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Sensation and Perception in the History of Psychology
Abstract
This book is a sequel to
A history of experimental psychology (see IV: 456). It brings the history of the senses up to about 1930. The author does not trust his own perspective for events of the last decade. The first 2 chapters are introductory and consider general problems. The next 6 cover vision, including depth perception. 3 chapters are devoted to audition, and 1 each is given to smell and taste, touch, organic sensibility, and the perception of time and movement. A final chapter analyzes some of the factors that have inhibited and facilitated scientific progress. There is an index of names and one of subjects. References and comments follow each chapter and constitute a substantial portion of the book. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Well before Wallach's work , Lord Rayleigh (1875, 1879 argued that a binaural intensity ratio [now referred to as the interaural level difference (ILD)] could be used to locate a sound source and was the same for a sound presented from a source in front of a listener as it was for a sound presented from behind. At about the same time, Thompson (1878) and others (see Boring, 1942) suggested that interaural phase differences could also be used to indicate the location of a sound source, but for several reasons [see Boring (1942) and Yost (2017) for reviews], these suggestions were usually ignored at that time. Much later, in the 1920s, several authors (see Boring, 1942) suggested that interaural phase differences could be converted to interaural time differences (ITDs). ...
... Well before Wallach's work , Lord Rayleigh (1875, 1879 argued that a binaural intensity ratio [now referred to as the interaural level difference (ILD)] could be used to locate a sound source and was the same for a sound presented from a source in front of a listener as it was for a sound presented from behind. At about the same time, Thompson (1878) and others (see Boring, 1942) suggested that interaural phase differences could also be used to indicate the location of a sound source, but for several reasons [see Boring (1942) and Yost (2017) for reviews], these suggestions were usually ignored at that time. Much later, in the 1920s, several authors (see Boring, 1942) suggested that interaural phase differences could be converted to interaural time differences (ITDs). ...
... At about the same time, Thompson (1878) and others (see Boring, 1942) suggested that interaural phase differences could also be used to indicate the location of a sound source, but for several reasons [see Boring (1942) and Yost (2017) for reviews], these suggestions were usually ignored at that time. Much later, in the 1920s, several authors (see Boring, 1942) suggested that interaural phase differences could be converted to interaural time differences (ITDs). With the discovery of the all-or-none properties of neural action potentials by Adrian (1928), it became popular to describe ITDs as an interaural difference in the timing of action potentials in each auditory nerve. ...
Front-back reversals (FBRs) in sound-source localization tasks due to cone-of-confusion errors on the azimuth plane occur with some regularity, and their occurrence is listener-dependent. There are fewer FBRs for wideband, high-frequency sounds than for low-frequency sounds presumably because the sources of low-frequency sounds are localized on the basis of interaural differences (interaural time and level differences), which can lead to ambiguous responses. Spectral cues can aid in determining sound-source locations for wideband, high-frequency sounds, and such spectral cues do not lead to ambiguous responses. However, to what extent spectral features might aid sound-source localization is still not known. This paper explores conditions in which the spectral profile of two-octave wide noise bands, whose sources were localized on the azimuth plane, were randomly varied. The experiment demonstrated that such spectral profile randomization increased FBRs for high-frequency noise bands, presumably because whatever spectral features are used for sound-source localization were no longer as useful for resolving FBRs, and listeners relied on interaural differences for sound-source localization, which led to response ambiguities. Additionally, head rotation decreased FBRs in all cases, even when FBRs increased due to spectral profile randomization. In all cases, the occurrence of FBRs was listener-dependent.
... In nature, not all 17 systems that evolve into an order stage can be defined as a living system. For example, a 18 liquid solidifying in a cold environment and biometric materials [4], respectively, represent 19 simple and complex examples of systems that reduce entropy but are not alive. In this 20 work, we describe living systems using the conventional life definition as entropy-reducing. ...
... Based on quantum formalism, we selected slightly different phases: state 53 construction, classified representation, representation, and determination. We demonstrated 54 these definitions using the duck-rabbit figure shown in Fig. 1 [16][17][18][19][20]. The figure is an 55 ambiguous picture, which, according to Merriam-Webster, is the picture of a subject that 56 the viewer may see as either of two different things or as the same subject from either of 57 two different viewpoints, depending on how the total configuration is interpreted [? ]. ...
... The following example demonstrates why a dispersive environment is an important part of the interpreting system. Observe the ambiguous Figures [16][17][18][19] ...
Quantum mechanics introduces the concept of an observer who selects a measuring device and reads the outputs. This measurement process is irreversible. Lately, scholars on quantum collapse phenomena have presented a quantum-like formalism describing the measurement results as an interpretation of the measured object. Note that an observer must read the interpretation results after the interpretation process. Therefore, we propose that the definition of the concept of life should be expanded based on the following concept: A living system decreases entropy, measured results are interpreted, and an internal observer reads the commentary.
... This focus on the statistical and physical aspects of cuessometimes called inputs, stimuli or data (Gigerenzer, 2020)builds on a long historical tradition in psychology. The foundations of this work were laid by scholars such as Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner in psychophysics (Boring, 1942;Wixted, 2020). We revisit the central elements of this work. ...
... The goal of early work in psychophysics was to experimentally study if and when humans notice-and become aware ofa given, prespecified cue or stimulus (Boring, 1942). In the earliest formal experiments, Gustav Fechner introduced human subjects to a single stimulus-an auditory, haptic or visual one-and proceeded to see when the focal stimulus became salient. ...
... Early work in psychophysics-specifically the work of Ernst Weber-also looked at when humans noticed comparative differences between two cues or stimuli (Weber, 1834; for a review, see Boring, 1942;Algom, 2021). Here the premise again was to start from zero: a "zero" difference between two cues (e.g., optical stimuli, lifted weights, or sounds), and then to incrementally increase the brightness, weight, or loudness of one of the stimuli to see when the comparative difference was noticed. ...
In this paper we contrast bounded and ecological rationality with a proposed alternative, generative rationality. Ecological approaches to rationality build on the idea of humans as “intuitive statisticians” while we argue for a more generative conception of humans as “probing organisms.” We first highlight how ecological rationality’s focus on cues and statistics is problematic for two reasons: (a) the problem of cue salience, and (b) the problem of cue uncertainty. We highlight these problems by revisiting the statistical and cue-based logic that underlies ecological rationality, which originate from the misapplication of concepts in psychophysics (e.g., signal detection, just-noticeable-differences). We then work through the most popular experimental task in the ecological rationality literature—the city size task—to illustrate how psychophysical assumptions have informally been linked to ecological rationality. After highlighting these problems, we contrast ecological rationality with a proposed alternative, generative rationality. Generative rationality builds on biology—in contrast to ecological rationality’s focus on statistics. We argue that in uncertain environments cues are rarely given or available for statistical processing. Therefore we focus on the psychogenesis of awareness rather than psychophysics of cues. For any agent or organism, environments “teem” with indefinite cues, meanings and potential objects, the salience or relevance of which is scarcely obvious based on their statistical or physical properties. We focus on organism-specificity and the organism-directed probing that shapes awareness and perception. Cues in teeming environments are noticed when they serve as cues-for-something, requiring what might be called a “cue-to-clue” transformation. In this sense, awareness toward a cue or cues is actively “grown.” We thus argue that perception might more productively be seen as the presentation of cues and objects rather than their representation. This generative approach not only applies to relatively mundane organism (including human) interactions with their environments—as well as organism-object relationships and their embodied nature—but also has significant implications for understanding the emergence of novelty in economic settings. We conclude with a discussion of how our arguments link with—but modify—Herbert Simon’s popular “scissors” metaphor, as it applies to bounded rationality and its implications for decision making in uncertain, teeming environments.
