. We further find that shared decision making and greater perceived power lead to greater satisfaction with the relationship in which the decisions are made. By focusing on consumer decision making within relationships, the current research contributes to the literatures on decision making, social influences in consumer behavior, close relationships, consumer well‐being, and power.
This study shifts the prevailing perspective of leaders effect on their followers to look at how leaders perceive the behavior of their followers and how this perceived behavior affects them. Therefore, leaders were interviewed about particularly positively/negatively perceived interactions with a follower. We discover that followers’ behavior affects leaders to varying degrees on emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral levels, as well as influences leaders’ occupational effort. We find similar patterns in positively/negatively perceived interactions and detect two leader extreme types, the “empathetic” and the “self-centered” leader. Finally, we reveal that an equal hierarchy could be the main mechanism for an intense impact of perceived follower behavior.
Our study adds to current knowledge on the richness and extent to which follower behavior affects leaders.
This study highlights the importance of leader political skill as a moderator of the relationship between influence tactics used by leaders and member outcomes - in-role performance, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). We collected data from 185 leader-member dyads to empirically test this relationship. We found that when leader political skill and influence tactics supplement each other, it only upholds existing beliefs about the leader and jointly account for little incremental variance in member outcomes. Whereas, when leader political skill and influence tactics complement each other, it provides missing information about the leader and has a positive impact on member outcomes. We also found that when politically skilled leaders use tactics that are in sharp contrast to their interpersonal style of leadership, it will lead members to question the positive beliefs about the leader and will negatively impact member outcomes.
Purpose
Based on the social exchange theory, this study explores the mechanism of leader–subordinate power distance orientation (PDO) congruence with employees' taking charge behavior (TCB) and also verifies the moderated mediation effect of employees' promotion regulatory focus (PROM-F) on leader–subordinate PDO congruence and on employees' TCB through trust in the leader (which is the mediator).
Design/methodology/approach
Based on 296 questionnaires from 46 teams of Chinese enterprises, the authors use cross-level polynomial regressions and response surface techniques to analyze the effect of leader–subordinate PDO congruence on employees' TCB and use the block variable technique to test the mediating effect of trust in the leader.
Findings
(1) When leader–subordinates' PDO is congruent, the leader–subordinate low-low PDO matching pattern leads to more employees' TCB than the leader–subordinate high-high PDO matching pattern. (2) When leader–subordinate PDO is incongruent, the leader–subordinate low–high PDO matching pattern will lead to more TCB than the high-low PDO pattern.
Practical implications
(1) Encourage and promote the development of diverse cultures in enterprises. (2) Respect the power and status of employees and encourage a low-PDO leadership style. (3) Increase credibility by developing and establishing a good corporate leader image.
Originality/value
(1) The unique background of this survey offers important cross-cultural information on the effects of leader–subordinate PDO congruence. (2) The results of this research enrich the theoretical understanding of the factors that influence TCB. (3) Reveal the internal mechanisms of CPD congruence with TCB and demonstrate an indirect effect of trust in leader. (4) The discussion of the moderating role of employee's PROM-F will also deepen the understanding of the exchange relationship between leaders and subordinates.
In many public sector organizations, leadership is co-produced by the leader and subordinates and other stakeholders involved in human interactions. Co-production happens on the micro-interaction level between organizational members in organizations. It is the interactions between people that over time generate patterns of leadership activities. Accordingly, we must distinguish leadership activities from the individual leader. Different stakeholders create framework conditions for leadership, influenced by the dynamics of power and contextual boundaries, and as such, they co-produce leadership. Co-production of leadership is an important perspective infrequently explored in the co-production literature. For researchers, this means shifting attention away from the individual leader towards processes of co-production. A co-production perspective provides leaders themselves with a deeper understanding of what it means to lead and also gives them an opportunity to reflect on what constitutes leadership activities.
