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A Theory of Limited Metabolic Energy and Premenstrual Syndrome Symptoms: Increased Metabolic Demands During the Luteal Phase Divert Metabolic Resources From and Impair Self-Control
Abstract
Numerous studies suggest that premenstrual syndrome (PMS) may be linked to impaired self-control since many of the symptoms of PMS are indicative of impaired self-control. Evidence links PMS to increased difficulty controlling emotions, attention, and fine motor movements; increased intake of alcohol, drugs, nicotine, caffeine, and food; impaired work performance, and increased stress, aggression, criminal behavior, interpersonal conflicts, and passivity. Empirical research demonstrates that self-control is metabolically expensive and, as such, can be impaired when metabolic energy (i.e., glucose) is low or processed ineffectively. The expression of PMS is tightly linked to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, a time in which considerable metabolic energy is allocated to the ovaries. This increased ovarian metabolic demand could, therefore, divert energy away from, and thereby impair, other processes during this phase of the menstrual cycle. Here, we propose a novel theory in which PMS symptoms are partly attributable to the diversion of metabolic energy to the ovaries and away from processes that benefit self-control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Moreover, systemic hypoglycemia does cause cognitive impairment despite blood glucose remaining well above normal brain-extracellular-fluid glucose levels, both in animal studies and in a large number of human studies across multiple cognitive domains (e.g., Cox et al., 1993;Weber et al., 1994;Draelos et al., 1995;Clarke et al., 1999;Strachan et al., 2000;McNay et al., 2010). Several papers in the field make the unfortunate error of confounding measurements of blood glucose with those of brain glucose (e.g., Gailliot et al., , 2010Kurzban, 2010;Beedie and Lane, 2012). We discuss this in some detail below, but it is important to note in particular that although systemic hypoglycemia causes neural glycopenia (i.e., insufficient brain glucose availability-because glucose supply from the blood is impaired), lack of fluctuation in blood glucose says nothing with regard to brain glucose depletion caused by cognitive demand (because brain glucose depletion does not affect, and is not reflected in, systemic glucose levels). ...
... Understandably, given the specialized nature of the literature, these critiques have sometimes lacked a comprehensive understanding of current research in brain glucose metabolism and supply. Similarly, both the original paper on the glucose model and follow-up papers (Gailliot et al., , 2009(Gailliot et al., , 2010 may not be appropriately constrained by the large body of work on brain glucose metabolism, or that on the modulation of cognitive function by glucose supply (specifically, in the contention that self-control is a cognitive process distinct in the magnitude of its cost from other cognitive processes). This has contributed to a lack of clarity in this area, which we hope to rectify in the following section. ...
The brain’s reliance on glucose as a primary fuel source is well established, but psychological models of cognitive processing that take energy supply into account remain uncommon. One exception is research on self-control depletion, where debate continues over a limited-resource model. This model argues that a transient reduction in self-control after the exertion of prior self-control is caused by the depletion of brain glucose, and that self-control processes are special, perhaps unique, in this regard. This model has been argued to be physiologically implausible in several recent reviews. This paper attempts to correct some inaccuracies that have occurred during debate over the physiological plausibility of this model. We contend that not only is such limitation of cognition by constraints on glucose supply plausible, it is well established in the neuroscience literature across several cognitive domains. Conversely, we argue that there is no evidence that self-control is special in regard to its metabolic cost. Mental processes require physical energy, and the body is limited in its ability to supply the brain with sufficient energy to fuel mental processes. This article reviews current findings in brain metabolism and seeks to resolve the current conflict in the field regarding the physiological plausibility of the self-control glucose-depletion hypothesis.
... Glucose problems can increase vulnerability to self-regulation failure. For example, women experiencing premenstrual syndrome (PMS) typically have a shortage of glucose, because the reproductive demands of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle consume extra glucose, leaving less for self-regulation (Gailliot, Hildebrandt, Eckel, & Baumeister, 2010). PMS has long been associated with increases in substance abuse. ...
... Much evidence indicates that addictive relapse occurs during periods of stress and negative emotion (e.g., Fidler & West, 2009). The increases in substance abuse during premenstrual syndrome (PMS) appear to be linked to the reduced availability of glucose for selfregulation, caused by the female body's increased metabolic demands for glucose to be allocated to reproductive functions during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (Gailliot et al., 2010). Even ordinary demands on self-control increase the likelihood of lapse and relapse. ...
... In other research, patients with PMS had lowered [46,47] or increased [48,49] progesterone levels. Gailliot et al. hypothesized that premenstrual mood swings are the result of impaired selfcontrol due to insufficient energy resources in the luteal phase when energy requirements are increased due to intense metabolic changes in the genitourinary system [50]. It has been found that insufficient energy resources reduce the level of progesterone and, thus, lower the level of neuroactive metabolites of progesterone, such as allopregnanolone. ...
Citation: Stefaniak, M.; Dmoch-Gajzlerska, E.; Jankowska, K.; Rogowski, A.; Kajdy, A.; Maksym, R.B. Progesterone and Its Metabolites Play a Beneficial Role in Affect Regulation in the Female Brain. Pharmaceuticals 2023, 16, 520. Abstract: Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is a female affective disorder that is defined by mood symptoms. The condition is linked to unstable progesterone concentrations. Progestin supplementa-tion is given in cases of threatened or recurrent miscarriage and for luteal phase support. Progesterone is essential for implantation, immune tolerance, and modulation of uterine contractility. For a long time, the administration of progestins was associated with an unfavorable impact on mood, leading to negative affect, and, therefore, was contraindicated in existing mood disorders. Establishing the role of the natural progesterone derivative allopregnanolone in advances in the treatment of postpartum depression has shed new light on the general pathophysiology of mood disorders. Allopregnanolone directly interacts with gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA-A) receptors even at nanomolar concentrations and induces significant anti-depressant, anti-stress, sedative, and anxiolytic effects. Postpartum depression is caused by a rapid drop in hormones and can be instantly reversed by the administration of allopregnanolone. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder can also be considered to result from insufficient neuroactive steroid action due to low progesterone derivative concentration, unstable hormone levels, or decreased receptor sensitivity. The decrease in progesterone levels in perimenopause is also associated with affective symptoms and an exacerbation of some psychosomatic syndromes. Bioidentical progesterone supplementation encounters several obstacles, including limited absorption, first-pass effect, and rapid metabolism. Hence, non-bioidentical progestins with better bioavailability were widely applied. The paradoxical, unfavorable effect of progestins on mood can be explained by the fact that progestins suppress ovulation and disturb the endocrine function of the ovary in the luteal phase. Moreover, their distinct chemical structure prevents their metabolism to neuroactive, mood-improving derivatives. A new understanding of progesterone-related mood disorders can translate the study results from case series and observational studies to cohort studies, clinical trials, and novel, effective treatment protocols being developed.
... A menstruációs ciklus más szakaszaihoz képest a lutealis fázisban nagyjából 7-16%-kal nő a metabolikus igény, melyet részben a progeszteron és az ösztradiol termelésének növekedése okoz, mivel mindkettő vérszintje megemelkedik a lutealis fázisban. A lutealis fázisban jelentkező fokozott metabolikus igények valószínűleg ronthatják az önkontrollt azáltal, hogy a metabolikus energiát elvonják az önkontrollfolyamatoktól. Ez gyengítheti a visszafogottságot, a megfontolásokat és a gátlásokat, amelyek egyébként megakadályozzák, hogy egy nő társadalmilag nem elfogadott módon cselekedjen [46]. ...