... According to the now discredited tongue map (see Amerine et al., 1965;Bartoshuk, 1993;Feeney and Hayes, 2014), sweet receptors were thought to be located on the front of the tongue, bitter receptors on the back, and receptors capable of detecting salt and sour tastes on the sides. The emergence of the tongue map was linked by Linda Bartoshuk (1978) to the publication of Edwin G. Boring's 1942 textbook Sensation and perception in the history of experimental psychology, in which the famous North American psychologist redescribed David Pauli Hanig's (1901) thesis data published in an earlier German text entitled 'The psychophysics of taste'. In a review that appeared almost three decades ago, Bartoshuk highlighted the ambiguity inherent in Boring's (1942) replotting of Hanig's (1901) original data (see Fig. 1). ...
... The emergence of the tongue map was linked by Linda Bartoshuk (1978) to the publication of Edwin G. Boring's 1942 textbook Sensation and perception in the history of experimental psychology, in which the famous North American psychologist redescribed David Pauli Hanig's (1901) thesis data published in an earlier German text entitled 'The psychophysics of taste'. In a review that appeared almost three decades ago, Bartoshuk highlighted the ambiguity inherent in Boring's (1942) replotting of Hanig's (1901) original data (see Fig. 1). Bartoshuk also suggests that Boring's text may inadvertently have been responsible for the emergence of the tongue map in articles (such as in a Scientific American article by Haagen-Smit, 1952) as well as in many textbooks that appeared over the following decades (see also Hammond, 2017). ...
... However, Collings reported that sensitivity to bitter compounds to be greatest on the tip, while Nilsson observed such sensitivity to be greatest on either the sides or the back of the tongue, depending upon the particular participant. In terms of the variations in taste thresholds across the surface of the tongue, Collings' (1974) and Hanig's (1901) data agree inasmuch as both studies highlight threshold differences for the basic tastes around the perimeter of the tongue, but these differences are much smaller in magnitude, and seemingly inconsistent across studies, than Boring's (1942) summary may inadvertently have led those authors writing the textbooks to believe (Bartoshuk, 1993). Sato et al. (2002) examined gustatory thresholds for the four basic tastes on the tongues of smokers and non-smokers, assessing responses on the centre of the fungiform papillae, foliate papillae, and soft palate. ...
There is undoubtedly a spatial component to our experience of gustatory stimulus qualities such as sweet, bitter, salty, sour, and umami, however its importance is currently unknown. Taste thresholds have been shown to differ at different locations within the oral cavity where gustatory receptors are found. However, the relationship between the stimulation of particular taste receptors and the subjective spatially-localized experience of taste qualities is uncertain. Although the existence of the so-called ‘tongue map’ has long been discredited, the psychophysical evidence clearly demonstrates significant (albeit small) differences in taste sensitivity across the tongue, soft palate, and pharynx (all sites where taste buds have been documented). Biases in the perceived localization of gustatory stimuli have also been reported, often resulting from tactile capture (i.e., a form of crossmodal, or multisensory, interaction). At the same time, varying responses to supratheshold tastants along the tongue’s anterior-posterior axis have putatively been linked to the ingestion-ejection response. This narrative review highlights what is currently known concerning the spatial aspects of gustatory perception, considers how such findings might be explained, given the suggested balanced distribution of taste receptors for each basic taste quality where taste papillae are present, and suggests why knowing about such differences may be important.
... Since there is no absolutely objective sensory measurement method, psychophysical methods are adopted to study the relationships between physical stimuli and sensory experience. Three important classical psychophysical methods are the method of limits, the method of constant stimuli and the method of adjustment [46] which are still used today in some research situations for properties measurement. Based on the improvement of classical methods, the proposed PEA has integrated modified staircase, bisection and parametric-random algorithm to explore the electrotactile parametric properties. ...
... Similar function has been obtained in earlier studies [46] and it was found to be S-shaped. This S-shaped curve is also called psychometric function. ...
... The algorithm takes more time to execute and is therefore suitable for meticulous measurement. To obtain the JND of baseline, traditional method uses the method of obtaining discrete data points and then regressing them with psychometric function [46]. That is, multiple S n larger than S B need to be selected for discrimination experiment to obtain the accuracy A S B (S n ). ...
Influenced by multiple factors, to understand electrotactile properties is challenging but significant in comparing individual differences, parameters control and coding, and model studies. However, the inadequacy of measurement systems and methods limits the application and development of electrotactile feedback. This study focuses on the exploration of parametric properties using an electrical stimulation system (ESS) via innovative measurement methods and electrotactile control. A 6-channel portable stimulator and a graphical user interface (GUI) with interactive algorithms have been designed. Modified staircase method, bisection and parametric-random algorithms are developed for the psychophysical measurement of detection thresholds (DT), pain threshold (PT), just-noticeable difference (JND), parameter-intensity properties (PIP) and sensitivity index (SI). The system performance is verified by conducting four sub-experiments on eight subjects. Bisection algorithm is proved to be more robust (p < 0.05). JND measurement based on bisection algorithm achieves 50% efficiency improvement over traditional methods. The individual differences and sensitivities are quantified by SI. The JND and PIP measurement results indicate the potential for iso-resolution and iso-intensity control in information coding as well as parameter-intensity modelling. The results of this paper could provide a basis for tactile information encoding as well as an experimental platform for investigating perception mechanism.
... Thus if a logarithmic relation is found using one physical scale, the relation cannot be logarithmic when using the other physical scales. The nonlogarithmic relations are not compatible with Fechner's (1860; see Boring, 1942Boring, , 1950 theoretical logarithmic relation, which he assumes to hold for all sensory dimensions (see Myers, 1982;Weiss, 1981). ...
... 3). Fechner (1860; see Boring, 1942;p. 36) assumes that each just-discriminable difference is equally discriminable, and so is of equal size on the ordinate. ...
Originally published in 1989, this volume carefully catalogues and classifies the effect of bias on quantitative judgments. Each bias is described by model and examples of this bias are given. The examples include both theoretical investigations carried out in the laboratory to study bias and practical illustrations. They are accompanied by a discussion of methods of avoiding bias, where this is possible. An early look into this now widely recognised subject, this book was an invaluable resource for investigators and practitioners in applied science at the time.
... Suggesting quantum formalism, we select slightly different phases: state construction, classified representation, representation, and determination. We demonstrate these definitions using the duck-rabbit figure as shown in Fig. 1 [11][12][13][14][15] where according to Merriam Webster dictionary, an ambiguous figure is a picture of a subject that the viewer may see as either of two different issues or as the same subject from either of two different viewpoints depending on how the total configuration is interpreted [16]. The adapted-quantum-like stages of the interpretation processes are: ...