The existing studies for tracking consensus of multiagent systems (MASs) are all restricted to networks with only cooperative relationships among agents. Tracking consensus, however, requires beyond these traditional models due to the ubiquitous competition in many real-world MASs, such as biological systems and social systems. Taking into account this fact, this article aims to extend the dynamics of tracking consensus to signed networks containing both cooperative and competitive relationships among agents. A group of agents with general linear dynamics is considered. The cases of the fixed network as well as switching networks are analyzed, respectively. In the end, some algebraic conditions related to the network structure and the positive/negative edge weight are established to ensure the implementation of tracking consensus. Moreover, the single decoupling system is allowed to be strictly unstable in theory, and the upper bound of the eigenvalue modulus of the system matrix related to the system instability is given.
Using an organizational culture framework, this case study examines the critical preconditions necessary for employee empowerment and highlights how the multiple cultures within one public bureaucracy differently impacted their implementation. SERVE, a large human service organization, initiated an employee empowerment program that contradicted and thus collided with many elements of its overall organizational culture. Despite the best intentions of the organizational leaders, upper management support, and opportunities for participatory decision making, the organization could not foster the critical preconditions needed for employee empowerment. Leaders had difficulty expanding the employees' power and promoting member inclusion. Concurrently, most employees rejected these new opportunities for control and distrusted the leader's intentions. Yet, despite the widespread rejection of these empowerment initiatives, most employees described their work lives as empowering. The role the local site subculture played in promoting employee empowerment is examined. We discuss how a localized (vs. system‐wide) empowerment endeavor may be a more appropriate and feasible focus for public bureaucracies seeking to initiate greater staff empowerment. Particular attention is paid to the interaction between individuals and their environments, and how this interaction affects the empowerment process.
Abstract
In this study, it was aimed to investigate the eff ect of employee participation and patient focus, which are included in the total quality approach of 33 private hospitals within the borders of Ankara, on the performance of the hospital. Accordingly, relational screening model was used in the research. The universe of the research consists of senior managers such as chief physicians, chief assistants, hospital managers, hospital manager assistants, quality coordinators of 33 private hospitals actively serving within the borders of Ankara. Interviews were made with 308 hospital senior managers. Questionnaire was used as a data collection tool in quantitative research methods. In the research, face-to-face interviews were made with hospital managers. SPSS20 program was used in the analysis of research data. Introductory characteristics of hospital managers are shown with frequency and percentage. Participants’ assessments of the scales are indicated with the mean and standard deviation. In the research, the eff ect of employee participation and patient focus on hospital performance within the scope of total quality management (TQM) was investigated by multiple linear regression analysis. The research data were evaluated within the 95% confi dence interval. As a result, it was determined that employee participation and patient focus practices within the scope of TQM played an active role on hospital performance and positively aff ected them. In the study, they stated that private hospital managers gave high scores for employee participation and patient focus dimensions and that these processes were followed in their hospitals. In addition, administrators expressed a positive opinion about the performances of private hospitals.
Keywords: Total Quality Management, employee participation, patient focus approach, hospital performance, responsiveness
Abstract
The current study aimed to explore the leadership styles of the administrators at the Federal Authority for Identity and Citizenship in the Emirate of Umm Al Quwain and Ajman Umm Al Quwain at UAE. A representative sample of the study population was selected using a random sample from all the administrators of the Federal Authority for Identity and Citizenship in the Emirate of Umm Al Quwain and Ajman with a size of 105 workers. Researchers prepared a study tool by designing a questionnaire to identifying the leadership styles. The findings showed that the prevalent leadership styles according to sample responses are the freestyle of leadership pattern with a small arithmetical difference with statistical significance according to the mean of the study sample responses on the leadership styles for the benefit of the free leadership pattern and the tool as a whole. Also, it showed there are no statistically significant differences in employees' perception of leadership styles among the administrators of the Federal, attributed to the nationality and education level variable and duration of service and sex variable.