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is one of the most common problems for women of reproductive age worldwide, along with painful menstruation and genital inflammation. The physical, mental and behavioural symptoms recur during the luteal phase of the cycle and cause a deterioration in the quality of life, affecting the patient's social, work and family relationships. Symptoms typically disappear spontaneously within a few days after the onset of menstruation. A severe form of PMS is premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), which requires psychiatric management. The onset and severity of PMS with multifactorial pathogenesis is triggered by psychoneuroendocrine mechanisms that are influenced by the cyclical functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, altering the neurotransmitter or neuropathway functions of the brain, e.g., the serotoninergic system. The psychoneuroendocrine mechanisms contribute to the development of physical, psychological and behavioural symptoms, which are also influenced by the combined presence of other physiological (genetical background, metabolic and chronic inflammatory processes, chronobiological and circadian disorders) and psychological stressors and their interaction. Orv Hetil. 2022; 163(25): 984-989.
... In contrast, everything that drains energy should facilitate the activation of the fatigue/decreased vitality schema. For instance, the high-energy bodily processes during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle can increase the likelihood of self-control failure (premenstrual syndrome; Gailliot et al., 2010;Baumeister and Vohs, 2016). People high in interoceptive awareness skills may be particularly affected by energy supply or drain in terms of its effects on the fatigue/decreased vitality schema. ...
Numerous studies confirm the so-called ego depletion effect (i.e., self-control is impaired after an initial unrelated self-control task). During recent years, the criticism on this limited-resource approach to willpower has increased, and alternative models have been developed. I argue that the existing models cannot explain the variety of results found in the ego depletion literature and introduce the schema model of self-control. Referring to related schema conceptions (i.e., illness schemas and emotion schemas), I posit that the processes that cause ego depletion effects occur around the activation of the fatigue/decreased vitality schema. This schema becomes activated via the registration of behavioral and physiological changes related to exercising self-control. The activation of the schema should instigate the motivation to conserve energy and, therefore, cause reduced effort and decreased performance in a subsequent self-control task. Moderator variables (e.g., energy supply) should influence the (non)activation of the fatigue/decreased vitality schema or its consequences.
... In contrast, everything that drains energy should facilitate the activation of the fatigue/decreased vitality schema. For instance, the high-energy bodily processes during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle can increase the likelihood of self-control failure (premenstrual syndrome; Baumeister & Vohs, 2016;Gailliot et al., 2010). People high in interoceptive awareness skills may be particularly affected by energy supply or drain in terms of its effects on the fatigue/decreased vitality schema. ...
Numerous studies confirm the so-called ego depletion effect (i.e., self-control is impaired after an initial unrelated self-control task). There are also many studies on the moderators of the effect. During recent years, the criticism on this limited-resource approach to willpower has increased, and alternative models have been developed. I argue that the existing models cannot explain the variety of results found in the ego depletion literature (e.g., the vicarious depletion effect). Therefore, I sought a theoretical explanation that incorporates many of the findings, and, thus, I introduce the schema model of self-control. It is characterized by several mediating paths, with each having specific moderators. Referring to related schema conceptions already existing in the literature (i.e., illness schemas and emotion schemas), I posit that the processes that cause ego depletion effects occur around the activation of the fatigue/decreased vitality schema. This schema becomes activated via the registration of behavioral and physiological changes related to exercising self-control. The activation of the fatigue/vitality schema should instigate the motivation to conserve energy and, therefore, cause reduced effort and decreased performance in a subsequent self-control task. The moderators (e.g., energy supply) should influence the (non)activation of the fatigue/vitality schema or its consequences.
... The current work tested this hypothesis by examining whether having used self-control would decrease action and whether this effect might concern metabolism. Self-control is impaired after its use (Baumeister, Gailliot, DeWall, & Oaten, 2006;Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007;Gailliot, 2009a;Muraven & Baumeister, 2000), likely because self-control can reduce glucose in the bloodstream -yet is impaired by low glucose (DeWall, Baumeister, Gailliot, & Maner, 2008;DeWall, Gailliot, Deckman, & Bushman, 2009;Fairclough & Houston, 2004;Gailliot, in press;Gailliot, 2008Gailliot, , 2009aGailliot, , 2009bGailliot, , 2009cGailliot, 2012;Gailliot et al., 2007;Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007a;Gailliot, Hildebrandt, Eckel, & Baumeister, 2010;Gailliot, Peruche, Plant, & Baumeister, 2009;Masicampo & Baumeister, 2008). One hypothesis was that having used self-control would decrease action, or increase passivity, plausibly by depleting glucose. ...
The capacity for action may be directly proportional to the amount of its available energy. After having used self-control, participants showed reduced action, or increased passivity, in the form of reduced activity during a social interaction (Studies 1 and 2) and less talking during a group discussion (Study 3). This effect occurred only among people who typically are highly active in such situations those with low anxieties and high extraversion. A final study suggested that the effect may be mediated by metabolism, showing that people with diabetes tend to watch more television than do people without. Action might rely on the same energy as self-control and on that which is disrupted during diabetes, indicating metabolic energy as underlying a broad capacity for action.
... During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the female body allocates more glucose than usual to its reproductive activities, leaving less for other things such as self-regulation. Consistent with that view, the behavioral manifestations of PMS suggest a general decline in control and restraint, as opposed to an increase in antisocial or other motivations (Gailliot, Hildebrandt, Eckel, & Baumeister, 2010). ...
This chapter summarizes research on free will. Progress has been made by discarding outmoded philosophical notions in favor of exploring how ordinary people understand and use the notion of free will. The concept of responsible autonomy captures many aspects of layperson concepts of free will, including acting on one's own (i.e., not driven by external forces), choosing, using reasons and personal values, conscious reflection, and knowing and accepting consequences and moral implications. Free will can thus be understood as form of volition (action control) that evolved to enable people to live in cultural societies. Much work has shown that belief in free will (as opposed to disbelief) is associated with actions that are conducive to functioning well in culture, including helpfulness, restraint of aggression, learning via counterfactual analysis, thinking for oneself, effective job performance, and appropriate gratitude. Belief in free will increases in response to misdeeds by others, thus emphasizing the link to personal responsibility. Research on volition indicates that self-regulation, intelligent reasoning, decision making, and initiative all deplete a (common) limited energy source, akin to the folk notion of willpower and linked to the body's glucose supplies. Free will is thus not an absolute or constant property of persons but a variable, fluctuating capability—one that is nonetheless highly adaptive for individuals and society.
... The amount of metabolic energy that can be used during any given amount of time is limited [36]. Energy used by one process (e.g., reproduction) therefore can divert energy away from and impair other processes (e.g., self-control) [37]- [40]. If the current effects are indeed linked to low glucose, then metabolic demands that deplete glucose (e.g., the growth of cancer cells, immune defense, excessive physical exercise) could increase biases related to self-esteem. ...
... Energy for biological and psychological processes is limited, with high activity for one process potentially reducing energy available for others (Gailliot, Hildebrandt, Eckel, & Baumeister, 2010). To the extent that hunger impairs self-control because of reduced energy availability, then it is plausible that hunger may influence energy-consuming processes other than self-control, such as immune activity or reproduction. ...
Ten studies link hunger to reduced self-control. Higher levels of hunger-as assessed by self-report, time since last eating, or physiology-predicted reduced self-control, as indicated by increased racial prejudice, (hypothetical) sexual infidelity, passivity, accessibility of death thoughts and perceptions of task difficulty, as well as impaired Stroop performance and decreased self-monitoring. Increased rates of hunger across 200 countries predicted increased war killings, suggestive of reduced aggressive restraint. In a final experiment, self-reported hunger mediated the effect of hungry (v fed) participants performing worse on the Stroop task, suggesting a causal relationship of hunger reducing self-control.