... The following example demonstrates why a dispersive environment should be a part of the interpreting system. Observe the ambiguous Figures [11][12][13][14] presented in Fig 3. Is it the letter B or digit 13? In our formalism, we can express state | | π in terms of the number "13" and the letter B with superposition: ...
The scientific approach usually looks for a single truth that will explain phenomena in nature and avoids finding different interpretations to describe the same event as much as possible. On the other hand, in the human perception (and that of most animals) of any observed phenomenon, there may be several interpretations. In the article, we demonstrate an interpretation of data using two ambiguous images. This figure can be interpreted as a duck or a rabbit, and a fuzzy picture decoded as only the letter B or the number 13 (see figures in the proceeding). Today, with the development of artificial intelligence, adding a process where a machine can perform its interpretation can advance this technology. In this paper, we develop quantum-like algorithms to describe the interpretation process. Although our description is more of a mathematical proposal than a concrete quantum mechanics description, it allows the possibility of planning an actual quantum-based interpreting machine. At the process’s core, there is a quantum measurement, where the measurement’s result represents the final interpretation of the event. The randomness accompanying this quantum measurement means that the result (an interpretation) is known only to the observer, who is defined as part of the interpreting machine and is not known to outside observers. Since it is a machine that operates on physical principles, we also describe the process in thermo-dynamic aspects.
... A psicofísica investiga a natureza do estímulo por meio de métodos baseados no julgamento de grandezas físicas como, por exemplo, a intensidade de um ponto luminoso (Stevens, 1966). No entanto, essa disciplina, que já foi vista como uma das mais áridas da psicologia experimental (Boring, 1942), vai muito além da tabulação de limiares e menores diferenças perceptíveis. Esses métodos já foram usados em situações nas quais as grandezas físicas não são facilmente medidas, como na valoração estética de caligrafias (Ekman & Künnapas, 1962), preferência musical (Koh, 1965), e até grau de insatisfação política (Welch, 1971). ...
O presente trabalho introduz análises quantitativas do comportamento na área de escolha e percepção e contribui para o diálogo entre áreas aparentemente independentes. Na área de escolha, diferentes versões da lei da igualação foram usadas para descrever a alocação do comportamento entre alternativas em situação de esquemas concorrentes, porém o resultado mais comumente observado não é a igualação estrita, mas sim, sub-igualação. Desvios da igualação estrita, embora matematicamente descritos pela versão generalizada da igualação, são comumente atribuídos a falhas no controle experimental. No entanto, achados psicofísicos a respeito da percepção indicam que há uma relação não-linear entre sensações e grandezas físicas. Esses resultados são atribuídos aos efeitos da sensibilidade sobre a percepção e podem ser descritos pela função potência proposta por Stevens. Dado que a sensibilidade perfeita é um resultado improvável, os achados psicofísicos indicam que a sub-igualação, em vez da igualação estrita, seria o resultado esperado. Para ilustrar o potencial das análises quantitativas para o debate de princípios comportamentais, mostramos que a noção de sensibilidade permite a compreensão dos desvios observados nas situações de escolha.
... Future work can explore how to optimize the look of joints for being completely unnoticeable to humans by aiming to go under the Just Noticeable Difference, i.e., the minimum level a stimulus that needs to be changed for humans to perceive it [56]. Psychologists show this difference is proportional to the original length [14]. Therefore, distinguishing between two rectangles (e.g., joints) with different lengths is more difficult when their average length increases while the difference between them is kept constant [144]. ...
The convergence of the physical and digital realms has ushered in a new era of immersive experiences and seamless interactions. As the boundaries between the real world and virtual environments blur and result in a "mixed reality," there arises a need for robust and efficient methods to connect physical objects with their virtual counterparts. In this thesis, we present a novel approach to bridging this gap through the design, fabrication, and detection of embedded machine-readable markers. We categorize the proposed marking approaches into three distinct categories: natural markers, structural markers, and internal markers. Natural markers, such as those used in SensiCut, are inherent fingerprints of objects repurposed as machine-readable identifiers, while structural markers, such as StructCode and G-ID, leverage the structural artifacts in objects that emerge during the fabrication process itself. Internal markers, such as InfraredTag and BrightMarker, are embedded inside fabricated objects using specialized materials. Leveraging a combination of methods from computer vision, machine learning, computational imaging, and material science, the presented approaches offer robust and versatile solutions for object identification, tracking, and interaction. These markers, seamlessly integrated into real-world objects, effectively communicate an object's identity, origin, function, and interaction, functioning as gateways to "ubiquitous metadata" - a concept where metadata is embedded into physical objects, similar to metadata in digital files. Across the different chapters, we demonstrate the applications of the presented methods in diverse domains, including product design, manufacturing, retail, logistics, education, entertainment, security, and sustainability.
... Tale distribuzione avrebbe un significato funzionale: la localizzazione anteriore per i recettori del dolce potrebbe servire a stimolare l'ingestione del cibo, mentre la localizzazione posteriore per i recettori dell'amaro avrebbe un preciso ruolo di protezione. L'idea della mappa del gusto si basa su alcuni articoli tedeschi di inizio Novecento, in particolare di David Pauli Hänig dell'Università di Lipsia [3], che riportavano piccole differenze di soglia di percezione dei sapori in differenti regioni della lingua, dati successivamente erroneamente interpretati nella traduzione inglese come indicativi dell'esistenza di recettori specifici per ogni tipo di gusto, ipotesi sostenuta negli anni Quaranta del secolo scorso da Edwin Boring, psicologo di Harvard [4], fino a quando nel 1975 questa interpretazione venne apertamente contestata [5]. Oggi prevale l'idea che la percezione dei sapori sia distribuita indifferentemente in tutta la lingua, anche se indubbiamente alcune zone possono percepire un determinato sapore leggermente prima di altre, quindi una diversa sensibilità e non specificità tra le diverse zone della lingua, comunque importante nella percezione dei gusti, conferendo dinamicità all'apprezzamento dei sapori [6]. ...
... might appear to be a trivial question, one that might be asked by a student taking his or her first course in acoustics or hearing. However, it is a question that has fascinated scholars since almost the beginning of recorded history [e.g., see Boring (1942)]. This opinion essay was motivated by a recent article 1 (Goh et al., 2023) titled, "The perception of silence." ...
This essay expresses an opinion about what conditions lead to the existence of sound and what conditions lead to the existence of silence. The essay is mainly about the perception of sound and how that perception might influence how silence is or is not perceived.
... Several variants of the size constancy explanation of the moon illusion depend on specific patterns of depth inference or specific sets of cues. For example, aerial perspective, in the form of a dimming or color shift of the horizon moon, has been suggested as a potential depth cue that might trigger the size constancy mechanism to create the illusion (Boring, 1942;Furlong, 1972;Luckiesh, 1922). Another depth cue that is hypothesized as a trigger for size constancy when viewing the moon is based on the relative height in the plane, referenced against the horizon line or the visible terrain (Reed, 1984). ...