The anti‐fracking movement (AFM) in Bulgaria, was a successful grassroots local‐to‐national organizing effort to change public policy. The study draws on social movements, community psychology, and grassroots democracy theory to explore, describe and critique how participants in the AFM collectively constructed meanings and practices of organizing in interaction with the sociopolitical context as they expanded their efforts from the local to the national level of policy‐making. Data for the study were collected from semi‐structured interviews with activists, movement documents, and participant observations. Structured and open coding followed by qualitative analyses produced descriptions and explanations of grassroots democracy in the movement. The movement was based on a prefigurative vision and practice of an antihierarchical “civic society” and was also shaped by the demands of the Bulgarian political context. Power, consent, and participation had dynamic meanings and forms that secured both grassroots democracy and effective political action. Тhe AFM resisted well‐known mechanisms of hierarchization and co‐optation, but it also reproduced certain inequalities of power. The findings relate to recent trends for expansion of community organizing to the national level of politics, for expansion of the community organizing models outside the United States, and for a popular grassroots preference for anti‐organizational organizing.
By investigating broadly a contingency approach and implicit leadership theoretical perspectives with a multilevel lens as a starting point, this review highlights the potential for Asian conceptualizations of leadership. More specifically, by highlighting the important contingent role national culture plays in influencing leadership effectiveness, we review Asian conceptualizations of leadership that exist (e.g., paternalistic leadership style, paternalism, and guanxi in the leadership setting) in the literature and the findings that have been found in a relatively selective manner. This also allows us to advance the notion of a culturally contingent leadership perspective by developing the notion of hierarchical social exchange and various modalities associated with such a relationship. By so doing, this review enables us to underscore the advantages as well as challenges associated with Asian conceptualizations of leadership as well as future research directions that need to be undertaken to more firmly establish their utility to general leadership literature.
The purpose of this article is to contribute to the existing servant leadership literature, especially at the individual level of analysis in new settings, by examining the potential joint effects of servant leadership, dyadic duration, and job self-efficacy, with organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) as the dependent variable. We, after analyzing survey data from 148 leader–follower dyads collected from an engineering venture, find that dyadic duration is a significant moderator of the relationship between servant leadership and OCB. Furthermore, the moderating effect of dyadic duration on the relationship between servant leadership and OCB depends on job self-efficacy, such that the interaction effect is neutralized when job self-efficacy is high rather than low. The findings about interactive effects can provide useful information that will help to better deploy servant leadership in organizations to create positive follower outcomes.
Job crafting, or proactive changes that individuals make in their job design, can influence and be influenced by coworkers. Although considerable research has emerged on this topic, overall, the way job crafting is responded to by coworkers has received little theoretical attention. The goal of this article is to develop a model that allows for a better understanding of job crafting in interdependent contexts. Drawing on attribution and social information theories, we propose that when job crafting has a negative or positive impact on coworkers, coworkers will make an attribution about the crafter’s prosocial motive. This attribution in turn influences whether coworkers respond in an antagonistic or a supportive way toward job crafters. Ultimately, coworkers’ reactions shape the experienced affective work outcomes of job crafters. We also theorize the factors that moderate coworkers’ reactions to job crafting behaviors and the job crafter’s susceptibility to coworker influence.
Background: The Classroom-as-Organization (CAO) is an experiential learning course in which students create and manage an organization as part of class activities. Student interaction with peers is an important feature of the CAO. Educators suggested that student interactions in CAOs follow certain patterns, but these observations have not been tested in empirical research. Purpose: The research focused on exploring patterns of interaction in a CAO. Methodology/Approach: Network data were collected from students and instructors at four different times during a two-semester CAO course. The authors then used social status theory, friendship formation literature, and Simulation Investigation for Empirical Network Analysis (SIENA) to test hypotheses about interactions in the CAO. Findings/Conclusions: The authors found evidence that (a) localized informal leaders emerge in the class, (b) reciprocation ties between individuals happens within, but not necessarily between departments, and (c) there is a close connection between class-related interactions and social interactions outside of the class, impacting leadership in the CAO. Implications: Instructors need to pay close attention to understanding and managing interdepartmental relationships in CAOs. Furthermore, educators may only have a limited understanding of CAO group dynamics, given that they may not have a high awareness of student social interactions outside of class.
Following a review of literature on the leader-member exchange model of leadership, the model's methodological and theoretical problems are discussed. First, it is argued that leader-member exchange is a multidimensional construct and should be measured accordingly. Second, it is noted that the leader-member exchange developmental process has not been fully explicated. In addressing these problems, a three dimensional conceptualization of the leader-member exchange construct is proposed and a model of the leader-member exchange developmental process is presented.