... This hypothesis suggests that the metabolic costs of menstruation divert glucose from the brain to reproductive functions (Gailliot et al. 2010). The diversion then leads to a changes to processes in the brain that regulate self-control, leading to the 'symptoms of impulsivity' that characterize PMS (Br€ oder and Hohmann 2003; Pearson and Schipper 2009). ...
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) affects up to 80% of women, often leading to significant personal, social and economic costs. When apparently maladaptive states are widespread, they sometimes confer a hidden advantage, or did so in our evolutionary past. We suggest that PMS had a selective advantage because it increased the chance that infertile pair bonds would dissolve, thus improving the reproductive outcomes of women in such partnerships. We confirm predictions arising from the hypothesis: PMS has high heritability; gene variants associated with PMS can be identified; animosity exhibited during PMS is preferentially directed at current partners; and behaviours exhibited during PMS may increase the chance of finding a new partner. Under this view, the prevalence of PMS might result from genes and behaviours that are adaptive in some societies, but are potentially less appropriate in modern cultures. Understanding this evolutionary mismatch might help depathologize PMS, and suggests solutions, including the choice to use cycle-stopping contraception.
... Recently, Gailliot et al. (2010) proposed that premenstrual mood swings occur as the results of the impairment of the self-control caused by the insufficient energy resources during the luteal phase when the energy demands are increased due to intensive metabolic changes in the reproductive tracts. Here we propose that insufficient energy resources result in decreased progesterone levels and through that decreased levels of neuroactive progesterone metabolites such as allopregnanolone. ...
Contradictory findings show both positive and negative effect of progesterone on the premenstrual mood changes in women. Here we present the study investigating this relationship on the large sample of premenstrual women. 122 healthy, reproductive age women collected daily morning saliva samples and recorded intensity scores for the mood symptoms: irritability, anger, sadness, tearfulness, insomnia, and fatigue. Saliva samples were assayed for progesterone concentrations and mood intensity scores were used to calculate behavioral indices. Women with low Aggression/Irritability and Fatigue had consistently higher progesterone levels during the luteal phase than women with high Aggression/Irritability and Fatigue. Additionally, Aggression/Irritability and Fatigue correlated negatively with maximal progesterone value during the luteal phase. Our results demonstrated a negative effect of low progesterone level on the premenstrual mood symptoms such as aggressive behavior and fatigue in healthy reproductive age women. This supports a previously proposed model of biphasic action of progesterone metabolites on mood.
... More broadly, processes that have especially enabled successful reproduction and evolution might tend to be more metabolically expensive [see Gailliot et al., 2010]. Evidence thus far supports the existence of three expensive psychological processes-reproduction (e.g. ...
Aggressive and violent behaviors are restrained by self-control. Self-control consumes a lot of glucose in the brain, suggesting that low glucose and poor glucose metabolism are linked to aggression and violence. Four studies tested this hypothesis. Study 1 found that participants who consumed a glucose beverage behaved less aggressively than did participants who consumed a placebo beverage. Study 2 found an indirect relationship between diabetes (a disorder marked by low glucose levels and poor glucose metabolism) and aggressiveness through low self-control. Study 3 found that states with high diabetes rates also had high violent crime rates. Study 4 found that countries with high rates of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (a metabolic disorder related to low glucose levels) also had higher killings rates, both war related and non-war related. All four studies suggest that a spoonful of sugar helps aggressive and violent behaviors go down.
Latar Belakang :Ketidakpuasan terhadap bentuk dan ukuran tubuh semakin sering dijumpai di kalangan remaja putri,khususnya di kalangan model. Masalah yang paling umum dihadapi oleh model yakni membatasi asupan jenis makanan tertentu untuk mendapatkan tubuh yang kurus. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui status gizi, asupan makan remaja putri usia 19-20tahun yang berprofesi sebagai model.Metode : Peneliti menggunakan deskriptif analitis. Penelitian ini diadakan pada 31 subyek remaja putri usia 19-20 tahun di managemen modeling school.Sampel diambil secara non probability sampling. Kriteria inklusi adalah sehat jasmani dan tidak sedang menjalani pengobatan tertentu. Data perilaku makan diperoleh dari Food Frequency Questionner (FFQ). Analisis data dengan menggunakan Nutrisurvey untuk memperoleh hasil asupan karbohidrat, protein, dan lemak dari subyek.Hasil : Subyek sebanyak (80,6%) dengan status gizi kurang, asupan karbohidrat, protein dan lemak belum sesuai dengan AKG. Sebanyak (12,9 %) dengan status gizi normal Asupan protein sesuai dengan AKG namun karbohidrat dan lemak tidak sesuai AKG. Sebanyak (6,45%) status gizi normal asupan karbohidrat sesuai namun protein dan lemak belum sesuai dengan AKG.Simpulan : Asupan remaja akhir yang berprofesi sebagai model belum baik, dan sebagian remaja akhir memiliki status gizi kurang.
Objective (s): Premenstrual syndrome is one of the most common disorders of women in reproductive age and is associated with decreased quality of life. However, how this syndrome affects the quality of life in women is not well defined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the consequence of premenstrual syndrome on womenchr('39')s quality of life.
Methods: This was a qualitative study. We reviewed experiences of 21 women with premenstrual syndrome. And were asked to express their perceptions. The data obtained from interviews. To explore the data content analysis was performed.
Results: The findings showed premenstrual syndrome affected quality of life in women in several areas including physical health (cardio-pulmonary, genitourinary, neurological, skin and hair, digestive, musculoskeletal and general health); psychological health (mood, cognitive and emotions)”, behaviors (sleep and nutrition patterns); and family-social issues (inadequate interpersonal relationships, sexual dysfunction and social isolation).
Conclusion: The findings suggest that special attention should be given to consequences of premenstrual syndrome on the quality of life in women. Improving quality of life in this population needs essential consideration.
The strength model of self-regulation holds that self-regulation operates by consuming a limited energy resource, thereby producing a state called ego depletion in which volition is curtailed because of low energy. We present our research program on ego depletion as well as much relevant work contributed by others. Challenges to the theory have emphasized allocation rather than depletion of resources, research participant expectations and obligations, changes in motivation and attention, beliefs and implicit theories, perceptions about depletion and vicarious depletion, glucose anomalies, and feelings of autonomy. We conclude that the theory needs revision and updating to accommodate the new findings, and we indicate the requisite changes. Furthermore, we conclude that the strength model is much better able than the rival accounts to explain all available evidence. Most of the rival accounts are compatible with it and indeed work best by sustaining the assumption that self-regulation relies on a limited resource.
The capacity of the human mind to alter its own responses is one of the wonders of nature. It is a vital foundation for culture, progress, achievement, morality and individual success. This article provides an overview of a research programme that has been pursued for the past two decades. It has led the researchers to bring back the Victorian notion of willpower as a limited supply of energy that is used for control and self-discipline - and several other important phenomena, including making decisions. Self-control processes link together mind with body, present with future and past, resisting temptation with making choices, and a remarkably wide range of daily activities with each other.
The current study examined whether changes in glucose during a self-control task would predict changes in self-control performance later on. Participants attended two experimental sessions, spaced two weeks apart. During each session, they had their glucose measured, completed the Stroop task as a measure of self-control, and then had their glucose measured again. Larger decreases in glucose (from before to after the Stroop task) during the first session predicted larger increases in improvement on the Stroop task dur- ing the second session, in the form of increased speed. Learning self-controlmight benefit from using lar- ger amounts of glucose. Learning self-control is metabolically expensive. These findings raise the possi- bility that self-control fatigue occurs because metabolic energy is depleted during the learning of self- control.