The existence of the moon illusion in pictorial representations was demonstrated in 6 experiments. Ss either judged the size of the moon in pictures, depicted as on the horizon or high in the sky, or drew horizon and elevated moons. The horizon moon was consistently judged to be larger than the elevated moon, independent of the angle at which the pictures are viewed. The distance paradox usually observed with the moon illusion (horizon moon apparently closer than the elevated moon) also exists in pictures. The magnitude of both size and distance effects depends on the salience of depicted depth cues. The pattern of results suggests that the moon illusion is caused by several interacting mechanisms and that use of pictorial stimuli may allow the separation of various cognitive from physiological contributions to the illusion.
... This recent appreciation for humans' responsiveness to realtime change relates to a new understanding of perception, not sensation. At the level of sensation it is change in the environment that is detected for any sense (see Boring, 1942). The newer position (which has, of course, old roots; see Cutting & Proffitt, 1981, for discussion), that dynamic information is primary to the perceptual system, refers to higher level perceptual organization. ...
This article pursues the possibility that perceivers are sensitive to implicit dynamic information even when they are not able to observe real-time change. Recent empirical results in the domains of handwriting recognition and picture perception are discussed in support of the hypothesis that perception involves acquiring information about transitions, whether the stimuli are static or dynamic. It is then argued that dynamic information has a special status in mental representation as well as in perception. In particular I propose that some mental representations may be dynamic, in that a temporal dimension is necessary to the representation. Recent evidence that mental representations may exhibit a form of momentum is discussed in support of this claim.
... After amputation of a limb, patients almost invariably experience phantom limbs, that is, the illusion that the amputated limb still exists and can change its position in space (Bors, 1951;Mitchell, 1872;Sunderland, 1978). During the latter part of the 19th century, the phantom-limb illusion was used as evidence that the innervation of the motor tracts in voluntary action produced sensations within the brain (Boring, 1942;Helmholtz, 1866Helmholtz, /1925. This notion of centrally originating sensations of movement gradually lost ground to the concept of a peripherally derived sense of position and movement (Sherrington, 1900), and Goldscheider's (1889) demonstration of a well-developed sensory capacity for detecting movements passively imposed on the limbs indicated that this aspect of kinesthesia could not be attributed to centrally generated motor signals. ...
Five illusions involving distortions in the perception of limb position, movement, and weight are described in the context of their contribution to understanding the sensory processes involved in proprioception. In particular, these illusions demonstrate that the position sense representation of the body and the awareness of limb movement result from the cross-calibration of visual and proprioceptive signals. Studies of the vibration illusion and phantom-limb phenomenon indicate that the perception of limb movement and position are encoded independently and can be dissociated. Postural aftereffects and the illusions of movement induced by vibration highlight the remarkable lability of this sense of limb position, which is a necessary feature for congruence between the spatial senses. Finally, I discuss the role of corollary discharges in the central processing of afferent information with respect to the size-weight and vibration illusions.
... One way to characterize crossmodal correspondences is by representing perceptual qualities in a theoretical space that is both multidimensional and multimodal (Marks, 1985;Marks et al., 1987;see Wicker, 1968). The representation of perceptual qualities by means of multidimensional spaces has a long history in experimental sensory psychology (see, e.g., Boring, 1942). A goal of spatial representation is to express similarity relations among percepts, in that some measure of distance between the spatial locations of two perceptual experiences expresses the degree of their dissimilarity. ...
Examined how pitch and loudness correspond to brightness. In the Experiment 1, 16 Ss identified which of 2 lights more resembled each of 16 tones; in Experiment 2, 8 of the same 16 Ss rated the similarity of lights to lights, tones to tones, and lights to tones. (1) Pitch and loudness both contributed to cross-modal similarity, but for most Ss pitch contributed more. (2) Individuals differed as to whether pitch or loudness contributed more; these differences were consistent across matching and similarity scaling. (3) Cross-modal similarity depended largely on relative stimulus values. (4) Multidimensional scaling revealed 2 perceptual dimensions, loudness and pitch, with brightness common to both. A simple quantitative model can describe the cross-modal comparisons, compatible with the view that perceptual similarity may be characterized through a malleable spatial representation that is multimodal as well as multidimensional.
... . (Boring, 1942) . ...
نمایشگرهای چند حسی سعی میکنند تا از طیفی از حواس انسان بهره ببرند، بهعنوانمثال، نمایش اطلاعات را بهصورت بصری و همچنین با بازخورد صدا و لامسهای، به نمایش میگذارند. طراحی نمایشگرهای چند حسی پیچیده بوده و لازم است تا قابلیتهای ادراکی انسانی را بهدقت در نظر بگیرید. توسعه دستورالعملهایی برای کمک به طراحان نمایشگرهای چند حسی یکراه مهم برای ثبت و انتقال دانش در این حوزه متقابل است. بااینحال, مطالعه نمایشگر چند حسی هنوز یک حوزه نابالغ است و بنابراین فعالیت در این زمینه تا حدودی ناپیوسته انجامشده است. باوجوداین, بسیاری از دستورالعملهای مفید برای نمایشگرهای لمسی, شنوایی و حتی لامسهای بهکاررفتهاند دستهبندی این دستورالعملهای موجود برای حمایت بهتر از نمایشگرهای چند حسی همچنین توسعه دستورالعملهای مربوط به طراحی چند حسی دو هدف کلی این تحقیق هستند.یک حوزه مرتبط مطالعه که هنوز باید برای طراحی چند حسی بکار رود، نظریه گشتالت است. نظریه گشتالت، که در ابتدا در سال ۱۹۱۰ توصیف شد، میتواند برای توضیح نحوه ادراک و تشخیص الگوها به کار رود. با استفاده از نظریه گشتالت بهعنوان یکپایه، این مقاله یک چارچوب جدید برای کمک به طبقهبندی دستورالعملهای موجود ایجاد میکند. این چارچوب همچنین بهعنوان پایهای برای توسعه خطمشیهای جدید در نظر گرفته میشود. ویژگی اصلی این چارچوب این است که از چند اصول مبتنی بر گشتالت برای کمک به سازماندهی تعداد زیادی از دستورالعملهای طراحی دقیقتر استفاده میکند.
... Todos estos factores físicos han demostrado ser capaces de influir en la construcción de una percepción de inseguridad siempre que su presencia sea repetitiva o redundante dentro del medio, si su presencia es aislada, entonces la influencia sobre la percepción puede disolverse (Boring, 1942;Moles, 1966;Grütter, 2020;Zapata y Honey-rosés, 2022;Beck et al., 2015). Además, su injerencia puede diferir entre los individuos y las culturas por lo que es necesario realizar investigaciones apegadas a los diferentes contextos, sobre todo cuando la mayoría de las investigaciones alrededor del tema provienen de Europa y Estados Unidos, denotando un vacío de conocimiento en otros contextos como el de América Latina (Sundling y Ceccato, 2022). ...
