Making Meaning from Personal Loss: Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions

Abstract

This study examined the role of religious, benefit finding, and goal-oriented meaning making strategies used by 111 young adults in response to their experience of personal loss. Death of a loved one and relationship loss were the two types of loss most frequently reported by participants. In general, young adults reported being affected by their loss experience, loss impacted their personal strivings and goals, and both religious and benefit finding strategies were used to derive meaning from loss. Religious, benefit finding, and goal-oriented meaning making strategies were differentially related to young adults’ reports of depressed mood and interpersonal loneliness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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Making Meaning from Personal Loss:
Religious, Benefit Finding, and
Goal-oriented Attributions
CATHERINE H. STEIN, KRISTEN M. ABRAHAM, ERIN E. BONAR,
CHRISTINE E. MCAULIFFE, WENDY R. FOGO, DAVID A. FAIGIN,
HISHAM ABU RAIYA, and DANIELLE N. POTOKAR
Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
This study examined the role of religious, benefit finding, and
goal-oriented meaning making strategies used by 111 young
adults in response to their experience of personal loss. Death of a
loved one and relationship loss were the two types of loss most
frequently reported by participants. In general, young adults
reported being affected by their loss experience, loss impacted their
personal strivings and goals, and both religious and benefit
finding strategies were used to derive meaning from loss. Religious,
benefit finding, and goal-oriented meaning making strategies were
differentially related to young adults’ reports of depressed mood
and interpersonal loneliness.
Studies have documented a number of negative emotional, social, and
physical consequences that adults experience as a result of trauma and loss
(Breslau, Davis, Andreski, & Peterson, 1991; Collins, Taylor, & Skokan, 1990).
Trauma and loss can precipitate the disruption of an individual’s daily activi-
ties and interpersonal relationships (Wortman & Silver, 2001) and increase
the risk of psychological and physical problems (Rubonis & Bickman,
1991; Schnurr & Green, 2003). A focus on the negative impact of personal
loss has yielded information with direct implications for the treatment of
trauma and posttraumatic stress. However, researchers also note the impor-
tance of understanding how individuals derive meaning from loss and tra-
gedy that touch their lives (Ai & Park, 2005; Boerner, Wang, & Cimarolli,
2006). Studies that examine adults’ search for meaning resulting from loss
Received 20 December 2007; accepted 5 February 2007.
Address correspondence to Catherine H. Stein, Department of Psychology, Bowling
Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA. E-mail: cstein@bgsu.edu
Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14:83100, 2009
Copyright #Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1532-5024 print/1532-5032 online
DOI: 10.1080/15325020802173819
83

may help to identify factors related to the development of disorders follow-
ing trauma (Park & Ai, 2006) and inform theoretical approaches that seek to
understand both negative and positive aspects of human experience (Linley
& Joseph, 2004).
The present research examines religious, benefit finding, and goal-
oriented attributions of meaning made by young adults in response to
various types of personal loss that they have experienced. The aim of the
study is to replicate and extend previous research to provide a more
integrated view of strategies used by young adults in making meaning from
personal loss.
MAKING MEANING: RELIGIOUS AND BENEFIT
FINDING STRATEGIES
The emerging empirical literature regarding meaning making strategies that
result from loss and trauma can be broadly characterized by studies that
examine religious forms of coping (Pargament, Ano, & Wachholtz, 2005;
Park, 2005) and studies that primarily focus on posttraumatic growth or bene-
fit finding (Joseph & Linley, 2006). Meaning making forms of religious
coping focus on how individuals perceive the divine to be involved in a
major stressful life event (Park, 2005). Using a sample of 540 college students
dealing with stressors such as death of a loved one or relationship loss,
Pargament, Koenig, and Perez (2000) developed a religious coping measure
(RCOPE) that includes three primary forms of religious meaning making
coping. Benevolent religious reappraisals, the most commonly found form
of religious meaning making, involve an attempt to redefine the stressor as
having spiritual benefits, such as viewing a stressful event as part of God’s
plan. Punishing God reappraisals redefine the life stressor as a punishment
from God for the individual’s sins or lack of devotion. Reappraisals of
God’s power redefine God’s ability to influence a stressful life event, such
as considering that God may be unable to alter a stressful event because past
prayers have gone unanswered. Research suggests negative associations
between punishing God reappraisals, reappraisals of God’s power, and
individual well-being, while benevolent religious reappraisals are typically
associated with less personal distress (see Ano & Vasconcelles, 2005, for a
review).
People facing challenging circumstances can report positive life changes
that result from their situations, such as placing a greater emphasis on
relationships, deriving deeper self-knowledge, and reordering priorities in
life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). These types of positive life changes have
been referred to by researchers as ‘‘posttraumatic growth,’’ ‘‘stress-related’’
growth, or ‘‘benefit finding’’ (Helgeson, Reynolds, & Tomich, 2006). Some
researchers (e.g., Park, 2005) consider that stress-related growth is the end
84 C. H. Stein et al.