Moral virtue depends on self-control to override immoral impulses, so self-control failure can impair moral action. We discuss three components of self-control and how failure of any component can affect moral behavior. Lack of clear standards and lack of commitment to standards deprives the individual of clear inner guidance. Failure to monitor one's actions, as when self-awareness is low such as due to emotion or alcohol, deprives the individual of the ability to know whether behavior conforms to moral standards. Ego depletion signifies inadequate willpower to make oneself do what is right. Evidence supports these hypotheses but more is needed.
Purpose
This article aims to explain the relevance of new findings about self‐control and willpower for antisocial behaviour and forensic practice.
Design/methodology/approach
The relevance of the phenomena is covered first, followed by an exposition of how self‐control works.
Findings
The basic ingredients for effective self‐control are standards, monitoring, and willpower. Willpower fluctuates as a function of demands on it (including decision making) and bodily states (including food and rest). Self‐control and willpower can be increased, even in adults.
Practical implications
Antisocial and criminal behaviour is often mediated by failures of self‐control. Remediation and prevention can benefit by applying a correct understanding of how self‐control functions.
Originality/value
Understanding of self‐control has advanced greatly in recent years and is highly relevant to forensic practice. Clients can learn to gain control over their actions.
This paper presents a literature review that indicate happiness as a state of freely available or surplus energy. Happiness is associated with good metabolism and glucose levels, fewer demands (from parenting, work, difficult social relationships, or personal threats), and goal achievement, as well as increased ease of processing, mental resources, social support, and monetary wealth. Each of these either provide or help conserve energy.
The current work tested the hypothesis that a glucose drink would reduce worldview defense following mortality salience. Participants consumed either a glucose drink or placebo, wrote about either death or dental pain, and then completed a measure of worldview defense (viewing positively someone with pro-US views and viewing negatively someone with anti-US views). Mortality salience increased world- view defense among participants who consumed a placebo but not among participants who consumed a glucose drink. Glucose might reduce defensiveness after mortality salience by increasing the effectiveness of the self-controlled suppression of death-related thought, by providing resources to cope with mortality salience and reducing its threatening nature, or by distancing the individual from actual physical death.
Inhibition is a major form of self-regulation. As such, it depends on self-awareness and comparing oneself to standards and is also susceptible to fluctuations in willpower resources. Ego depletion is the state of reduced willpower caused by prior exertion of self-control. Ego depletion undermines inhibition both because restraints are weaker and because urges are felt more intensely than usual. Conscious inhibition of desires is a pervasive feature of everyday life and may be a requirement of life in civilized, cultural society, and in that sense it goes to the evolved core of human nature. Intentional inhibition not only restrains antisocial impulses but can also facilitate optimal performance, such as during test taking. Self-regulation and ego depletion may also affect less intentional forms of inhibition, even chronic tendencies to inhibit. Broadly stated, inhibition is necessary for human social life and nearly all societies encourage and enforce it.
Successful self-control has many benefits for individuals and society as a whole. Self-regulation relies on a limited resource. After one act of self-control, this resource is reduced, thereby impairing future acts of self-control. Self-control resources can be managed and conserved for future tasks. Recent research on perceived self-control (in the self and others), self-control in interpersonal interactions, and the physiological basis of the limited resource model point to promising areas for future self-control research. WIREs Cogn Sci 2012, 3:419-423. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1173 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Individuals whose self-control strength is depleted through the prior exertion of self-control may consume more alcohol in situations that demand restraint. Male social drinkers either exerted self-control by suppressing their thoughts or did not exert self-control while doing arithmetic. They then sampled beer. Participants expected a driving test after drinking and therefore were motivated to limit their intake. Individuals who suppressed their thoughts consumed more and achieved a higher blood alcohol content than those who did arithmetic. The groups did not differ in mood, arousal, or frustration. Individuals higher in trait temptation to drink consumed more after suppressing their thoughts relative to those lower in trait temptation. Alcohol intake may be a function of temptation to drink and self-control strength.
OBJECTIVE: To explore specific psychiatric comorbidity among type II DM patients with poor and good glycemic control. METHOD: One hundred four patients with type II DM attending outpatient department of the Endocrinology Unit of Süleyman Demirel University Medical Faculty were included in this study. Patients were divided into two groups according to HbA1c level: >7% defined group 1 with poor glycemic control (n=40), and <7% defined group 2 with good glycemic control (n=64). All patients were assessed using a semi structured sociodemographic data form, the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Clinical Version (SCID-I/CV), Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HARS) and the Minimental State Examination Scale. RESULTS: The prevalence rate of psychiatric disorders were as follows: major depressive disorder 67.5%, dysthymic disorder 10.0%, generalized anxiety disorder 7.5%, obsessive compulsive disorder 5%, social phobia 2.5% and nicotine dependence 5% in group 1 patients; and major depressive disorder 43.8%, dysthymic disorder 10.9%, paranoid disorder 3.1%, obsessive compulsive disorder 6.3%, social phobia 4.7%, generalized anxiety disorder 6.3%, nicotine dependence 9.4% and alcohol dependence 3.1% in group 2 patients. Major depressive disorder frequency was significantly higher in group1 patients than group 2 patients. HDRS and HARS scores were significantly higher in group 1 patients than in group 2 patients. Significant positive correlations were found between HDRS, HARS scores, number of depressive episodes and the level of HbA1c in the diabetic patients. CONCLUSION: Major depressive disorder was more frequent in diabetic patients with poor glycemic control than in those with good glycemic control. There was a strong association between level of HbA1c and depression and anxiety symptom level.
Secondary sexual characters may signal parasite resistance because the development of such traits can have costs to immune functioning. Here we show that expression of red coloration in the salmonid Arctic charr is a sexually dimorphic character that reveals information of potential importance in sexual selection. Intensity of the carotenoid dependent coloration is in both sexes negatively related to lymphocyte counts. A causal mechanism for this relationship could be reduced availability of carotenoids for immunological application created by increased carotenoid requirements for ornamental development. Alternatively, if more ornamented individuals also have lower intensities of infection, the observed relationship might be explained by healthy individuals being both bright and having low antigen stimulation of lymphocyte transformation and proliferation. Parasite intensities also show relationships with intensity of coloration, and this is used to evaluate the latter explanation.
Several researchers have found inverse relationships between mating success of males and degree of parasitism. Whether such mating biases result from female choice of parasite-resistant males as mates, or from parasite-mediated reductions in male competitiveness for access to females, has stimulated considerable discussion. I found that single male damselflies, Enallagma ebrium (Hagen) (Odonata: Coenagrionidae), were significantly and consistently parasitized by more larval water mites (Arrenurus spp. and Limnochares americana Lundblad) than were males caught either in tandem or copula with females. In contrast, male size was inconsistently related to short-term mating success, although there was a consistent negative correlation between male size and mite numbers which was statistically significant on 2 of 7 sampling days. The existence of such natural covariation and its possible effect on male mating success has not been widely discussed. Lastly, I found that heavily-parasitized males responded less often to the presence of male models, and took significantly more foraging trips, than did lightly-parasitized males. Short-term mating biases with respect to ectoparasitism for E. ebrium males appears to result from reductions in competitiveness of heavily-parasitized males for access to females. Furthermore, my results strongly suggest that apparent reductions in competitiveness reflect decisions by heavily-parasitized males to pursue mating tactics which are energetically inexpensive.