El objetivo de este estudio es el identificar las variables del medio físico que influyen en la percepción de inseguridad y que tienen mayor presencia en el espacio público dentro de un caso de estudio en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, barrio Solanda. Con este fin la investigación adopta una medología estructurada en varias fases. La primera fase se centró en una revisión literaria para construir un instrumento de observación del medio físico, con todos los factores que desde la literatura se han identificado y relacionado con la percepción de inseguridad; la segunda fase de grupos focales con los habitantes de Solanda permitió contrastar los hallazgos literarios y recolectar las percepciones de los vecinos en relación con el medio físico; la tercera fase en la que, a través del instrumento de observación, se realizaron auditorías espaciales en parques, plazas, parqueaderos, calles y callejones, a fin de identificar aquellos espacios y factores de inseguridad con mayor presencia en el barrio. Los resultados indicaron que aquellas variables del medio físico con mayor presencia e influencia sobre la percepción de inseguridad entre los pobladores se derivan de las privatizaciones e invasiones del espacio público realizadas para la ampliación de viviendas, para impedir la libre circulación o ingreso a callejones o espacios públicos, o por la ocupación del comercio informal; además, gran parte de la problemática se deriva de la gran densificación del barrio, los cambios en su composición demográfica y la movilidad basada en el vehículo privado, lo que genera barreras...
... Definitions like these do not come without issues, because, in a sense, all vision is an illusion (Eagleman, 2001). Indeed, several accounts question the very notion of illusion, stating that the attempt to classify percepts as "veridical" or "illusory" may be misleading and inadequate (Purves et al., 2017;Rogers, 2022): since no experience copies reality (Boring, 1942) arguing about the correspondence to the "real" world plays no role in explaining perception. On the other hand, also the categorization of illusions comes with some issues. ...
Visual illusions have long been used to study visual perception and contextual integration. Neuroimaging studies employ illusions to identify the brain regions involved in visual perception and how they interact. We conducted an Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE) meta-analysis and meta-analytic connectivity modeling on fMRI studies using static and motion illusions to reveal the neural signatures of illusory processing and to investigate the degree to which different areas are commonly recruited in perceptual inference. The resulting networks encompass ventral and dorsal regions, including the inferior and middle occipital cortices bilaterally in both types of illusions. The static and motion illusion networks selectively included the right posterior parietal cortex and the ventral premotor cortex respectively. Overall, these results describe a network of areas crucially involved in perceptual inference relying on feed-back and feed-forward interactions between areas of the ventral and dorsal visual pathways. The same network is proposed to be involved in hallucinogenic symptoms characteristic of schizophrenia and other disorders, with crucial implications in the use of illusions as biomarkers.
... green) declines faster than others (e.g. red) (Boring 1942;Stromeyer, Lee, and Esker 1992;Abramov, Gordon, and Chan 1991). To some extent, all of these observations are reflected in Figure 7, and in future work, the model predictions across retinal eccentricities will be tested against human data, and more quantitatively compared to existing color vision evidence in human periphery. ...
Perceptual thresholds measured in the two-dimensional chromatic diagram are elliptical in shape. Across different parts of the chromatic diagram, these ellipses vary in their sizes, their tilting angles, and in how much they elongate. Overall, the chromatic thresholds exhibit intriguing patterns that were reflected in McAdam's measurements in 1942. Previously, da Fonseca and Samengo (2016) used a neural model combined with Fisher information (a quantification of perceptual thresholds) to predict the pattern of chromatic thresholds measured in human observers. The model assumes linear cone responses paired with Poisson noise. I furthered the analysis, and studied two additional aspects of chromatic perception. First, I quantified how the pattern of chromatic thresholds vary when the proportion of three cone types (short-, mid-, and long-wavelength) varies. This analysis potentially leads to efficient estimation of thresholds across the chromatic diagram. Second, I analyzed to what extent the assumption of Poisson noise contributes to the threshold predictions. Surprisingly, eliminating Poisson noise betters the model prediction. So in addition to Poisson noise, I examined three alternative noise assumptions, and achieved improved predictions to MacAdam's data. At last, I examined an application using the improved model-predictions. The total number of cones, as well as the proportion of S cone vary across retinal eccentricities. I showed that these two variations predict chromatic threshold patterns across retinal eccentricities are drastically different.
... We selected slightly different phases, namely, state construction, classified representation, representation, and determination based on quantum formalism. We demonstrate these definitions using the Oliveyana shown in Fig. 1 [9][10][11]16,17] where according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, an ambiguous figure is a picture of a subject that the viewer may see and perceive to comprise either two different issues, or the same subject from two different viewpoints depending on how the total configuration is interpreted [18]. The adapted-quantum-like stages of the interpretation processes are: ...
Quantum theory presents a unique scenario pertaining to collapse processes. A device that measures variables incompatible with those being detected collapses randomly into one of the states defined by the measuring device. The distinction that a collapsed output is not an accurate description of reality but rather a random selection from a set of values derived from the measuring device allows us to utilize the collapse process to propose a scheme wherein a machine becomes capable of performing interpreting processes. We present herein a basic schematic of a machine that demonstrates the principle of interpretation relying on the polarization phenomenon of photons. The operation of the device is demonstrated using an ambiguous figure. We believe that building an interpreting device can contribute to the field of AI.
... In our case, with stimulation on the forearms, the elbow and wrist serve as anchor points. This concept of "anchors" or reference points was first proposed by Weber [23] and Boring [29], and subsequent studies have demonstrated that certain anatomical points on the body exhibit high sensitivity for localization [30][31][32]. ...
What are the effects of frequency variation of vibrotactile stimuli on localization acuity? The precise localization of vibrotactile stimuli is crucial for applications that are aimed at conveying vibrotactile information. In order to evaluate the ability to distinguish between vibrotactile stimuli based on their frequency and location on the forearm, we used a relative point localization method. Participants were presented with pairs of sequential vibrotactile stimuli at three possible locations on the forearm and asked to determine whether the second stimulation occurred at the same location as the first one in the pair or not. The stimulation frequency varied between 100 Hz, 150 Hz, 200 Hz and 250 Hz, which covers the range of frequencies that human observers are most sensitive to. The amplitude was kept constant. Our results revealed that the ability to discriminate between actuators remained unaffected by variations in the frequency of vibrotactile stimulation within the tested frequency range. The accuracy of the tactile discrimination task was heavily dependent on the location of the stimulation on the forearm, with the highest accuracy close to the wrist and elbow, locations that may serve as tactile anchor points. Our results highlight the critical role of stimulation location in precise vibrotactile localization and the importance of careful consideration of location in the design of forearm-mounted vibrotactile devices.
... "Strictly speaking, the concept of illusion has no place in psychology because no experience actually copies reality." - Boring (1942) "There may be no meaningful way to distinguish between those perceptions that should be classified as 'veridical' and those that should be classified as 'illusory'." -Rogers (2017) There is a long tradition in experimental psychology to take advantage of perceptual illusions. ...
Visual illusions have always fascinated people but they have often been confined to the field of entertainment. Although philosophers, psychologists and neuroscientists have used them to explore the bases of human perception and to teach about vision, these attractive tools have still remained largely underexploited. The goal of the present paper is to argue that visual illusions can also serve as a powerful medium to question our relation to the world and to others, as they demonstrate that we do not fully perceive reality and that each interpretation of the world may be equally sound. Further, specific 3D visual illusions, such as 3D ambiguous objects that give rise to two specific interpretations, enable the viewer to realize that their perception is tied to their viewing point, and that this may also apply to social cognition and interactions. Specifically, this low-level embodied experience should generalize to other levels and enhance the consideration of others' perspective independently of the type of representations. Therefore, the use of illusions in general, and 3D ambiguous objects in particular, constitutes an avenue for future interventions designed to increase our perspective-taking abilities and the pacification of social relations through mutual understanding, which is particularly relevant in the current era.