This paper explores the paradoxical role of the external leaders of self-managing work teams. Observation, interviews, group elicitations, and a literature search were used to identify salient leader behaviors in a medium-sized manufacturing plant that had been operating for several years under a system of self-managing work teams. A self-management leadership questionnaire was developed to measure the 21 leader behaviors identified. Correlations with overall leadership-effectiveness ratings generally indicated that the external leaders' most important behaviors are those that facilitate the team's self-management through self-observation, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement. The study suggests that there is a legitimate role for external leaders of self-managing work teams but that it differs from traditional and participative leadership roles.
Diplomatic communications during international crises that resulted in war (1914 and 1950) and crises that were settled peacefully (1911, 1948, 1962) were scored for integrative complexity. This is a dimension of information processing characterized at one pole by simple responses, gross distinctions, rigidity, and restricted information usage, and at the other by complexity, fine distinctions, flexibility, and extensive information search and usage. Complexity of the messages produced by governmental leaders was significantly lower in crises that ended in war. As the crisis approached its climax, complexity declined in 1914 and increased in 1962. The results demonstrate the usefulness of information processing complexity, which can be measured objectively in a wide range of materials, for analyzing political and diplomatic events.
The concept of organizational culture has received increasing attention in recent years both from academics and practitioners. This article presents the author's view of how culture should be defined and analyzed if it is to be of use in the field of organizational psychology. Other concepts are reviewed, a brief history is provided, and case materials are presented to illustrate how to analyze culture and how to think about culture change.
This paper reports a meta-analytic literature review testing cognitive, affective, and contingency models of the effects of participation in decision making on employees' satisfaction and productivity. Contingency models received no support. Results from field studies provided some support for cognitive models, and strong support for affective models linking participative climate with worker satisfaction. Methodological variations such as research setting and type of participant were important moderators in subgroup analyses. We discuss the implications of such variations for task complexity.
The concept of power has long occupied a place of importance in the organizational literature. Despite this attention, or perhaps because of it, just how the concept should be viewed and used in social analysis has engendered scholarly division and controversy. The concept of power is reexamined here, with past work integrated into an episodic model of power.
In this new book, Jay A. Conger reveals how the charismatic leader's qualities of creativity, inspiration, unconventionality, vision, and risk-taking can help bring about radical change in organizations damaged by long periods of inertia - and shows why we need charismatic leadership now more than ever before. Drawing on findings from organizational behavior, sociology, social psychology, political science, and his own research - as well as on illustrations from the careers of Steve Jobs, Lee Iacocca, Mary Kay, John DeLorean, Ross Perot, and others - the author dispels the myths about charisma and identifies the specific practices that set charismatic leadership apart to help show how and why these individuals succeed where others may fail.
This research examined predictors and consequences of delegation. Participants were 44 supervisors and 198 claims adjusters employed in 19 branch offices of a large insurance company. Delegation was operationally defined as the dollar level of authority exercised by adjusters to settle claims. Results indicated that supervisors' perceptions of subordinates, the volume of supervisors' workloads, and the importance of decisions were significant predictors of delegation. In addition, subordinates' job competence and congruence between supervisors' and subordinates' goals moderated the effects of delegation on subordinates' job performance. Neither supervisors' personalities or predispositions to share authority nor subordinates' satisfaction were significantly related to delegation. Implications of the findings for research on participative decision making and leadership are discussed.
This paper criticizes the assumption that participation of the less powerful in decision-making processes results in a reduction of differences in power between the more powerful and the less powerful. Empirical data about European work councils support this point of view. Preconditions are specified in which participation will, on the contrary, increase power differences, and the hypothesis is proved in three laboratory experiments.
Leading authorities share their approaches to understanding, managing and changing organizational cultures. Includes methods for identifying cultural norms, reinforcing the positive aspects of existing culture, and building new cultures that support organizational goals and strategies.