In this study we have evaluated the cyclical mood change throughout menstrual cycle in oral contraceptive (OC) users and non-users. A total of 62 young women, with a regular menstrual cycle and not clinically depressed, kept, for five weeks, daily records of their visual analogue ratings of mood, irritability, energy and tension (Global Vigor-Affect scale). A Profile of Mood States was performed weekly as a further self-evaluation of mood. Eighteen women were taking oral contraceptives and 44 were non-users. Only the depression-dejection dimension varied significantly during the menstrual cycle (p
Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.
We examined whether experimental parasitism by a mite Limnochares americana (Lundblad) affected survivorship and maturation of adult damselflies Enallagma ebrium (Hagen). We then tested whether differences in grooming activity between control and exposed individuals (within different age or sex categories of host) mirrored reductions in fitness that resulted from experimental parasitism. We based our choice of experimental numbers of mites on our finding that adult damselflies had between 0 and 12 mites (71% had 0 mites), and mature adults had a higher prevalence and intensity of parasitism than did prereproductive damselflies in two of three field surveys. Low numbers of mites did not affect survivorship of teneral or mature males and females; however, high numbers of mites significantly depressed survivorship of teneral males and females and mature males, and were associated with a delay in maturation of females. Of teneral individuals, only females groomed more than controls when challenged with low numbers of mites; mature individuals of both sexes groomed more than controls in response to high numbers of mites but not in response to low numbers. Our results suggest that variation in grooming behaviour partially reflects variation in fitness costs, due to mite parasitism, across age and sex categories of hosts.
We examined whether experimental parasitism by a mite Limnochares americana (Lundblad) affected survivorship and maturation of adult damselflies Enallagma ebrium (Hagen). We then tested whether differences in grooming activity between control and exposed individuals (within different age or sex categories of host) mirrored reductions in fitness that resulted from experimental parasitism. We based our choice of experimental numbers of mites on our finding that adult damselflies had between 0 and 12 mites (71% had 0 mites), and mature adults had a higher prevalence and intensity of parasitism than did prereproductive damselflies in two of three field surveys. Low numbers of mites did not affect survivorship of teneral or mature males and females; however, high numbers of mites significantly depressed survivorship of teneral males and females and mature males, and were associated with a delay in maturation of females. Of teneral individuals, only females groomed more than controls when challenged with low numbers of mites; mature individuals of both sexes groomed more than controls in response to high numbers of mites but not in response to low numbers. Our results suggest that variation in grooming behaviour partially reflects variation in fitness costs, due to mite parasitism, across age and sex categories of hosts.
Ectoparasitic water mites of the genus Arrenurus which occur on the damselfly Nehalennia speciosa (Charpentier) were used to assess the impact upon distances flown by the dam‐selflies after release. The mite load was found to be independent of the host's sex. Mites were aggregated among the whole Nehalennia population but were randomly distributed within the infested part of the population. The effect of the parasite load on flight distances was independent of body size and ambient temperature.
Variations of the self-imposed delay-of-gratification situation in preschool were compared to determine when individual differences in this situation may predict aspects of cognitive and self-regulatory competence and coping in adolescence. Preschool children from a university community participated in experiments that varied features of the self-imposed delay situation. Experimental analyses of the cognitive–attentional processes that affect waiting in this situation helped identify conditions in which delay behavior would be most likely to reflect relevant cognitive and attentional competencies. As hypothesized, in those conditions, coherent patterns of statistically significant correlations were found between seconds of delay time in such conditions in preschool and cognitive and academic competence and ability to cope with frustration and stress in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared reproductive behavior of horned and hornless male dung beetles. Horned males assisted mates in gathering larval provisions and guarded mates' burrows when vacated. Hornless males did not help females during oviposition. Differences in courtship behavior between males indicated that horned males may be assessing female size and employing precopulatory mate discrimination. In the laboratory, hornless males inseminated females on the 1st encounter more often than horned males and exercised minimal mate discrimination. Males' mating frequencies may be different in the field as a result of either intrasexual selection or female choice. Features of mating were the males' tactile stimulation of the female and upward jerks of the head and pronotum before, during, and after copulation. This latter action facilitated dissemination of pheromones from exocrine glands on males' forelegs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered questionnaires to 300 women complaining of premenstrual tension syndrome (PMTS) in Virginia to provide preliminary data concerning the efficacy of a systems-oriented family somatic approach to the problem. Ss were recruited through the Premenstrual Syndrome Clinic at the Medical College of Virginia Hospital and private clinics in the Richmond area of Virginia. The survey instruments—which included the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire by R. H. Moos (1977), the Waring Intimacy Questionnaire by E. M. Waring (1983), and the Renne Index of Marital Satisfaction by the California Department of Public Health (1970)—were completed by 156 Ss. Data from the 130 Ss involved in an intimate dyadic relationship indicated that dyadic intimacy and marital satisfaction were problematic for women with PMTS and the degree of dyadic dysfunction was related to the degree of symptom severity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The current study examines the menstrual cycle–alcohol relationship during 6 months of weekly outpatient sessions as part of a larger treatment outcome study for alcohol‐dependent females. Twelve premenopausal women in the clinical trial who were menstruating regularly and not on oral contraceptives kept a daily log of menstruation days, alcohol consumption and cravings. Three menstrual cycle phases were defined: menses, premenstrual, and “other.” Within subjects repeated measures analyses on the subsample of 12 women showed that, despite a lower average number of cravings, drinking frequency was higher in the premenstruum than the “other” phase in the first 3 months of treatment. In addition, according to a self‐report item on a measure given to 96 women in the larger study, 48 (69%) women under the age of 50 endorsed the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle as a drinking cue. Of these 48, 44% considered it a major drinking cue. These preliminary data support the value of continuing to investigate the relationship between phases of the menstrual cycle and alcohol consumption among female alcoholics.
To explore specific psychiatric comorbidity among type II DM patients with poor and good glycemic control.
One hundred four patients with type II DM attending outpatient department of the Endocrinology Unit of Süleyman Demirel University Medical Faculty were included in this study. Patients were divided into two groups according to HbA1c level: >7% defined group 1 with poor glycemic control (n=40), and <7% defined group 2 with good glycemic control (n=64). All patients were assessed using a semi structured sociodemographic data form, the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Clinical Version (SCID-I/CV), Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HARS) and the Minimental State Examination Scale.
The prevalence rate of psychiatric disorders were as follows: major depressive disorder 67.5%, dysthymic disorder 10.0%, generalized anxiety disorder 7.5%, obsessive compulsive disorder 5%, social phobia 2.5% and nicotine dependence 5% in group 1 patients; and major depressive disorder 43.8%, dysthymic disorder 10.9%, paranoid disorder 3.1%, obsessive compulsive disorder 6.3%, social phobia 4.7%, generalized anxiety disorder 6.3%, nicotine dependence 9.4% and alcohol dependence 3.1% in group 2 patients. Major depressive disorder frequency was significantly higher in group1 patients than group 2 patients. HDRS and HARS scores were significantly higher in group 1 patients than in group 2 patients. Significant positive correlations were found between HDRS, HARS scores, number of depressive episodes and the level of HbA1c in the diabetic patients.
Major depressive disorder was more frequent in diabetic patients with poor glycemic control than in those with good glycemic control. There was a strong association between level of HbA1c and depression and anxiety symptom level.