result of a process where an individual attempts to make meaning of a loss or
trauma in light of previous core beliefs about the world (e.g., fairness, ben-
evolence, predictability). Other researchers suggest that reports of stress-
related growth should be viewed as form of coping with loss or trauma,
rather than an outcome in and of itself (Butler, 2007; Davis & McKearney,
2003). Thus, individuals’ reports of growth or benefit finding reflect an
attempt to make sense of loss by focusing on the positive changes that the
loss precipitated. Higher levels of stress-related growth have been associated
with lower levels of depression and higher levels of psychological well-
being, but also have been related to more intrusive or avoidant thoughts
about the trauma or loss (Helgeson et al., 2006). Although religious and
benefit finding forms of coping with stressful life events are typically inves-
tigated in separate studies, scholars have acknowledged the importance of
both types of coping in the construction of theoretical models of meaning
making (Pargament, Magyar-Russell, & Murray-Swank, 2005; Park, 2005).
PERSONAL STRIVINGS: MAKING MEANING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Religious and benefit finding coping are thought to reflect people’s
attempts at finding meaning when confronted with trauma and loss.
However, personality research suggests that adults often derive meaning in
their everyday lives by setting personal goals and striving to achieve them
(Emmons, 2003). Personal strivings refer to important life goals that a
person tries to accomplish (Emmons, 1986). Studies have linked the success-
ful pursuit of personal strivings to individual well-being and life satisfaction
(Diener & Fujita, 1995). Personal goals are thought to relate to individual
well-being by serving as important sources of meaning (Emmons, 2005), pro-
viding structure, unity, and purpose to individuals’ lives (Baumeister, 1991).
The pursuit of personal goals can provide a continued sense of meaning or
purpose when a person is faced with trauma or loss (Emmons, Colby, &
Kaiser, 1998).
In one of the few empirical studies of loss and personal strivings,
Emmons et al. (1998) asked 112 college undergraduates to list and rate
aspects of their personal strivings and provide narrative accounts and ratings
regarding a personal loss experience. Loss through death (40%) and relation-
ship loss (35%) were the two most frequent types of loss reported by these
young adults. The majority of study participants reported that their loss was
still affecting them (83%), that they often thought about the loss (60%), that
they had recovered from the loss (71%), that they were able to find meaning
in the loss (54%), and that their personal goals had been affected by the loss
(58%). Study participants who endorsed goals pertaining to intimate rela-
tionships or spirituality were more likely to say that they had found meaning
in the loss than participants endorsing other types of goals.
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 85

THE PRESENT RESEARCH
Previous studies suggest the power of religious and benefit finding forms of
coping in helping adults make sense of personal loss and the ability of per-
sonal strivings to provide direction and meaning in everyday life. The present
study attempts to integrate previous research findings by simultaneously
examining religious, benefit finding, and goal-oriented types of meaning
making strategies used by young adults in response to a personal loss. The
research purposefully examines these issues in young adulthood as they
may be particularly salient, given that young adulthood is typically a time
when people begin to articulate their personal strivings and examine their
religious affiliations (Bryant & Astin, in press; Emmons, 1986).
The present study categorizes types of personal loss reported by young
adults and examines perceptions of impact and recovery from loss. The types
of personal strivings articulated by young adults and perceived impact of the
loss on their strivings are examined. The research then investigates the
relative contributions of type of personal loss, impact of loss on strivings,
three forms of religious meaning making (benevolent religious reappraisals,
punishing God reappraisals, reappraisals of God’s power), and one benefit
finding form of meaning making (stress-related personal growth) in account-
ing for variation in young adults’ reports of depression and interpersonal
loneliness.
METHOD
Sample
The sample consisted of 111 young adults (n¼75 women; n¼38 men)
attending a midwestern university. The majority of the sample was Caucasian
(83%), had never been married (97%), and had a mean age of 20 years
(SD ¼1.4 years). A total of 62%of the sample were freshmen and sopho-
mores at the university. In terms of religious affiliation, 37%of the sample
identified themselves as Catholic, 31%identified themselves as Protestant
or Christian, and 20%identified themselves as having no religious affiliation.
A total of 70%of the sample came from intact families.
Measures
TYPE OF PERSONAL LOSS, IMPACT OF LOSS, AND MEANING MAKING NARRATIVES
Open-ended questions about personal loss reported by Emmons et al. (1998)
were used to obtain brief narrative accounts of personal loss that young
adults have experienced in their lives. Participants were asked to ‘‘describe
a major personal loss that you have experienced at some point in your life.
86 C. H. Stein et al.