... Tradicionalmente, se ha entendido la inteligencia, sobre todo en el ámbito de la psicología, como la capacidad de resolver problemas nuevos de manera estratégica, y me adscribo a esta regularidad, pero el problema consiste en cómo medir la inteligencia de un ser humano y, lo más importante, qué sentido tendría y si es lógico y justo hacerlo. Boring (1942) afirmó que la inteligencia es lo que miden los test. Esa cultura de los test de inteligencia, proveniente principalmente de los Estados Unidos, trata de establecer el coeficiente intelectual del ser humano después de pasar una gran cantidad de pruebas. ...
... Since representations are conceptualized differently under the single neuron and neural network frameworks, the descriptions of computations under both approaches will necessarily differ. Of note, the computational mechanisms discussed below are different from the psychophysical linking axioms [63] or propositions [64] used by psychologists, philosophers, and neuroscientists [65]. While psychophysical links attempt to link physical to mental phenomena, the mechanisms I discuss here attempt to link physical to computational phenomena. ...
Single-neuron-level explanations have been the gold standard in neuroscience for decades. Recently, however, neural-network-level explanations have become increasingly popular. This increase in popularity is driven by the fact that the analysis of neural networks can solve problems that cannot be addressed by analyzing neurons independently. In this opinion article, I argue that while both frameworks employ the same general logic to link physical and mental phenomena, in many cases the neural network framework provides better explanatory objects to understand representations and computations related to mental phenomena. I discuss what constitutes a mechanistic explanation in neural systems, provide examples, and conclude by highlighting a number of the challenges and considerations associated with the use of analyses of neural networks to study brain function.
... [Vision Science] i i "biblio-psychophysics" -2023/1/10 -12:07 -page 2 -#2 i i i i i i Boring (1921) E rwin Boring, professeur de psychologie et historien de la psychologie expérimentale (Boring, 1929(Boring, , 1942, aété le professeur (au passage, c'était le mentor de Stanley Stevens). Dans cet article, il fait le point sur le concept de stimuluserreur, qui est discutéà l'époque, et qu'il essaye de présenter de la manière la plus objective possible (Boring, 1921). ...
Ces notes constituent le dossier d'une enquête menée à l'occasion de la lecture du livre d'Eustace Poulton (1989) "Bias in quantifying judgments". L'objectif était de clarifier la notion de biais en psychophysique, ce qui m'a fait remonter
le temps jusqu'à la notion de "stimulus bias" et aux théories de la mesure en psychophysique, avec Thurstone (1927b) et Stevens (1946, 1957). J'ai ensuite élargi l'enquête aux travaux sur les biais cognitifs des prix Nobel Herbert Simon (1955) et
Daniel Kahneman (2002). Dans le domaine de l'éclairage, ce débat est aujourd'hui alimenté par Steve Fotios. Ma contribution, publiée dans le journal "Light & Engineering", a pour titre : Stimulus range effect in discomfort glare studies (Brémond, 2022).
... Blumenfeld ya era un reconocido investigador desde antes de su llegada al Perú (Boring, 1942;León, 1993). Tenía una aproximación científica distinta al trabajo académico que se venía haciendo en el ámbito local; sus aportes fueron la promoción de la investigación experimental, dando énfasis hacia trabajos de la Gestalt y la psicofísica (Blumenfeld, 1936(Blumenfeld, , 1959. ...
En 1946 se publicó en Lima-Perú la primera edición de la obra “Introducción a la psicología experimental” por el investigador Walter Blumenfeld, cumpliendo a la fecha 76 años desde su aparición. Su contribución se destaca en el Perú por ser iniciador en introducir un marco científico y experimental a la psicología. Esto motivó ser homenajeado en numerosos documentos académicos y biográficos. Sin embargo, se ha descrito en menor proporción sobre el momento histórico en el cual el texto fue publicado y su vigencia contemporánea con la investigación experimental nacional. Por ello, en el presente documento, se describe de manera breve el surgimiento de su obra, los aportes de su publicación y un análisis comparativo de la producción experimental actual peruana.
... Edwin Boring's mis-interpretation of a 1901 study [1][2][3] popularized the tongue map 2 with discrete regions of taste sensitivity across the tongue surface. This representation persisted in textbooks for decades but was largely discredited by the observation that most taste buds express the full array of taste receptors, irrespective of their position on the tongue. 1 However, gustatory papillae of the anterior and posterior tongue are derived from different developmental origins 4 and are innervated by separate peripheral sensory afferents. ...
Gustatory information is relayed from the anterior tongue by geniculate ganglion neurons and from the posterior tongue by neurons of the petrosal portion of the jugular/nodose/petrosal ganglion complex. Here, we use in vivo calcium imaging in mice to compare the encoding of taste information in the geniculate and petrosal ganglia, at single neuron resolution. Our data support an anterior/posterior specialization of taste information coding from the tongue to the ganglia, with petrosal neurons more responsive to umami or bitter and less responsive to sweet or salty stimuli than geniculate neurons. We found that umami (50 mM MPG + 1 mM IMP) promotes salivation when applied to the posterior, but not anterior, tongue. This suggests a functional taste map of the mammalian tongue where the anterior and posterior taste pathways are differentially responsive to specific taste qualities, and differentially regulate downstream physiological functions of taste, such as promoting salivation.
... In other words, pressure is the color of touch. Weber's proposal of a pressure sense was confirmed by the discovery of pressure spots on the skin (Blix, 1884;Goldscheider, 1884;Donaldson, 1885), which were soon associated with sui generis end-organs by Von Frey (see Boring, 1942, Norrsell et al., 1999, Pearce, 2005. On both phenomenological and physiological grounds, the existence of a pressure sense is hardly controversial. ...
... The result of his investigations was the conclusion that the phenomenon that makes this possible is binaural hearing, the fact that humans have two organs of hearing. Simply put, the human brain has the ability to evaluate the delay of individual sound signals in both ears to locate the source [1]. This type of experiment began the modern investigation of acoustic cues used to source and localize sound. ...
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This paper deals with the use of modern technology for security purposes, focusing on the situation in cities (urban noise and shooting) and in transport (passenger rail). The authors aimed to highlight the possibilities and capabilities of installation of technology in the field of applied physical acoustics (sensors, evaluation system with the possibility of setting sensitive sensing filters, end output) and the possibilities of monitoring, including the response of security forces or security measures to the detected danger. In the paper, the authors also include graphical representations of the energy- normalized spectra of the different sound backgrounds and classification classes of acoustic events and types of acoustic events to clarify the differences of the selected monitored events.
... JND was measured using the bisection algorithm proposed in our previous study [21], which provides a more efficient measurement method than the traditional [4]. When measuring the JND of PA and PW, the two baselines are (PT-DT)*0.25+DT ...