The literature focusing on the use of food as a regulator of a negative mood state is reviewed. This literature reveals that individuals experiencing a negative mood state arising from disorders ranging from tobacco withdrawal to premenstrual symptoms make use of carbohydrate ingestion, especially simple carbohydrates, to provide a temporary lifting of mood. However, other evidence suggests that some individuals may obtain a more permanent control of their negative mood state by eliminating simple carbohydrates from their diet. While the literature is consistent in demonstrating that carbohydrate consumption can alter a negative mood state, the underlying mechanism mediating this relationship is unknown. © 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Cocaine abuse among women has become a major health problem in the United States, yet there is little information in the literature concerning the effects of this form of substance abuse on a woman's reproductive system. This study of 65 women in residential treatment for cocaine abuse and 65 non- cocaine-abusing women was undertaken to determine if there are differences in frequency or severity of perimenstrual symptoms between these two groups of women. Data were collected by questionnaire and included demographics, a substance use history, and the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire developed by Moos. Findings suggested that there are statistically significant differences in frequency and severity of perimenstrual symptoms between the two groups of women.
Gender differences in nicotine response with regard to nicotine sensitivity and withdrawal symptomatology have been reported,
with the suggestion that ovarian hormones play a role. Few studies, however, have directly assessed hormonal influences on
nicotine response. This study focused on the effects of a transdermal nicotine patch in women during acute smoking abstinence
when tested in different phases of their menstrual cycle. Thirty women were randomized to order of menstrual cycle phase (late
luteal or follicular) and patch condition (active or placebo). Two 7-day outpatient-testing periods were conducted with 2
days of ad lib baseline smoking and 5 days of smoking abstinence. Dependent measures included scores from the Minnesota Nicotine
Withdrawal Scale, Questionnaire on Smoking Urges, and Premenstrual Assessment Form, as well as weight. The severity of both
premenstrual symptomatology and nicotine withdrawal symptoms was greater in the late luteal phase. Correlation coefficients
confirmed overlap between premenstrual and withdrawal symptomatology, especially for the affect subscale. A significant patch
effect was observed, showing diminished craving and premenstrual affect on pain subscale scores for women on active patch.
Results showed that nicotine craving and premenstrual pain and water retention symptoms were diminished in women on transdermal
patch, and that this effect was greatest in the late luteal phase. In addition, the greatest weight gain was demonstrated
for participants in the late luteal phase, placebo condition. In summary, during short-term smoking abstinence in women, transdermal
nicotine appears to have a more pronounced effect in the late luteal phase than in the follicular phase in reducing craving
and certain premenstrual symptoms.
Chronic exercise is now known to alter the menstrual cycle. Yet, we do not yet know the true incidence of menstrual cycle alterations in athletes, because good normative data do not exist and the metabolic cost of training has not been considered in many studies. Secondary amenorrhoea is not easily induced by exercise training alone but seems to require additional metabolic stressors. Induction of secondary amenorrhoea in prospective exercise studies has not occurred, although the onset of short luteal or inadequate luteal phase cycles may occur in women even when running distances are not extensive. Such menstrual cycles may cause infertility, but this is only a temporary phenomenon since pregnancy, if desired, will usually occur upon cessation of training.
Exercise-related changes in the menstrual cycle can be viewed as a functionally adaptive rather than a maladaptive dysfunction. A strong case can be made that the changes in the menstrual cycle as a result of exercise are an energy conserving strategy to protect more important biological processes. This hypothesis is consistent with the theory of metabolic arrest that has been identified in lower organisms and hibernating mammals.
A plethora of data from experimental animals provide strong support for the concept that reduced dopaminergic neuronal activity and enhanced noradrenergic tone in specific hypothalamic nuclei are involved in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. The available information on these neurotransmitter systems in insulin-resistant humans with obesity is in keeping with the postulate that analogous mechanisms may underlie their adverse metabolic profile.
Treatment with bromocriptine, which has dopaminergic (D2 receptor agonist) and sympatholytic (α2-adrenoceptor agonistic and an α1-adrenoceptor antagonistic) actions, can reverse the metabolic anomalies in a variety of obese mammalian species. Combined D1/D2 receptor activation appears to exert even more powerful effects on fuel metabolism in various animal models of the metabolic syndrome. The currently available data on the metabolic effects of bromocriptine in humans with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus point in the same direction. Bromocriptine favorably affects glucose metabolism and various other components of the metabolic syndrome simultaneously to ameliorate the risk of damage to eyes, neural tissue, kidneys and the cardiovascular system in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Moreover, a substantial number of studies indicate that bromocriptine lowers blood pressure in animals and humans with hypertension via its sympatholytic capacities. However, the effects of bromocriptine alone are relatively modest, the metabolic mechanism of action in humans remains uncertain, and the long-term efficacy and safety profiles of this compound are unknown.
It seems important to seek for ways to boost the action of bromocriptine, by combining dopaminergic D2 and D1 receptor activation, for example. Notably, there is no antidiabetic drug that acts through central (dopaminergic) mechanisms. This novel approach may, therefore, result in synergistic actions with other available agents to favorably impact the risk of tissue damage in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
The lifetime prevalence of psychiatric illness was determined in 114 patients with diabetes mellitus (types I and II) who were selected randomly from patients undergoing diabetes evaluations at a large medical center. The relationship of psychiatric illness to diabetic control was studied using glycosylated hemoglobin (HbAi) and self-report measures of metabolic symptoms. Seventy-one percent of the patients had a lifetime history of at least one criteria-defined psychiatric illness; affective and anxiety disorders were the most common diagnoses. A significant difference (p=.02) in mean glycosylated hemoglobin levels was observed comparing patients with a recent psychiatric illness (X=10.8%) to those never psychiatrically ill (X=9.6%). These psychiatrically ill patients also- reported more symptoms of poor metabolic control and more distress associated with these symptoms than did patients never psychiatrically ill (p<.0001 for both). The overall report of diabetes symptoms was unrelated to HbA1 (p=.25) and was influenced primarily by the recent presence of psychiatric disorder (p<.0001). We conclude that emotional illness is associated with both poorer metabolic control and the increased report of clinical symptoms of diabetes.
Numerous insects, including Drosophila nigrospiracula, that inhabit necrotic cacti of the Sonoran desert are host to Macrocheles subbadius, a cosmopolitan mesostigmatid mite. This paper shows that the mite pierces Drosophila integument and ingests haemolymph while attached to the abdomen of its host. Among field-caught flies, there was a strong negative relationship between mite load and wet mass of adult flies of both sexes. Thus, M. subbadius is an ectoparasite of D. nigrospiracula, contrary to the widespread belief that macrochelids form only phoretic associations with adult flies. The parasite harms its host in many ways. Under laboratory conditions, there was a significant negative effect of mite load on survivorship. In the field, there was a significant negative relationship between mite load and number of eggs carried by sexually mature females, suggesting that infested females resorb their oocytes to compensate for nutritional stress imposed by feeding mites. Likewise, in the laboratory, infestation lengthened somewhat the period prior to onset of oviposition, and decreased the number of eggs laid by females over their life. However, mite-infested females maintained on a yeast-supplemented diet overcame the potentially debilitating effects of mites, and were actually slightly, but not significantly, more fertile than uninfested females. Since the dietary conditions of flies influenced the degree to which fecundity was affected, the debilitating effect of mites is comparable to that of starvation. This conclusion derives support from the observation that laboratory females infested for 4 d, but whose mites were subsequently removed, produced fewer progeny than uninfested females. Although this effect was significant only among old females, it nevertheless indicates that the observed effects of mites on fecundity are not the result of mechanical constraints on oviposition behavior. Since intensities of infestation used in laboratory experiments were similar to those encountered in nature, observed ectoparasitic effects on fly fitness suggest that M. subbadius can reduce fly numbers in nature.
Past work suggests that executive functioning relies on glucose as a depletable energy, such that executive functioning uses a relatively large amount of glucose and is impaired when glucose is low. Glucose from the bloodstream is one energy source for the brain, and glucose stored in the brain as glycogen is another. A review of the literature on glycogen suggests that executive functioning uses it in much the same way as glucose, such that executive functioning uses glycogen and is impaired when glycogen is low. Findings on stress, physical persistence, glucose tolerance, diabetes, sleep, heat, and other topics provide general support for this view.