Please describe what happened, when the event look place, your age at the
time, who was involved, and what you were thinking and feeling at the
time.’’ To assess the perceived impact of the loss, participants were then
asked to respond to set of follow-up questions to describe (a) if and how
the loss experience affected them today, (b) if they felt they had recovered
from the loss, and (c) if and how the loss experience affected any of their
current or future strivings or goals. To assess their meaning making efforts
related to the loss, participants were asked to describe if they had found
themselves trying to find a lesson or meaning out of the loss experience
and what they felt the lesson was.
RELIGIOUS MEANING MAKING COPING
Religious coping was measured by three meaning making subscales of the
RCOPE (Pargament et al., 2000): Benevolent Religious Reappraisals, Punishing
God Reappraisals, and Reappraisals of God’s Power. Each subscale contains five
items measured on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (‘‘not at all’’) to 4 (‘‘a lot’’),
with high scores indicating greater use of the coping style. Items refer to a spe-
cific life stressor, which in the present study was the personal loss participants
had identified. Previous research with young adult samples provided evidence
of good internal consistency for the subscales and construct validity (Pargament
et al., 2000). In the present research, internal consistency coefficients for
the three subscales were as follows: Benevolent Religious Reappraisals, .87;
Punishing God Reappraisals, .81; and Reappraisals of God’s Power, .83.
STRESS-RELATED PERSONAL GROWTH
A brief version of the Stress-Related Growth Scale (SRGS) was used (Pargament
et al., 2000) to assess meaning making from loss that resulted in perceived per-
sonal growth. The brief version is a 15-item self-report measure adapted from
the full 50-item version developed by Park, Cohen, and Murch (1996) and yields
a single score for perceptions of overall personal growth. One advantage in
selecting the SRGS for the present study is that it does not include items that
tap growth through spiritual change, which might overlap with religious coping
items. Participants respond to items using a 4-point rating scale, with higher
scores indicating higher levels of personal growth. Prior studies have demon-
strated the internal and temporal reliability, and construct validity, of the full
and brief measures (Pargament et al., 2000; Park et al., 1996). In the present
research, the internal consistency coefficient for the measure was .90.
THE STRIVINGS LISTS
Emmons’ (1986) Striving Lists assessment was used in the present study to
generate the personal strivings of young adults. This measure has been
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 87

shown to be a valid and reliable method of generating personal goals in a
variety of adult samples (Emmons, 1986; Diener & Fujita, 1995). After a brief
description of personal strivings, young adults in the present study were
asked to generate a list of up to 10 things that they were ‘‘working towards
or trying to do, whether or not they were actually successful doing it.’’
Participants were then asked to review the list and choose up to five strivings
that they considered to be most important. Participants’ lists of their five most
important strivings were used in the present research.
DEPRESSED MOOD
The 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depressed Mood Scale
(CES-D, Radloff, 1977) was used to assess depressed mood. Participants
respond to items using a 4-point rating scale, with high scores indicating
greater depressive affect. The CES-D has evidenced reasonable internal
consistency and validity in previous research (Roberts, Rhoades & Vernon,
1990). The internal consistency coefficient for the CES-D in the present
research was .80.
INTERPERSONAL LONELINESS
The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell, 1996) was used to assess per-
ceptions of interpersonal loneliness among participants. The participants
respond to each of the 20 items on a 4-point scale, with higher scores
indicating higher levels of loneliness. The UCLA Loneliness Scale has been
extensively used and possesses sound psychometric properties. The internal
consistency coefficient for the scale in the present research was .82.
Procedure
Individuals enrolled in undergraduate psychology classes at a midwestern
university were invited to participate in the study. Undergraduates were
recruited through classroom announcements about the study and were
asked to complete questionnaire packets outside of class that would take
about 1 hour of their time to complete. Young adults returned completed
questionnaires to researchers to receive course credit for their participation
in the study.
RESULTS
Preliminary Analyses
Review and coding of participants’ verbatim responses to open-ended
loss and strivings questions were conducted by eight doctoral students in
88 C. H. Stein et al.