To sense and represent electrotactile perceptual properties is a crucial milestone in order to achieve intuitive haptics. However, electrotactile perceptual properties are very poorly studied. This study presented an experimental study on the electrotactile perceptual properties of fingertips. A series of experimental paradigms were designed based on self-designed hardware and psychophysical evaluation methods. The detection threshold (DT), pain threshold (PT), just-noticed difference (JND), intensity-quality characteristics and multi-level discrimination ability for pulse amplitude (PA), pulse width (PW) and pulse frequency (PF) have been explored. The experiments verified the individual differences in DT and PT and found that the fingertips were more sensitive to PA and thus more valuable for information encoding. In discrete coding, the recognition accuracy decreases with increasing number of levels, preferably less than 4. The results are expected to provide valuable suggestions for the parameter coding of electrotactile information presentation.
... Gradual reduction is the method where sugar is slowly and progressively cut from the products, so that the consumers cannot easily distinguish the differences and gradually adapts to a lower sugar content without impacting their sensory recognition [110]. The threshold testing called a "just noticeable difference" (JND) determines the change in sugar concentration which causes the perceivable change in sweetness intensity by 50% of consumers [154]. This JND could be a valuable option to be explored for gradual sugar reduction without consumer awareness [119,155]. ...
... La carte des saveurs de la langue est une fausse idée initiée par Deiter Hanig en 1901 [105], car il avait observé des différences de sensibilité dans certaines régions de la langue et une mauvaise interprétation, quelques années plus tard, a propagé cette information [106]. C'est en 1974 à la suite d'une remise en cause scientifique qu'il a été montré que la carte des saveurs était fausse et que les récepteurs de toutes les saveurs étaient présents sur toute la surface de la langue, bien que des différences de sensibilité existent, mais sont faibles, voire à peine perceptibles [107]. ...
Les tanins condensés sont présents dans un grand nombre de boissons et d’aliments comme le raisin, le vin, le thé, les pommes ou même le chocolat. Dans le vin, ils contribuent à de nombreuses propriétés organoleptiques qu’elles soient visuelles ou gustatives. Récemment, une nouvelle sous-famille de tanins condensés possédant un squelette cyclique avec une cavité a été découverte et nommée les tanins couronnes. Le but de cette thèse est de déterminer la localisation des tanins couronnes dans la vigne, d’étudier leur cinétique d’évolution du raisin jusqu’au vin et de caractériser chimiquement cette nouvelle famille. Un volet de ce travail a été consacré aux pigments polymérisés ainsi qu’à la famille des tanins condensés ayant une liaison de type A. Les tanins couronnes ont été localisés spécifiquement dans la pellicule de la baie de raisin ainsi que dans les feuilles, les rameaux et les racines de la vigne. Leur concentration dans la pellicule est influencée par le type de sol et la nature du cépage. Durant la maturation du raisin, ces tanins s’accumulent dans les pellicules de la baie de raisin. Dans le vin, ces tanins cycliques sont extraits en tout début de fermentation alcoolique, restent stable durant le reste de la vinification et durant le vieillissement en bouteille. Il a ainsi été démontré que les tanins couronnes sont résistants à l’oxydation. En parallèle, la purification du pentamère couronne a été entreprise ainsi que la synthèse multi-étape du tétramère couronne. Une étude en fragmentation a permis de différencier les tétramères couronnes et des tanins de type A. Cette dernière famille a été analysée sensoriellement prouvant qu’ils sont plus astringents que les tanins de type B classique. Enfin, une étude sur l’évolution des familles de pigments polymérisés a été réalisée par dépolymérisation chimique permettant de mettre en lumière le comportement unique de chacune des familles en fonction de leur structure.
... When the difference between the match stimulus and the reference stimulus is more significant, the accuracy of the judgment will be higher. This relationship between accuracy and stimulus variance is known as a psychometric function [81], and it is an S-shaped curve. The threshold is taken as the difference between the 50 and 75% points interpolated on the function [27], [51]. ...
With the increased demands of human-machine interaction, haptic feedback is becoming increasingly critical. However, the high cost, large size and low efficiency of current haptic systems severely hinder further development. As a portable and efficient technology, cutaneous electrotactile stimulation has shown promising potential for these issues. This paper presents a review on and insight into cutaneous electrotactile perception and its applications. Research results on perceptual properties and evaluation methods have been summarized and discussed to understand the effects of electrotactile stimulation on humans. Electrotactile applications are presented in categories to understand the methods and progress in various fields such as prostheses control, sensory substitution, sensory restoration and sensorimotor restoration. State of the art has demonstrated the superiority of electrotactile feedback, its efficiency and its flexibility. However, the complex factors and the limitations of evaluation methods made it challenging for precise electrotactile control. Groundbreaking innovation in electrotactile theory is expected to overcome challenges such as precise perception control, information capacity increasing, comprehension burden reducing and implementation costs.
Description
This ASTM publication discusses approaches for the use of consumers in research guidance testing.
A nearby visual reference point improves displacement discrimination. This effect occurs regardless of the delay between successive displays. The delay can be varied from short delays (50 ms), where observers report perceived movement, to long delays (2,000 ms), where observers report no movement. The similarity of reference effects for such different delay conditions was investigated by testing the independence of reference and delay effects. The critical independence property is whether the spatial variables (displacement and separation from the visual reference) combine independently of the temporal variable (delay). This kind of independence did not hold for displacement discrimination at delays of 50 ms and 2,000 ms. A further experiment tested for the independence property at delays of 500 ms and 4,000 ms, where observers reported no perceived movement. For these longer delays, the property was satisfied. These results are discussed using the general concept of a psychophysical mechanism. Such a mechanism combines the effects of several stimulus variables into a single mediating representation. By this analysis, at least two mechanisms must mediate the reference effect on displacement discrimination, one for delays of 200 ms and less and another for delays of 500 ms and more.
Suggests that rectilinear scales of pitch can account for the similarity of tones close together in frequency but not for the heightened relations at special intervals that arise when the tones are interpreted musically. Increasingly adequate accounts of musical pitch are provided by increasingly generalized, geometrically regular helical structures: a simple helix, a double helix, and a double helix wound around a torus in 4 dimensions or around a higher-order helical cylinder in 5 dimensions. A 2-dimensional "melodic map" of these double-helical structures provides for optimally compact representations of musical scales and melodies. A 2-dimensional "harmonic map," obtained by an affine transformation of the melodic map, provides for optimally compact representations of chords and harmonic relations. It is isomorphic to the toroidal structure that C. L. Krumhansl and F. J. Kessler use to represent the psychological relations among musical keys. (127 ref)
Görsel illüzyonlar, daha yaygın isimleriyle göz yanılsamaları/aldanmaları, popüler anlamlarıyla gözün kanıp gerçekten olmayan bir şeyi görmesi olarak bilinirler. Bu incelemenin amacı illüzyonların arada bir beynin gerçekleri yanlış yorumladığı durumlar olmadığını göstermektir. Bu illüzyonların sebebi ışığın yansıması veya kırılmasına, beynin retinaya gelen bilgiyi nasıl işlediğine veya görsel sistemin derinlik algılarken nasıl çalıştığına göre değişebilir ve illüzyonlar algısal süreçleri anlamamızda kritiktir. Sanatçıların ve biliminsanlarının ilgi odağı olan illüzyonlar hem ilham veren sanat akımları yaratmış hem de insan algısını ve beynin işleyişini anlamamızda çığır açıcı olmuştur. Bu yazının başlangıcında illüzyonlara bilimsel açıdan bakıldığında görsel algı hiyerarşisine paralel olarak çıkan sınıflar tanımlanacaktır. Sırasıyla fizyolojik (görsel algının erken aşamalarına denk gelen) işleyiş ve bilişsel (görsel algının daha ileri aşamalarına denk gelen) stratejiler hakkında bilgi veren illüzyonlara örnekler verilecek ve bunlara neden olabilecek etkenler incelenecektir. Bu anlamlandırmaların bize beyni hatta insanın doğasını anlamaya çalışırken nasıl yardımcı olduğuna dair teorik yaklaşımlara ve algısal gruplama kavramlarına değinilecektir. Daha sonra olarak klinik popülasyonlardaki bulgu ve uygulamalara örnekler verilerek illüzyonların, örneğin şizofrenide, görsel algıyı ve beyni anlamamızdaki rolü tartışılacaktır.