A framework for understanding worker motivation is proposed. The framework draws heavily on theory and research in the areas of social influence, individual differences, and organizational typology. In addition to integrating these theoretical approaches in a social influence interpretation of worker motivation, the proposed framework identifies specific, testable hypotheses.
A review-critique of certain aspects of the theoretical literature on deviance and the reaction to it reveals that three variables have been viewed by social scientists as determinants of both. These three variables are the hierarchical status occupied by the presumed deviant within the group, imposition of formal sanctions upon the presumed deviant, and whether or not the group is successful in accomplishing its goals. These independent variables are experimentally manipulated using a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design in order to explore the informal reaction to deviance within sixteen work organizations simulated in the laboratory. Findings show that participants allocate more esteem to the deviant in a managerial position than to one in a worker position. However, this finding is complicated by whether or not the organization is successful in accomplishing its goals. For the same or similar acts of deviance the higher-status incumbent loses esteem at a lower rate in successful organizations. In unsuccessful organizations the higher-status incumbent loses esteem at a much higher rate. Allocation of esteem is further complicated by the imposition of formal sanctions such as promotion or demotion.
This study is a meta-analysis of the effects of four situational moderators on relationships between participation and five outcomes. Results based on 118 correlation coefficients indicate that, with the influence of percept-percept research procedures controlled, group size, task interdppendence, task complexity, and performance standards exert a few statistically significant moderating effects, and that participation typically has only modest influence on task performance, decision performance, motivation, satisfaction, and acceptance. Combined with evidence from another recent meta-analysis by Miller and Monge, the results suggest that methodological artifacts explain many of the noteworthy positive findings published in research on relationships between participation and its outcomes.
This is the tenth of a series of 12 articles on systems thinking, a way of understanding complex organizations and society offering significant promise for improving the leadership and management of commercial companies, not-for-profit organizations, and government agencies. It is better to have a lion at the head of an army of sheep, than a sheep at the head of an army of lions. —Daniel Defoe Good leaders never set themselves above their followers— except in carrying out their responsibilities. —Unknown Leadership, at its highest, consists of getting people to work for you when they are under no obligation to do so. —Unknown Leadership—it's one of the most over-used, least-understood, misinterpreted words in the world today.
Managers and leaders are two very different types of people. Managers' goals arise out of necessities rather than desires; they excel at defusing conflicts between individuals or departments, placating all sides while ensuring that an organization's day-to-day business gets done. Leaders, on the other hand, adopt personal, active attitudes toward goals. They look for the opportunities and rewards that lie around the corner, inspiring subordinates and firing up the creative process with their own energy. Their relationships with employees and coworkers are intense, and their working environment is often chaotic. In this article, first published in 1977, the author argues that businesses need both managers and leaders to survive and succeed. But in the larger U.S. organizations of that time, a "managerial mystique" seemed to perpetuate the development of managerial personalities-people who rely on, and strive to maintain, orderly work patterns. The managerial power ethic favors collective leadership and seeks to avoid risk. That same managerial mystique can stifle leaders' development - How can an entrepreneurial spirit develop when it is submerged in a conservative environment and denied personal attention? Mentor relationships are crucial to the development of leadership personalities, but in large, bureaucratic organizations, such relationships are not encouraged. Businesses must find ways to train good managers and develop leaders at the same time. Without a solid organizational framework, even leaders with the most brilliant ideas may spin their wheels, frustrating coworkers and accomplishing little. But without the entrepreneurial culture that develops when a leader is at the helm of an organization, a business will stagnate and rapidly lose competitive power.
This study explored the beliefs of men and women about what influence strategies they would consider using in a work-related disagreement with their supervisor as a function of their own sex and the sex of their supervisor. Subjects rated the likelihood of their taking each of 40 actions in order to get their own way. As expected, women considered using personal/dependent and negotiation strategies more than men; men considered using coercion/offering rewards for cooperation more than women. In addition, persons considering interaction with a female supervisor reported less likelihood of using reasoning and negotiation strategies and a greater likelihood of withdrawing from conflict than persons with a male supervisor.