clinical psychology working in pairs within the context of a research group.
Following recommendations for content analysis by Miles and Huberman
(1994), participants’ responses to questions regarding (a) type of loss, (b)
perceived impact of loss, and (c) perceived meaning of loss were initially
sorted on the basis of content similarity by three sets of coders who worked
together in pairs. Each initial pair of coders developed category names, defi-
nitions, and decision rules for content categories for the three types of loss
responses. Consensus between coders was reached for a small subset of
responses that were difficult to categorize or had multiple themes. To assess
intercoder agreement, coding decision rules and category definitions were
used by second pairs of coders who independently recoded participant utter-
ances for each set of loss questions. Given the uneven distribution of
responses across a number of coding categories, overall levels of agreement
between pairs of coders were calculated for the present study rather than
other possible estimates of intercoder reliability (Neuendorf, 2002). Pairs of
coders achieved a 95%overall level of agreement for meaning of loss
responses and a 98%overall level of agreement for type of loss and impact
of loss responses.
To categorize personal strivings responses generated by the sample, four
coders reviewed the literature on strivings and were trained to sort striving
responses using a system of categories and definitions described by Stein,
Mann, and Hunt (2007). One pair of coders worked together to sort strivings
generated by participants on the basis of content and slightly modified existing
coding categories. Striving content categories were then grouped into a smaller
set of overarching conceptual categories by the initial pair of coders. Strivings
generated by participants were then categorized by a second pair of coders
who worked independently using the adapted coding categories. An overall
level of intercoder agreement of 97%was achieved by coders for strivings
categories, and coders reached overall agreement of 100%for classifying
striving content categories into the overarching conceptual categories.
Types of Personal Loss and Perceived Impact
Death of a family member or friend was the type of loss most frequently
reported by the sample (53%), followed by loss of close relationships
(21%), loss of physical=mental health (13%), loss through parental divorce
(9.5%), and other losses (4%). A total of 25%of the sample reported that
the personal loss had occurred before they entered high school (preadoles-
cence), and 75%of the sample reported that the loss had occurred while
they were in high school or college (adolescence or early adulthood). The
type of loss reported by participants was divided into two major categories:
loss through death (n¼51) and other types of loss (n¼60). Results of
chi-square analyses indicate that type of loss did not significantly differ by
participants’ religious affiliation, v
2
(5, n¼111) ¼3.3, ns, that women were
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 89

significantly more likely than expected to report losses other than death
relative to men, v
2
(1, n¼111) ¼6.89, p<.05; and that type of loss did not
significantly differ by age (childhood vs. adolescence=early adulthood) at
which loss occurred v
2
(1, n¼111) ¼0.3, ns.
A majority of young adults in the study (96%) reported that they still
thought about the loss experience, and 75%reported thinking about the loss
‘‘often’’ (23%) or ‘‘very often’’ (52%). About three-quarters of the sample
(74%) reported that the loss experience still significantly affected them
today. In terms of young adults’ perceptions of recovery from the loss,
57%reported that they had recovered fully, 22%of participants reported
that they had somewhat recovered, and 21%reported that they had not
recovered from the loss.
Lessons Learned From Loss
A total of 91 participants (82%) reported that they had tried to derive a
special meaning or lesson from the personal loss that they had experienced.
Six types of lessons were derived from classifying participants’ narratives.
Learning to value people and personal relationships (e.g., ‘‘I no longer take
relationships for granted’’) (33%), religious or spiritual reasons (e.g., ‘‘God
has reasons why this happened’’) (20%), and making a positive change in
life (e.g., ‘‘I stopped being so selfish’’) (14%) were the three most frequently
reported lessons learned from loss. Lessons reflecting themes of resignation
(e.g., ‘‘Life goes on and there is nothing I can do about [the loss]’’), unpredict-
ability=distrust (e.g., ‘‘I learned that life is unpredictable’’ or ‘‘I can’t trust any-
body’’), and no meaning found (e.g., ‘‘Tried to find a lesson, but couldn’t’’)
were reported about equally by the sample (11%each). A chi-square analy-
sis performed to examine the distribution of lessons learned by type of loss
(loss through death, other types of loss) was significant, v
2
(5, n¼91) ¼11.7,
p<.05. Young adults who experienced loss through death were more likely
than expected to report that learning to value people or relationships was the
lesson that they learned. Participants whose loss did not occur through death
were more likely than expected to report religious or spiritual reasons for the
loss as the lesson learned or that the lesson involved making a positive
change in life.
Religious and Benefit Finding Meaning Making
A MANOVA was conducted to examine differences between empirical
measures of religious and benefit finding meaning making coping as a func-
tion of type of loss (loss through death, other types of loss). In the analysis,
type of loss was the independent variable and average scores on the meaning
making coping measures (punishing God reappraisals, benevolent religious
reappraisals, reappraisals of God’s power, personal growth) served as the
90 C. H. Stein et al.