© 2008 Association for Psychological Science.
Recent findings indicate that frontal brain asymmetry may be a marker of for depression. However, the psychological predispositions that account linkage between frontal brain asymmetry and depression are unclear. approach-withdrawal hypothesis is the primary framework that has been to account for the linkages between frontal brain asymmetry and or emotional disorders. We review evidence consistent with this and suggest several directions for its extension. One such direction is to constrain the approach-withdrawal hypothesis by linking frontal asymmetry to the known functions of the prefrontal cortex. On this we propose that frontal brain asymmetry may be preferentially linked processes that promote the temporal continuity and shifting of or emotional priorities and the suppression of interference by sources of motivation or emotion. We review evidence from and neurobiological studies of depression that is broadly consistent with these predictions. We emphasise the need for future studies testing our hypotheses.
The purpose of this review is to collate and evaluate critically recent reports on the effect of diet and nutritional supplements on the symptoms of pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). Evidence is provided of a poor dietary intake and vitamin and mineral deficiencies in subjects with PMS. The review explains 'the four-phase dietary treatment for PMS' used at the University College London Hospital's PMS Clinic, and the author's own experience derived from seeing many PMS patients over 6 years is briefly presented. From the available evidence, it appears that the diet advocated in the Health of the Nation document is also the best approach to treating PMS. As regards supplements, there is certainly evidence that magnesium and vitamin B are helpful to some women. Evening primrose oil 6 seems most effective when used to treat mastalgia. Evidence is emerging that calcium supplementation may also lessen some PMS symptoms. Beneficial effects are usually noticed only after following specific dietary advice for 3-4 months. This may cause some sufferers to lose patience with the dietary approach. Nutritional guidelines should be advocated as the first-line approach for PMS. It is cheap, effective and puts the woman in control of her own treatment. Evidence is accumulating for the role of neurotransmitters in PMS. It is known that diet can affect neurotransmitter metabolism but more research needs to be focused on this area.
This paper is an overview of research on premenstrual syndrome (PMS), focusing on the key topics of definition of the syndrome and the relationship of PMS to psychiatric illness. The etiology and treatment of PMS is discussed. Medical-legal implications of PMS are also reviewed with attention directed to the few studies and court cases relating PMS to the concept of diminished criminal responsibility. Researchers are beginning to make some progress with respect to criteria for the diagnosis of PMS. Much work remains concerning the questions of the relationship of PMS to psychiatric disorders and whether PMS should be considered as one syndrome or many.
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The United States is becoming increasingly diverse, yet interracial contact continues to be awkward, if not stressful, for many. Indeed, recent research suggests that individuals often exit interracial interactions feeling drained both cognitively and emotionally. This article reviews research examining how interracial encounters give rise to these outcomes, zeroing in on the mediating role of self-regulation and the moderating influence of prejudice concerns. Given that interracial contact may be the most promising avenue to prejudice reduction, it is important to examine factors that undermine positive interracial contact experiences, as well as those that facilitate them.
A fundamental assumption of coevolutionary models of host-parasite relations is that resistance is costly. Costs are envisioned as phenotypic or genetic trade-offs in the allocation of limited resources to specific tasks. Using workers of the bumble bee Bombus terrestris L., we tested experimentally whether foraging effort, an energetically costly and crucially important task that ensures colony growth, survival and reproduction, is costly in terms of reduced resistance against parasite attack. The experiment showed that indeed workers allowed to forage showed lower levels of immunocompetence, as measured by the degree of encapsulation of a novel antigen, than workers prevented from foraging activity.
The effects of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) on the marital relationship of husband and wife in both the follicular and luteal menstrual cycle phases for couples with women experiencing PMS as compared to a control group of similar, non-PMS couples were tested. The specific purpose of the study was to determine if couples differed in their level of marital distress from the woman's follicular to luteal cycle phases. Results indicated that the marital relationship of PMS couples was similar to non-PMS couples in the follicular cycle phase. However, the marital relationship of PMS couples deteriorated in the luteal cycle phase. Males' and females' reports of marital functioning were similar. Many female participants tested as experiencing a high rate of ongoing psychosocial distress.
The handicap hypothesis of honest signaling suggests that secondary sexual characters reliably reflect phenotypic or genotypic
quality of signalers. This hypothesis is based on the assumptions that signals are costly to produce and/or maintain and the
cost of a given level of signaling is higher for low quality than for high quality signalers. We tested these assumptions
in a field experiment in which the size of a secondary sexual character [tail length in male barn swallows (Hirundo rustica)] was experimentally manipulated. Males were randomly assigned to tail elongation, tail shortening, or two control treatments
(tail manipulation, or just capture, ringing, and handling). Male barn swallows were challenged with an injection of sheep
red blood cells, and blood was sampled on the day of first capture and after 3 to 4 weeks for determination of concentrations
of gamma-globulins. Tail-elongated males did not increase levels of gamma-globulins while males of the other three groups
demonstrated increases. Analyses of variation in gamma-globulins within treatment groups revealed a positive correlation between
gamma-globulins and original tail length among males with elongated tails. These results suggest that tail length imposes
an immu-nocompetence cost on males, and that males with naturally long tails are differentially better able to cope with this
cost.
This study investigated the effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression in two groups of women, which differed in the severity of their self-reported perimenstrual symptoms. A low- and a high-symptom group were recruited using the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) to define the groups. Twenty-two subjects (11 low and 11 high symptom) participated across one menstrual cycle: during the premenstrual, menstrual, midfollicular, and ovulatory phases. The Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm was used to assess aggression on each day of participation. There were three main findings; a) rates of aggressive responding did not vary across phases of the menstrual cycle; b) the high-symptom group emitted higher rates of aggressive responding across the menstrual cycle than did the low-symptom group; and c) rates of aggressive responding correlated with the MDQ's behavioral and psychological scales and not the somatic scales. These findings indicate that the menstrual cycle phase does not differentially affect this laboratory measure of aggression. The differences found between the two symptom groups parallel a few reports indicating that women who differ in retrospectively reported mood and behavioral changes related to their menstrual cycle also differ on a number of other psychometric measures. Aggr. Behav. 24:9–26, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The brain is a very expensive organ in metabolic terms. Each unit of brain tissue requires over 22 times the amount of metabolic energy as an equivalent unit of muscle tissue. There is no correlation across mammals, however, between the relative size of the brain and the relative basal metabolic rate. The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis explains this apparent paradox by looking at the metabolic cost of the brain in the context of the costs of other metabolically expensive organs in the body. The results show that the increase in brain size in humans is balanced by an equivalent reduction in the size of the gastro-intestinal tract. In other words, the increased energetic demands of a relatively large brain are balanced by the reduced energy demands of a relatively small gastro-intestinal tract. This relationship also seems to be true in non-human primates. The size of the gastro-intestinal tract is dependent on both body size and the quality of the diet. It is argued that humans (and other primates) could not have developed a relatively large brain without also adopting a high quality diet that would have permitted a reduction in the relative size of the gastro-intestinal tract. Dietary change is therefore viewed as a 'prime releaser' in brain evolution. It is argued that a high quality diet is necessary for the evolution of a relatively large brain. However, the change to such a high quality diet, which involved an increased proportion of animal based products, need not have been one of the 'prime movers' in brain evolution. In this context, and based on the archaeological and palaeoanthropological record, the factors most probably surrounding the evolution of the human brain are discussed.