Subjects were asked to rate the likelihood of their taking each of 4O actions in order to get their own way in an organizational dispute in which they were either an employee or a supervisor. The 40 strategies clustered into eight factors. Women reported a greater likelihood of using Personal/Dependent and Negotiation strategies than men; men reported a greater likelihood of using Reward/Coercion and Indirect strategies than women. Persons in supervisory roles reported less likelihood of withdrawing and negotiating, as well as a greater likelihood of using Unilateral strategies than persons in employee roles. Attitudes toward power also affected strategy choice, with negative attitudes toward having power associated with a greater usage of Withdrawal and Negotiation and less likelihood of employing Reasoning, Pressure, or Unilateral strategies. Concern about others' power was associated with increased use of Indirect and Withdrawal strategies, and less likelihood of using Reasoning. Women and persons in supervisory roles were more likely to hold negative attitudes toward having power than men and persons in employee roles, whereas men were more likely to hold negative attitudes toward powerful others.
Probably more has been written and less known about leadership than any other topic in the behavioral sciences.
The topic of leadership succession (the planned or unplanned change of the formal leader of a group or organization) has received relatively little attention in the literature compared with other aspects of leadership phenomena. The dynamics of the succession process and their indirect implications for leadership and group effectiveness are not fully understood. This paper reviews relevant literature and then attempts to specify a model of leadership succession, based on prior research, group process literature, and logical analysis.
After briefly discussing the prominence, basic substance, and history of Fiedler's contingency model of leadership effectiveness, four issues crucial to the current status and future development of the model were considered: (a) the form of the contingent relationship actually constituting the model; (b) the need for direct measurement of situational favorableness; (c) the problem of classifying results from evidential validation studies; and (d) the need for process measurement in studies evaluating organizational applications of the model. Conclusions were offered concerning the contribution already made by the contingency model to leadership research and key directions for future research involving the model.
• As the title suggests, this book examines the psychology of interpersonal relations. In the context of this book, the term "interpersonal relations" denotes relations between a few, usually between two, people. How one person thinks and feels about another person, how he perceives him and what he does to him, what he expects him to do or think, how he reacts to the actions of the other--these are some of the phenomena that will be treated. Our concern will be with "surface" matters, the events that occur in everyday life on a conscious level, rather than with the unconscious processes studied by psychoanalysis in "depth" psychology. These intuitively understood and "obvious" human relations can, as we shall see, be just as challenging and psychologically significant as the deeper and stranger phenomena. The discussion will center on the person as the basic unit to be investigated. That is to say, the two-person group and its properties as a superindividual unit will not be the focus of attention. Of course, in dealing with the person as a member of a dyad, he cannot be described as a lone subject in an impersonal environment, but must be represented as standing in relation to and interacting with another person. The chapter topics included in this book include: Perceiving the Other Person; The Other Person as Perceiver; The Naive Analysis of Action; Desire and Pleasure; Environmental Effects; Sentiment; Ought and Value; Request and Command; Benefit and Harm; and Reaction to the Lot of the Other Person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• As the title suggests, this book examines the psychology of interpersonal relations. In the context of this book, the term "interpersonal relations" denotes relations between a few, usually between two, people. How one person thinks and feels about another person, how he perceives him and what he does to him, what he expects him to do or think, how he reacts to the actions of the other--these are some of the phenomena that will be treated. Our concern will be with "surface" matters, the events that occur in everyday life on a conscious level, rather than with the unconscious processes studied by psychoanalysis in "depth" psychology. These intuitively understood and "obvious" human relations can, as we shall see, be just as challenging and psychologically significant as the deeper and stranger phenomena. The discussion will center on the person as the basic unit to be investigated. That is to say, the two-person group and its properties as a superindividual unit will not be the focus of attention. Of course, in dealing with the person as a member of a dyad, he cannot be described as a lone subject in an impersonal environment, but must be represented as standing in relation to and interacting with another person. The chapter topics included in this book include: Perceiving the Other Person; The Other Person as Perceiver; The Naive Analysis of Action; Desire and Pleasure; Environmental Effects; Sentiment; Ought and Value; Request and Command; Benefit and Harm; and Reaction to the Lot of the Other Person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)