dependent variables. Results indicated a significant multivariate effect for
meaning making strategies, Wilks’ lambda F(4, 108) ¼678, p<.001, partial
eta
2
¼.96, and a significant main effect for type of loss, Wilks’ lambda
F(4, 106) ¼4.6, p<.001, partial eta
2
¼.15. Results suggest that overall scores
on punishing God reappraisals (M¼1.3, SD ¼.43) were significantly lower
than overall scores on personal growth (M¼2.2, SD ¼.49), benevolent
religious reappraisals (M¼2.3, SD ¼.89), and reappraisals of God’s power
(M¼1.79, SD ¼.74). Results of pairwise mean comparisons indicate that
scores on punishing God reappraisals differed as a function of type of loss,
such that young adults who reported loss due to death were significantly less
likely, on average, to report using punishing God reappraisals (M¼1.19,
SE ¼.06) than young adults who reported experiencing other types of loss
(M¼1.41, SE ¼.05; p<.05).
To further investigate differences in participants’ reports of punishing
God reappraisals as a function of four specific types of loss they experienced,
a one-way ANOVA was used with punishing God reappraisal scores as the
dependent variable and parental divorce (n¼10), relationship loss
(n¼23), loss through death (n¼58), and physical=mental health loss
(n¼14) as the independent variables. A significant difference was found
in reports of use of punishing God reappraisals, F(3, 101) ¼4.08, p<.01,
as a function of specific type of loss. Least significant difference post hoc
analyses showed that participants who reported a loss of relationships
(M¼1.47, SD ¼.62) or a loss through parental divorce (M¼1.58, SD ¼.44)
used punishing God reappraisals more often than those who reported loss
through death (M¼1.20, SD ¼.29; p<.01) or loss of physical or mental
health (M¼1.22, SD ¼.40; p<.05).
Types of Strivings
The sample of 111 participants generated a total of 555 important personal
strivings. The strivings of participants were diverse, and the content of
participants’ strivings was grouped into the seven overarching categories
shown in Table 1. The five most frequently reported important strivings were
personal goals related to self improvement (32.4%of ‘‘most important’’ striv-
ings listed), education (25%), personal relationships (15.7%), independence
(11.5%), and employment (7.4%). Results of chi-square analyses indicate no
significant differences in the distribution of strivings in general as a function
of gender or religious affiliation.
Participants’ open-ended responses to the question ‘‘Has the [personal loss]
impacted any of your current or future strivings or goals?’’ were coded by the
researchersaseithermotivating them to achieve their strivings (62%), discour-
aging them from achieving their strivings (10%), or having no impact on their
strivings (28%). Chi-square results suggest that type of loss (loss through death,
other types of loss) was not significantly related to these categories regarding the
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 91

impact of loss on personal strivings, v
2
(2, n¼82) ¼3.2, ns.Thesethreetypes
of impact also did not differ as a function of gender, v
2
(2, n¼82) ¼1.4, ns,or
religious affiliation, v
2
(10, n¼82) ¼15.8, ns.
Personal Loss, Impact of Strivings, Meaning Making Coping, and
Psychological Distress
Intercorrelations among scores on the four types of meaning making coping
indices (benevolent religious reappraisals, punishing God reappraisals,
reappraisals of God’s power, personal growth) and two measures of psycho-
logical distress (interpersonal loneliness, depressed mood) are shown in
Table 2. As expected, scores on loneliness and depression were significantly
correlated (r¼.42, p<.01). Personal growth scores were significantly related
to scores on the three religious meaning making indices, with the highest
correlation between personal growth scores and scores on benevolent
religious reappraisals (r¼.49, p<.01). There were significant intercorrela-
tions among two of the three religious meaning making indices.
Two separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted
to examine the relative contribution of the type of loss experienced by parti-
cipants, the perceived impact of loss on strivings, and participants’ meaning
TABLE 1 Range and Diversity of Young Adults’ Personal Strivings.
Overarching categories Content categories
%total strivings
(n¼555)
Self-improvement 32.4
Personal betterment 18.3
Physical health 10.9
Travel and leisure 3.2
Education 25.0
Specific educational goals 10.6
General educational goals 14.4
Personal relationships 15.7
Family and friends 10.4
Romance and marriage 4.9
Parenting 0.4
Independence 11.5
Self-sufficiency 0.5
Financial independence 9.5
Transportation=living 1.5
arrangements
Employment 7.4
Seeking or maintaining
part-time employment 7.4
Be happy & live fully 4.9
Be happy 2.2
Participate fully in life 2.7
Religion=spiritual 3.1
92 C. H. Stein et al.