Brain tissue is metabolically expensive, but there is no significant correlation between relative basal metabolic rate and relative brain size in humans and other encephalized mammals. The expensive-tissue suggests that the metabolic requirements of relatively large brains are offset by a corresponding reduction of the gut. The splanchnic organs (liver and gastro-intestinal tract) are as metabolically expensive organs in the human body that is markedly small in relation to body size. Gut size is highly correlated with diet, and relatively small guts are compatible only with high-quality, easy-to-digest food. The often -cited relationship between diet and relative brain size is more properly viewed as a relationship between relative brain size and relative gut size, the latter being determined by dietary quality. No matter what is selecting for relatively large brains in humans and other primates, they cannot be achieved without a shift to a high-quality diet unless there is a rise in the metabolic rate. Therefore the incorporation of increasingly greater amounts of animal products into the diet was essential in the evolution of the large human brain.
Consistently with previous studies, female red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) preferred to mate with males with longer, redder combs, but paid little attention to plumage characters. Individual variation in comb length was positively correlated with plasma testosterone level. Males with longer combs had fewer circulating lymphocytes, as would be expected if maintenance of secondary sexual characters is costly to the immune system.
Provides an overview of evolutionary trends in the Hydrachnidia (=Hydracarina), then examines host and site selection, engorgement on the host, population and community structure, and the effects of these parasites on aquatic insects. -from Author
Purpose
The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of appetite‐related, emotional and physical symptoms in a group of menstruating females.
Design/methodology/approach
A total of 20 Caucasian females, aged 17‐24 years, completed a specifically designed menstruation symptoms diary for one cycle length.
Findings
The findings of the study indicate that changes in appetite and physical and emotional symptoms accord with hormonal changes in the premenstrual and bleed phases of the cycle.
Research limitations/implications
The implication of using a daily diary to identify symptoms demonstrates a record of the individuals’ perceptions of their symptoms and is therefore only subjective. The prevalence of appetite‐related symptoms was reported in the diaries but the quantity of food and drink consumed, and therefore energy intake could not be established for any of the endocrine phases.
Originality/value
Conducted on a very small scale this study can be considered as being a pilot for a more rigorous investigation into the understanding of diet in the identification and management of premenstrual syndrome.
I analyzed male mandible and wing allometries in natural population samples of 76 species in 9 genera of the family Lucanidae. Positive allometry of mandible size to body size was highly significant in all the species, and negative allometry of wing size was significant in 72 species. Negative allometry of wing size was not related to phylogenetic background, suggesting developmental tradeoffs between resource allocations to mandible and wing structures. Wing allometry was correlated negatively with mandible allometry and with the proportion of mandible size to body size, suggesting that species with relatively large mandibles have proportionally smaller wings. There is an inherent negative correlation between mass of beetles and wing area per unit mass, and negative wing allometry further influences this linear relationship. Negative wing allometry may reflect a morphological cost to evolving oversized mandibles.
GLUT4, the insulin-responsive glucose transporter, plays an important role in postprandial glucose disposal. Altered GLUT4 activity is suggested to be one of the factors responsible for decreased glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue in obesity and diabetes. To assess the effect of GLUT4 expression on whole-body glucose homeostasis, we disrupted the murine GLUT4 gene by homologous recombination. Male mice heterozygous for the mutation (GLUT
+/-) exhibited a decrease in GLUT4 expression in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. This decrease in GLUT4 expression did not result in obesity but led to increased serum glucose and insulin, reduced muscle glucose uptake, hypertension, and diabetic histopathologies in the heart and liver similar to those of humans with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). The male GLUT4
+/- mice represent a good model for studying the development of NIDDM without the complications associated with obesity.
Background:
The objective of this study was to evaluate the pretreatment psychosocial functioning of women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and the effect of sertraline treatment on psychosocial functioning in these patients.
Method:
Two hundred forty-three women recruited from 12 university-affiliated sites and meeting DSM-IV criteria for PMDD completed 1 cycle of single-blind placebo and were randomly assigned to flexible dose sertraline or placebo for 3 cycles. Psychosocial functioning was assessed by the Daily Record of Severity of Problems (DRSP), the Social Adjustment Scale (SAS), and the Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire (Q-LES-Q).
Results:
SAS scores during the follicular phase were similar to SAS scores of community norms, whereas the pretreatment SAS and Q-LES-Q scores during the luteal phase were similar to scores of women with depressive disorders. Sertraline was significantly more effective than placebo in improving psychosocial functioning as measured by the SAS, the Q-LES-Q, and the 3 DRSP items of impaired productivity, interference with social activities, and interference with relationships with others. Improvement in psychosocial functioning assessed by SAS and Q-LES-Q correlated with improvement in symptomatology assessed by the Clinical Global Impressions-Improvement (CGI-I) scale and the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D). Remitters (CGI-I score of 1) were more likely to function better at baseline and showed larger improvements in functioning and quality of life with treatment compared with nonremitters.
Conclusion:
Sertraline was superior to placebo in improving psychosocial functioning in women with PMDD as reflected by SAS, Q-LES-Q, and DRSP measures. Functional improvement correlated with improvement in premenstrual symptomatology and was apparent by the second cycle of treatment. Comparison of pretreatment SAS scores in women with PMDD with the scores of other populations of women documents the degree of luteal phase functional impairment in women with PMDD and a relative absence of follicular phase impairment.
Serum hormone concentrations were determined at intervals during the last 17 days of the menstrual cycle in 35 patients with premenstrual tension (PMT) and 11 control subjects without symptoms. The maximum mean concentration of oestradiol occurred 17 days before menstruation in the patients and 14 days before in the controls. The maximum concentrations of progesterone were similar in the two groups but the mean concentrations rose carlier in the cycle in the patients with PMT. These results suggested that the patients tended to ovulate earlier in the cycle than the controls and on the basis of the ovulatory surge in gonadotrophins two groups could be identified, group A who showed signs of ovulation 14 days or less before menstruation (17 patients, 9 controls) and group B who ovulated more than 14 days before menstruation (18 patients, 2 controls). There were no significant differences between the groups in prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone or testosterone levels, but cortisol concentrations were uniformly higher in both groups of patients compared with those in the controls. Follicular growth was assessed with ultrasound in 18 patients and 16 control subjects. Mean follicular diameters were significantly lower in the patients than in the control group at the time of ovulation. Oestradiol determinations done at the same time correlated with the diameters and were also significantly lower in the patient group. The results suggest that ovulation tends to occur prematurely in women with PMT.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among perceived stress, ovarian steroids (estradiol and pregnanediol), stress arousal indicators (cortisol, catecholamines) and premenstrual symptoms (turmoil, fluid retention). Women (N = 74) with low symptom severity (LS), premenstrual syndrome (PMS), or premenstrual magnification (PMM) symptom patterns provided daily urine samples over one cycle and recorded their symptoms and perceived stress levels in a health diary. Multiple regression analysis was used to test models of premenstrual symptoms in separate analyses for women with the LS and PMS symptom patterns and the LS and PMM symptom patterns. Data from the LS and PMS groups revealed that greater stress ratings accounted for turmoil symptoms and higher luteal phase cortisol levels for fluid retention symptoms. For LS and PMM groups, lower luteal phase norepinephrine levels, higher global stress ratings, and a more gradual drop in estradiol premenses accounted for turmoil symptoms. Premenses norepinephrine and epinephrine levels and premenses stress ratings accounted for fluid retention. These findings support an important relationship among perceived stress, stress arousal indicators, and premenstrual symptoms that differs for women with a PMS and PMM symptom pattern. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Res Nurs Health 21: 129–142, 1998