Quantum measurement scenario plays a significant role in quantum theory. This study used these measurement principles to define an interpretation process described below. In a quantum measurement process, an observer plays a crucial role: He is the one that selects the measuring device with which he describes reality. For example, in exploring a particle, the observer may choose to measure the momentum or the particle’s location. This selection generates the following scenario: Consider a measuring device not adjusted to measure the actual observables of the measured object (for example, a location measurement of a particle with a defined momentum). In that case, a quantum collapse occurs in which the system randomly collapses into one of the measurement states defined by the device. For that scenario, we can say that the measuring instrument does not detect nature observables but interprets them according to the selected measuring device. This study presents a procedure describing this process of “quantum-like interpretation”.KeywordsPersonal SpaceAudience SpaceMemory SpaceInterpretation
This thesis analyses the historical and intellectual context of Edwin Land’s experiments in colour vision. I argue that the colour vision research program and retinex theory developed by Land and his colleagues provided a satisfying synthesis of two divergent schools in the history of colour science. The first chapter of this thesis establishes the existence of the “physical” school of colour science. The defining feature of this school was the belief in the colour atomism hypothesis. This is the idea that the colour perceived at a point in the visual field is completely determined by the physical properties of the light rays entering the retina at that point. In other words, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the physical properties of light rays and colour sensation at a point in the visual field. The second chapter establishes the existence of the “phenomenological” school of colour science. The defining feature of this school was the discovery of colour phenomena which could not be accounted for by the colour atomism hypothesis. Among these phenomena were “coloured shadows”, “simultaneous colour contrast”, and “colour constancy”. The third chapter shows how Land’s colour vision research program and retinex theory reconciled these two schools. Land and his colleagues demonstrated that the colour atomism hypothesis is a special case, valid only for points of light. The colour phenomena studied by the “phenomenological” school could be predicted by a computational model – retinex theory – which accounted for colour as it is perceived over a wide visual field, rather than simply at single points. In this process, Land and colleagues built up a new understanding of colour vision as a practical utility evolved for the organism, designed to achieve colour constancy.
This article considers a suggested development from the Multimodal approach that amends the acronym BASIC ID (Behaviours, Affects, Sensations, Imagery, Cognitive, Interpersonal and Drugs/Biology) used in that approach to identify dimensions of human personality and functioning. The suggested alternative mnemonic ‘HEALTHY’ (Habits, Emotions, Awareness, Lucid Imagery, Thinking, Hearing/Communicating, and Your Body) is explained and the nuances outlined. A comparison with the Cognitive Behavioural four factor model is made. Advantages of the ‘HEALTHY’ model with its particular application to health coaching is discussed.
The multimodal approach was developed in the 1970s by Arnold Lazarus. Although Lazarus expressed the eclectic nature of Multimodal therapy and its use of many techniques and strategies from other orientations, which he described as ‘technical eclecticism’ (Lazarus, 1981; Lazarus & Beutler, 1993), it clearly comes under the umbrella of the collection of therapies labelled Cognitive Behavioural (Pilgrim, 2009). Notably, it can be said that it was a vital cornerstone in the development of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT). It was Lazarus who first used the term ‘behaviour therapy’ in an academic article that was published in the 1950’s (Lazarus, 1958). He developed a broader spectrum approach and wrote one of the first texts on what was later to be called ‘cognitive behaviour therapy’ (Lazarus, 1971). This led him to expand the model of Behavioural therapy and additionally Cognitive therapy by incorporating other dimensional modalities for assessment and treatment. This was initially referred to as ‘Multimodal Behaviour Therapy,’ and subsequently was to become known as Multimodal therapy (Norcross & Goldfried, 2005). It is an approach that like other CBT approaches has a substantial number of studies that support and demonstrate its efficacy (Trijsberg, Colijn & Holmes, 2007; Lazarus, 2008).
The similarities between William James’ Stream of Consciousness and Henri Bergson’s La durée réelle have often been noted. Both emphasize the fundamentally temporal nature of our conscious experience and its constant flow. However, in this article, I argue that despite surface similarities between the OP theories, they are fundamentally different. The ultimate reason for the differences between the theories is that James believed that we should reject psychological explanations that depend on synthesis within the mental sphere. This is because such explanations are incompatible with empiricism. Instead, we should look to the physiological mechanisms underpinning mental states. In contrast, Bergson was an adamant defender of a form of mental processing which he called qualitative synthesis. Duration itself, for Bergson, is a form of qualitative synthesis. However, in 1906, less than five years before James died, Bergson convinced him to change his mind. This results in a huge shift in James’ thought. Unless we understand how far apart James and Bergson were prior to this shift, we will not have a proper picture of the full influence of Bergson on James’ thought, nor of the major changes to James’ philosophy that occurred near the end of his life.
Philosophers rarely write in an extended way about particular colors. So, why write about brown? We shall see that an investigation of brown unsettles some established ideas about color in significant ways. In particular, I will (i) explore reasons for thinking that brown is an elementary color, (ii) reassess attitudes in color science that are taken to rule that possibility out, and (iii) present a new reason for rejecting most forms of color realism.
An appropriate level of arousal induces positive emotions, and a high arousal potential may provoke negative emotions. To explain the effect of arousal on emotional valence, we propose a novel mathematical framework of arousal potential variations in the dual process of human cognition: automatic and controlled process. Although models have been proposed to explain the emotions in the dual process, a suitable mathematical formulation is largely undiscovered. Our model associates free energy with arousal potential and its variations to explain emotional valence. Decreasing and increasing free energy consequently induces positive and negative emotions, respectively. We formalize a transition from the automatic to controlled process in the dual process as a change of Bayesian prior. We model emotion valence using free-energy increase (FI) when one tries to change one's Bayesian prior and its reduction (FR) when one succeeds to recognize the same stimuli with a changed prior and define three emotions: "interest," "confusion," and "boredom" using the variations. The mathematical analysis comparing between varied Gaussian model parameters suggests that: 1) prediction error (PR) increases FR when the first prior variance is greater than the second prior variance, 2) PR always increases FR, and 3) the distance between priors' means always increases FR. We discuss the association of the outcomes with emotions in the controlled process. The mathematical model provides a general framework for predicting and controlling emotional valence in the dual process that varies with viewpoint and stimuli, as well as for understanding the contradictions in the effects of arousal on the valence.
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