making coping strategies in accounting for variation in reports of depressed
mood and interpersonal loneliness. The type of loss experienced (loss
through death, other types of loss) was entered in the first block of the
equation, and categories of impact of loss on strivings were dummy coded
and entered in the second block in the equation. In the third block of the
equation, participants’ average scores on meaning making coping indices
of benevolent religious reappraisals, punishing God reappraisals, reapprai-
sals of God’s power, and personal growth were entered. Criterion variables
were participants’ scores on depressed mood as measured by the CES-D
(sample M¼23.7, SD ¼7.1) and interpersonal loneliness as measured by
the UCLA Loneliness Scale (sample M¼37.9, SD ¼8.9).
The results of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses using
depression and loneliness as the criterion variables are presented in
TABLE 2 Pearson Bivariate Correlations Among Religious Coping, Personal Growth,
Loneliness, and Depressed Mood Measures.
Measure BRR PGR RGP SRG LONELI CES-D
RCOPE
BRR 1.00 .25 .05 .49 .04 .06
PGR —1.00 .33.25 .30 .34
RGP ——1.00 .24.13 .28
SRG —— —1.00 .19.08
LONELI ————1.00 .42
CES-D ———— —1.00
Note. BRR ¼benevolent religious reappraisals; PGR ¼punishing God reappraisals; RGP ¼redefining God’s
power reappraisals; SRG ¼stress-related growth; LONELI ¼loneliness; CES-D ¼depressed mood.
p<.05; p<.01.
TABLE 3 Hierarchical Linear Regression for Type of Loss, Impact of Loss on Strivings, and
Meaning Making Variables Predicting Depression Scores.
Variable BSEBb
Step 1
Type of loss 1.04 1.43 .07
Step 2
Not impact strivings 2.81 1.53 .19
Discourage strivings 4.38 2.35 .20
Step 3
Benevolent religious reappraisals 0.25 0.91 .03
Punishing God reappraisals 4.33 1.80 .26
Reappraisals of God’s power 1.35 0.99 .14
Personal growth 1.08 1.68 .07
Note.R
2
¼.01 for Step 1 (p>.05); DR
2
¼.08 for Step 2 (p<.05); DR
2
¼.10 for Step 3 (p<.05). As a
categorical variable with three groups, impact of loss on strivings was dummy coded across two
variables with the largest group, motivated strivings, as the reference group.
p<.05.
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 93

Tables 3 and 4. When using depressed mood as the criterion measure, the
basic model was significant, F(7, 95) ¼2.98, p<.05. Type of loss was not a
significant predictor of depressed mood, but viewing the loss as discouraging
strivings (b¼.20) and punishing God reappraisals scores (b¼.26) were posi-
tively related to depression scores. Viewing the loss as having no impact on
strivings (b¼.19) was negatively related to depression scores. When using
loneliness as the criterion measure, the basic model was significant, F(7,
95) ¼4.0, p<.001. The type of loss was not a significant predictor of
loneliness. However, viewing the loss as discouraging strivings (b¼.29)
and punishing God reappraisals (b¼.27) were positively related to loneli-
ness scores, and personal growth scores (b¼.32) were negatively related
to loneliness scores. Benevolent religious reappraisal scores and scores on
reappraisals of God’s power were not significant predictors of depression
or loneliness.
DISCUSSION
The present study is among the first to simultaneously examine religious,
benefit finding, and goal-oriented attributions of meaning made by young
adults in response to personal loss. The research attends to both positive
and negative aspects of religious meaning making to help provide a more
nuanced examination of religious coping in the face of loss. The present
study conceptualizes stress-related personal growth as a meaning making
process rather than the outcome of situational reappraisals. Results suggest
that young adults experience and are affected by personal loss, that loss
can impact personal strivings, that young adults use religious and benefit
finding strategies to find meaning from the loss, and that strategies used by
TABLE 4 Hierarchical Linear Regression for Type of Loss, Impact of Loss on Strivings, and
Meaning Making Variables Predicting Loneliness Scores.
Variable BSEBb
Step 1
Type of loss 2.86 1.75 .16
Step 2
Not impact strivings 0.82 1.91 .04
Discourage strivings 8.81 2.94 .29
Step 3
Benevolent religious reappraisals 0.49 1.12 .05
Punishing God reappraisals 5.57 2.19 .27
Reappraisals of God’s power 0.72 1.22 .06
Personal growth 5.74 2.06 .32
Note.R
2
¼.03 for Step 1 (p>.05); DR
2
¼.08 for Step 2 (p<.05); DR
2
¼.13 for Step 3 (p<.05). As a categ-
orical variable with three groups, impact of loss on strivings was dummy coded across two variables with
the largest group, motivated strivings, as the reference group.
p<.05.
94 C. H. Stein et al.

young adults to make meaning from loss are differentially related to their
reports of psychological distress.
A number of findings replicated in the present study serve to situate the
research in previous literature on personal loss, strivings, and meaning mak-
ing coping. Consistent with previous research on personal loss (Emmons
et al., 1998; Miller & Omarzu, 1998), death of a loved one and relationship
loss were the two types of loss most frequently reported by young adults
in the present study. Similar to findings by Emmons and colleagues (1998),
present results illustrate the sustained impact of personal loss in young adult-
hood, with about three quarters of young adults in the present study having
reported that the loss still significantly affected them today, and over 40%of
the sample having felt that they had not fully recovered from the loss.
The types of strivings reported by individuals in the present study are
also consistent with previous research on goal-oriented meaning making.
Emmons (2005) proposes a taxonomy of four major categories of life mean-
ing. Six of the seven overarching strivings categories identified by young
adults in the present sample can be incorporated into Emmons’s taxonomy.
Strivings for employment, education, and self-improvement reported
by young adults in the present study are consistent with Emmons’
achievement=work category, strivings in the areas of personal relationships
and independence fit into Emmons’ relationships=intimacy category, and
strivings in religious or spiritual domains are the same as Emmons’
religion=spirituality category. Emmons’ meaning making category of self-
transcendence=generativity, which involves leaving a legacy and transcend-
ing self-interests, is not reflected in the strivings of young adults. Rather, the
remaining strivings category in the present study, be happy=live fully, prim-
arily reflects a focus on the self. This finding is understandable in the context
of a sample of young adults, given that issues of generativity are characteristic
of adults in later phases of the life course.
Emmons (2005) contends that people differ widely in attributing spiri-
tual significance to their strivings, with percentages of spiritual strivings
found in previous studies ranging from 050%, depending on the sample.
In the present study, attributions of spiritual significance were evidenced
not by the religious content of strivings, but rather by the types of lessons
learned from loss reported by participants. Only about 3%of the total num-
ber of strivings generated by the present sample reflected religious=spiritual
themes. However, religious or spiritual themes were reflected in narratives of
the lessons learned from loss for 20%of the sample. Taken together, findings
suggest that something about the experience of loss may evoke
religious=spiritual lessons among young adults who are not necessarily
prone to attributing religious meaning to their everyday strivings and goals.
Present findings also suggest that the experience of loss through death
was less frequently associated with religious=spiritual lessons learned than
other types of loss. In particular, young adults were generally more likely
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 95

to understand a relationship loss, including parental divorce, as a punish-
ment from God than a loss that involved the death of a loved one. Results
may reflect the depth of personal crisis precipitated by relationship loss in
young adulthood. Relationship loss for young adults may be a pivotal event
that can spark a religious search for meaning that evokes a punishing God.
Alternatively, findings may reflect the nature of loss through death experi-
enced by young adults. A developmentally anticipated death such as that
of a grandparent is thought to be less distressing than an ‘‘off-time’’ death
of a close friend or sibling, because it is less likely to violate global beliefs
about benevolence or justness in the world (Park, 2005). About one-quarter
of young adults in the present study experienced the death of a grandparent,
which may have contributed to the present results.
Regardless of the type of loss experienced, viewing the loss as a punish-
ment from God was generally associated with reports of both higher levels of
depressed mood and interpersonal loneliness in the present sample. Positive
forms of religious meaning making were not generally associated with young
adults’ reports of distress. In the present research, young adults reported
using punishing God reappraisals significantly less often than other religious
meaning making strategies. These findings are consistent with previous
research that shows punishing God reappraisals are a less commonly used
religious coping strategy, but one that is consistently related to reports of
psychological distress (Hill & Pargament, 2003). The presence of negative
religious coping strategies, although relatively infrequent, may be particularly
noteworthy, given that they consistently predict indices of psychological
distress more strongly than do positive indicators of religiousness (Ano &
Vasconcelles, 2005).
Moreover, present findings also suggest that perceptions of the impact
of loss on strivings contributed to reports of depressed mood and loneliness.
Specifically, young adults’ descriptions of loss as discouraging their strivings
were generally related to higher levels of depressed mood, whereas their
descriptions of loss as not impacting their strivings were related to lower
levels of depression. Young adults’ descriptions of loss as discouraging their
strivings were also generally related to reports of more loneliness. Findings
suggest that for young adults, attributions about the meaning of loss that call
into question one’s future goal orientation or life trajectory are associated
with greater distress, while meaning making strategies that shield connec-
tions between loss and future goals are related to less distress.
Present results suggest the role of personal growth experiences in
relation to reports of interpersonal loneliness. Young adults who reported
experiencing higher levels of personal growth through loss also generally
reported experiencing less interpersonal loneliness. Loneliness has been
conceptualized as difficulty involving issues of self-presentation and percep-
tions of the evaluations of others (Leary & Kowalski, 1995). There is some
evidence (Davis & McKerney, 2003) to suggest that adults’ perceptions of
96 C. H. Stein et al.

personal growth may involve retrospections that emphasize negative
self-attributes prior to the loss event and positive self-attributions as a result
of loss. It is possible that perceptions of personal growth may be related to
positive attributions about oneself in relationships with others as a result of
loss and decreased perceptions of interpersonal loneliness.
Study Limitations and Directions for Research and Practice
Although the present research offers intriguing findings, the study is limited
in a number of respects. The research used a relatively small, primarily
Caucasian sample of undergraduates at a midwestern university. Research
needs to be conducted on larger, more diverse samples of young adults to
assess the generalizability of the present findings. Moreover, sample size
and the variety of losses reported by young adults limited our ability to
examine features of the loss experience that may relate to different meaning
making strategies. The research was conducted exclusively with young
adults, and future research is needed to examine issues of personal loss,
benefit finding, and spirituality with samples of individuals across the life
course. The cross-sectional nature of the present study cannot speak to the
direction of relationships between loss, meaning making attributions, and
psychological distress. Longitudinal research, although difficult, is needed
to better disentangle relationships between the type, severity, and timing
of personal loss, the nature of meaning making attributions, and psychologi-
cal outcomes.
The need for clear definitions, methodological rigor, and attention to
context are among the challenges facing researchers who study meaning
making and personal loss (Park & Ai, 2006; Pargament et al., 2005). Despite
emerging conceptual models (Joseph & Linley, 2006), greater definitional
and measurement precision about meaning making processes are essential
for advancement of the field. Future research is needed to investigate the
multiple ways that individuals make meaning from trauma and loss. Research
must be sensitive to available and preferred meaning making strategies found
in various social contexts.
The clinical significance of research on ways that individuals derive
meaning from loss has been discussed by a number of scholars. Pargament
and colleagues (2005) argue for the development of religiously oriented
interventions that help people specifically address spiritual struggles such
as religious meaning making strategies associated with poor adjustment.
Joseph and Linley (2006) describe the potential for studies of stress-related
growth to inform our understanding of the treatment of post-traumatic stress
disorder. Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) note that research on personal
growth can help clinicians become aware of the potential for positive change
in their clients following trauma and adversity. By conducting studies that
examine the multiple ways that people derive meaning from loss and the
Religious, Benefit Finding, and Goal-oriented Attributions 97

consequences of their attributions, interventions can be developed that
help promote awareness of the variety of meaning making strategies possible
for individuals coping with loss. Although in its infancy, research on the
process and outcome of individuals’ efforts to derive meaning from loss
and trauma has the potential to greatly inform our understanding of human
suffering and growth.
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Catherine H. Stein is a Psychology Professor and Director of Clinical Training at
Bowling Green State University. Her research interests focus on the process of coping
and adaptation to difficult life circumstances for adults across the life course.
Kristen M. Abraham,Erin E. Bonar,Christine E. McAuliffe,Wendy R.
Fogo,David A. Faigin,Hisham Abu Raiya, and Danielle N. Potokar are doc-
toral students in the clinical psychology program at Bowling Green State University.
100 C. H. Stein et al.